Mechanics I

(APPM1028A and APPM1029A)

Lecture M6
Three-Dimensional Vectors and the Cross Product
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 2

1 Three-Dimensional Space

• It was shown in Lecture M1 that any point P in a plane can be associated with an ordered pair of numbers with respect
to the origin O of a coordinate system that is made up of two mutually perpendicular lines (the x and y axes).

• Consider now a point Q not in the plane but which is directly above or below the point P and let z be a measure of
the distance of the point Q from the point P along a line (the z-axis) that is perpendicular to the plane.

• In this way we are able to represent points in space as an ordered triple of numbers with respect to the origin O
of a coordinate system that is made up of three mutually perpendicular lines. (Such coordinate systems are called
rectangular coordinate systems.)
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 3

2 Three-Dimensional Rectangular Coordinate Systems

• The diagram given below shows the correct orientation of the axes of a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system
which is determined by the right-hand rule.

• Note in the diagram given below that we use an arrowhead to indicate the positive direction along each axis (that is,
the arrowhead denotes the direction of increasing positive values of the coordinates on each axis).

O x
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 4

2.1 The Right-Hand Rule

• The following three steps describe how to apply the right-hand rule to determine the correct orientation of the axes of
a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system.

◦ Step 1. Place the fingers of your right hand along the positive x-axis.

◦ Step 2. Curl the fingers of your right hand so that they point in the direction of the positive y-axis.

◦ Step 3. The thumb of your right hand will point in the direction of the positive z-axis.

z z z

y y y
x x x

O O O
Step 1. Step 2. Step 3.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 5

• Given an ordered triple of numbers (x, y, z).

• We can associate the ordered triple of numbers with a point P in space with respect to the origin O of a three-
dimensional rectangular coordinate system as follows.

• Start at the origin O and move x units along the x-axis. Then move y units parallel to the y-axis. Then move z units
parallel to the z-axis.

P (x, y, z)
y

O x

• By reversing the above procedure we can associate any point P in space with an ordered triple of numbers.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 6

3 Three-Dimensional Vectors

• The concept of a three-dimensional vector is a natural extension of the idea of a vector in two dimensions.

◦ A three-dimensional vector a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i is an ordered triple of numbers.

−→
◦ We can represent a three-dimensional vector as a directed line segment P Q that begins at the point P (x, y, z) and
ends at the point Q (x+a1 , y+a2 , z+a3 ).

Q (x+a1 , y+a2 , z+a3 )

z
a

P (x, y, z)

O x
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 7

• All the vector operations that were defined previously for two-dimensional vectors are extended in a straightforward
manner for three-dimensional vectors.

• Thus, if a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i, b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i and c is any number, then:

p
(i) kak = a21 + a22 + a23 ,

(ii) c a = hc a1 , c a2 , c a3 i,

(iii) a + b = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 i,

(iv) a − b = ha1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 i,

(v) a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = kakkbk cos θ where θ is the angle between the vectors.

• It follows from the above definitions of vector addition and scalar multiplication that

a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i = ha1 , 0, 0i + h0, a2 , 0i + h0, 0, a3 i

= a1 h1, 0, 0i + a2 h0, 1, 0i + a3 h0, 0, 1i.

• Thus, if we let i = h1, 0, 0i, j = h0, 1, 0i, k = h0, 0, 1i, then we can express the vector a as a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k.

• The vectors i, j and k are the standard basis vectors in terms of which we can express any three-dimensional vector.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 8

• Example 1.

◦ Given the vectors

a = h2, 8, −2i = 2i + 8j − 2k,
b = h5, 4, 0i = 5i + 4j.
◦ Then,
3a + 6b = 3h2, 8, −2i + 6h5, 4, 0i = h6, 24, −6i + h30, 24, 0i
= h6 + 30, 24 + 24, −6 + 0i
= h36, 48, −6i
= 36i + 48j − 6k.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 9

• Example 2.

◦ Given the vectors a = h4, 8, 6i and b = h7, −1, 3i.

◦ Then
√ √
kak = 42 + 82 + 62 = 116,
q √
kbk = 72 + (−1)2 + 32 = 59
and
a · b = 4 (7) + 8 (−1) + 6 (3) = 38

from which it follows that the angle between the vectors is

   
a·b 38
θ = arccos = arccos √ √
kakkbk 116 59
= 62, 655 . . .◦
= 62, 66◦ (rounded to two decimal places).
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 10

4 The Cross Product

• If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i then we define the cross product of a and b (that is, “a cross b”) to be the vector

a × b = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i
(1)
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k.

• It follows from the above definition (1) of the cross product that

b × a = (b2 a3 − b3 a2 ) i + (b3 a1 − b1 a3 ) j + (b1 a2 − b2 a1 ) k

= − (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i − (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) j − (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k

= − (a × b) .

• Thus, a × b 6= b × a; that is, the cross product is not commutative.

Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 11

• Example 3.

◦ Given the vectors a = h1, 3, 5i, b = h2, 1, −2i and c = h−3, 7, 1i then, by the definition (1) of the cross product,
we have that
a×b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k
= [3 (−2) − 5 (1)] i + [5 (2) − 1 (−2)] j + [1 (1) − 3 (2)] k
= −11i + 12j − 5k
and
b×c = (b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) i + (b3 c1 − b1 c3 ) j + (b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) k
= [1 (1) − (−2) (7)] i + [(−2) (−3) − 2 (1)] j + [2 (7) − 1 (−3)] k
= 15i + 4j + 17k.
◦ It is left as an exercise to show that
(a × b) × c = 47i + 26j − 41k

and
a × (b × c) = 31i + 58j − 41k

from which it follows that the cross product is not associative; that is, (a × b) × c 6= a × (b × c).
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 12

4.1 Properties of the Cross Product.

• Exercises.

◦ Given the vectors a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i, b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, c = hc1 , c2 , c3 i and the numbers u, v and w.

(i) Show that the following properties of the cross product follow directly from the definition (1) of the cross
product:
(u a) × b = u (a × b) = a × (u b) ,
a × (v b + w c) = v (a × b) + w (a × c) ,
(u a + v b) × c = u (a × c) + v (b × c) .
(ii) We call a × (b × c) the vector triple product of the vectors a, b and c. Show that a × (b × c) = (a · c) b − (a · b) c.

(iii) We call a · (b × c) the scalar triple product of the vectors a, b and c. Show that a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 13

4.2 The Magnitude and Direction of the Cross Product

−→ −−→
• In the diagram given below the arrows OA and OB represent the vectors a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i and θ is
the angle between the vectors.
−→ −−→
• Also indicated in the diagram given below is the parallelogram that is formed by the arrows OA and OB.

b
A
θ
a
O
x

y
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 14

• By definition the cross product of the vectors a and b is a × b = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i.

• Since the cross product is itself a vector, it will have a magnitude and direction.

• To determine the direction of the cross product we note that

a · (a × b) = a1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) + a2 (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) + a3 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )

= a1 a2 b3 − a1 a3 b2 + a2 a3 b1 − a1 a2 b3 + a1 a3 b2 − a2 a3 b1

= 0

and

b · (a × b) = b1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) + b2 (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) + b3 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )

= a2 b1 b3 − a3 b1 b2 + a3 b1 b2 − a1 b2 b3 + a1 b2 b3 − a2 b1 b3

= 0.

• Thus, from Lecture M2, the cross product is perpendicular to the vectors a and b.
−→
• Therefore, we can represent the cross product by means of an arrow OC that is perpendicular to the parallelogram
−→ −−→
that is formed by the arrows OA and OB.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 15

−→
• Note, however, that OC can be one of two arrows that are perpendicular to the parallelogram.

C
b
A
θ
a
O
x

C y

−→
• The correct choice of the arrow OC is made by means of the right-hand rule.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 16

• The following three steps describe how to apply the right-hand rule to determine the correct orientation of the arrow
−→
OC that represents the cross product a × b of the vectors a and b.
−→
◦ Step 1. Place the fingers of your right hand along the arrow OA that represents the vector a.
−−→
◦ Step 2. Curl the fingers of your right hand so that they point in the direction of the arrow OB that represents the
vector b.
−→
◦ Step 3. The thumb of your right hand will point in the direction of the arrow OC that represents the cross product
a × b.

C C C

B B B
A A A

O O O
Step 1. Step 2. Step 3.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 17

• The use of the right-hand rule to determine the correct direction of the cross product of the vectors a and b is depicted
in the diagram given below.

b
a×b

O
x

y
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 18

• Having thus determined the direction of the cross product, we now proceed to determine the magnitude of the cross
product.

• From the definition of the cross product we have that a × b = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i.

• From Lecture M2 we have that

ka × bk2 = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )2 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2

which, after some algebraic manipulation, can be written as

ka × bk2 = a21 + a22 + a23 b21 + b22 + b23 − (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2
= kak2 kbk2 − (a · b)2
= kak2 kbk2 − (kakkbk cos θ)2 .

• If we make use of the trigonometric identity, cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, then we have that
p
2 2 2 2
ka × bk = kak kbk sin θ → ka × bk = kakkbk sin2 θ.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 19

• Given that θ is the angle between the vectors a and b we must have that 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ .
√
• Since sin θ ≥ 0 when 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ we have that sin2 θ = |sin θ| = sin θ.

• Thus, the magnitude of the cross product of the vectors a and b can be calculated from

ka × bk = kakkbk sin θ. (2)

• There are two important consequences of the above formula (2).

Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 20

4.3 The Area of a Parallelogram

−→ −−→
• The diagram given below shows the parallelogram that is formed by the arrows OA and OB that represent the vectors
a and b.

• The parallelogram can be seen to consist of two right-angled triangles and a rectangle. The height of the triangles and
the rectangle is given by kbk sin θ. The base of the triangles is given by kbk cos θ from which it follows that the base of
the rectangle is kak − kbk cos θ.

kbk sin θ
b

θ a
O | {z } | {z } A
kbk cos θ kak − kbk cos θ
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 21

• Consequently,
  
1 1
area of parallelogram = 2 (kbk sin θ) (kbk cos θ) 2 + (kbk sin θ) (kak − kbk cos θ) 2 = kakkbk sin θ.
2 2
| {z } | {z }
total area of the triangles area of the rectangle

• Therefore, the formula for the magnitude of the cross product of the vectors a and b also computes the area of the
parallelogram that is formed by the vectors.
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 22

• Example 4.

◦ The cross product of the vectors a = h−5, 8, 9i and b = h1, 9, 5i is

a × b = h8 (5) − 9 (9) , 9 (1) − (−5) (5) , −5 (9) − 8 (1)i

= h−41, 34, −53i.

◦ The magnitude of the cross product is

q √
ka × bk = (−41)2 + 342 + (−53)2 = 5 646.

◦ Therefore, the parallelogram that is formed by the vectors a and b has area
√
5 646 units2 = 75, 139 . . . units2
= 75, 14 units2 (rounded to two decimal places).
Mechanics I (APPM1028A and APPM1029A) — Lecture M6 23

4.4 Parallel Vectors

• Using the formula for the magnitude of the cross product we can prove that the arrows that represent the vectors a
and b are parallel if and only if a × b = 0.

◦ If the arrows are parallel then θ = 0◦ or θ = 180◦ ; thus,

sin θ = 0 → ka × bk = kakkbk sin θ = 0 → a×b=0

since, from Lecture M1, the only vector with a magnitude equal to zero is the zero vector.

◦ Conversely, if a 6= 0 and b 6= 0 then a × b = 0 implies sin θ = 0 from which it follows that θ = 0◦ or θ = 180◦ ; thus,
the arrows are parallel.