A Handbook On Word Formation in English 2.0

A
HANDBOOK
ON
WORD
FORMATION
IN
ENGLISH
by Andrew W. Cold
1
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................ 4
Studying Word-Formation ............................................................. 5
Affixes ............................................................................................ 8
Suffixes ............................................................................................... 8
Nominal suffixes .................................................................... 8
Verbal Suffixes ..................................................................... 21
Adjectival Suffixes ............................................................... 24
Adverbial Suffixes................................................................ 30
Prefixes ............................................................................................. 31
Word-Formation Dictionary......................................................... 37
Aa ......................................................................................... 37
Bb ......................................................................................... 44
Cc .......................................................................................... 46
Dd ......................................................................................... 54
Ee .......................................................................................... 59
Ff........................................................................................... 64
Gg ......................................................................................... 68
Hh ......................................................................................... 70
Ii ............................................................................................ 73
Jj ........................................................................................... 77
Kk ......................................................................................... 78
Ll........................................................................................... 79
Mm ....................................................................................... 82
Nn ......................................................................................... 86
Oo ......................................................................................... 88
Pp .......................................................................................... 90
Qq ......................................................................................... 99
2
Rr ........................................................................................ 100
Ss ........................................................................................ 106
Tt......................................................................................... 113
Uu ....................................................................................... 117
Vv ....................................................................................... 118
Ww ..................................................................................... 119
Xx ....................................................................................... 121
Yy ....................................................................................... 122
Zz ........................................................................................ 123
3
Introduction
Language is a multifaceted entity that plays a pivotal role in the way
people communicate. The English language, in particular, has evolved
to become a dominant means of communication, shaping the global
cultural landscape. Yet, despite its ubiquity in the modern world, the
very existence of words is usually taken for granted by some speakers.
At the heart of language lies morphology, an abstract and complex field
that examines how words are formed by means of combining
morphemes.
Word formation is a fascinating area of study that provides a window
into the inner workings of the language. It enables learners, among other
things, to recognise and comprehend the meaning of unfamiliar words,
providing them with a more nuanced and profound understanding of the
language intricacies. Additionally, by studying the subject, learners can
create new words and expressions which would help to convey thoughts
and ideas more accurately.
Through this handbook, learners and teachers can delve into the realm
of word formation, gaining a deeper understanding of the structure of
words and the way they can be derived from one another.
The book covers the basics of derivational morphology and presents a
compendious study of morphemes. In addition to that, readers will find
a comprehensive dictionary designed to help with finding derivatives.
In essence, the exploration of word-formation is an exercise in

expanding the limits of human expression, enriching vocabulary, and
gaining a deeper understanding of the world around us. This handbook
aims to offer learners and teachers a valuable resource to enhance their
language skills and explore the abstract world of language.
THE AUTHOR
4
Studying Word-Formation
We are dealing with the formation of words, as the term 'word-formation'
suggests, but what does that mean? Let us look at some words that fall
under the domain of word-formation and some that do not:
a. employee b. apartment building c. chair
inventor greenhouse neighbour
inability team manager matter
meaningless truck driver brow
suddenness blackboard great
unhappy son-in-law promise
decolonialisation pickpocket discuss
In columns (a) and (b), we find words that are obviously composed by
putting together smaller elements to form larger words with more
complex meanings. We can say that we are dealing with
morphologically complex words. For example, employee can be
analysed as being composed of the verb employ and the ending -ee, and
the adjective unhappy can be analysed as being derived from the
adjective happy by the attachment of the element un-. And the word
decolonialisation can be segmented into the smallest parts de-, colony, -
al, -ise, and -ation. Thus, we can reduce those complex words to their
smallest meaningful units. These units are called morphemes.
Unlike those in (a) and (b), the words in (c) cannot be divided into
smaller meaningful pieces, they consist of only one morpheme and are
referred to as ‘monomorphemic’ or ‘simplex.’ Neighbor, for example, is
not made up of neighb- and -or, even though the word looks somewhat
like inventor. Inventor is decomposable into two morphemes because
both invent- and -or are meaningful elements, but neither neighb- nor -
or convey any meaning in neighbor (a neighbor is not someone who
“neighbs”).
As shown by the complex words in (a), some morphemes can only
“exist” when they are attached to another morpheme(s). These
morphemes are known as bound morphemes, as opposed to free
morphemes, which can occur on their own. Some bound morphemes,
5
such as un-, must always come before the central meaningful element of
the word, such as the root, stem, or base, but others, such as -ity, -ness,
or -less, must always come after the base. In Latin-influenced
terminology, un- is a prefix, -ity is a suffix, and affix is a catch-all term
for any bound morphemes that attach to roots. There are also bound
roots, which appear exclusively in conjunction with another bound
morpheme. Examples of bound roots are often of Latin origin, e.g.,
circul- (as in circulate, circulation, circulatory, circular), approb- (as in
approbate, approbation, approbatory, approbator), or simul- (as in
simulant, simulate, simulation), but occasional native English bound
roots can also be found (e.g., hap-, as in hapless).
While suffixes and prefixes are fairly prevalent in English, there are
some affixes that cannot be termed prefixes or suffixes because they are
inserted directly into another morpheme rather than affixed at the
boundary of another morpheme. Compare our abso-bloody-lutely, where
-bloody- interrupts the morpheme absolute (the base absolutely, of
course, consisting of the two morphemes absolute and -ly). Such
intervening affixes are called infixes. Shouldn't we consider -al in
decolonialisation as an infix (after all, it appears within a word)? The
response is a resounding ‘no.’ True, -al occurs in the middle of a
complex word, but it does not occur inside another morpheme. It follows
one morpheme (colony) and precedes another one (-ise). Since it follows
a base, it must be a suffix, which, in this particular case, is followed by
another suffix.
Considering now the column (b), we see that complex words do not have
to be made up of roots and affixes. It is also possible to mix two bases,
which is known as compounding. Apartment building, greenhouse,
team manager, truck driver, blackboard, son-in-law, pickpocket are all
cases in point.
Going forward, nouns can be turned into verbs by adding nothing to the
base. Consider the noun water, which can also be employed as a verb to
indicate ‘supply with water,’ as in John has not watered his plants for
two months already. This is known as conversion, zero-suffixation, or
6
transposition. Conversion is a pretty common phenomenon for the
English language.
Aside from processes that attach something to a base (affixation) and
processes that do not attach anything (conversion), there are also
processes that involve the deletion of material. English first names, for
example, can be shortened by deleting parts of the base word (see ‘d’
below), a process that is also occasionally found with words that are not
given names (see ‘e’). This type of word-formation is called truncation,
with the term clipping also being used.
d. Ron (♦ Aaron) e. condo (♦ condominium)
Liz (♦ Elizabeth) demo (♦ demonstration)
Mike (♦ Michael) disco (♦ discotheque)
Trish (♦ Patricia) lab (♦ laboratory)
Truncation and affixation can occur jointly at times, as in formations
suggesting intimacy or smallness. Such formations are known as
diminutives (Mand- + -y ← Amanda).
We also find amalgamations of parts of different words, such as smog
(smoke, fog) or modem (modulator, demodulator), which are called
blends, or portmanteau words.
Individual letters can also be used to create new words. The first method
is to combine the beginning letters of compounds or phrases into a word
that is pronounced in the usual way, such as NATO [ˈneɪ.toʊ] or
UNESCO [juːˈnɛskoʊ]. Such words are called acronyms. The second
alternative are abbreviations such as the UK or the US, in which each
letter is individually pronounced.
To summarise, speakers of English have a plethora of options (or, at
least, did so when the words were initially coined) for creating new
words from already existing ones, including the addition and subtraction
of phonetic or orthographic material. The study of word-formation can
thus be defined as the study of how new complex words are built from
other words or morphemes.
7
Affixes
Suffixes
Nominal suffixes
Nominal suffixes are often employed to derive abstract nouns from
verbs, adjectives, and other nouns. Such abstract nouns can denote
actions, results of actions, or other related concepts, but also properties,
qualities, and the like.
Another large group of nominal suffixes derives person (or concrete)
nouns of various sorts. Very often, these meanings are extended to other,
related senses so that practically every suffix can be shown to be able to
express more than one meaning.
-age
1. forming nouns with the sense of collection or appurtenance
word + -age → wordage
2. forming nouns indicating a process, action, or a result
block + -age → blockage
marry + -age → marriage
slip + -age → slippage
shrink + -age → shrinkage
3. forming nouns of a state or relationship
bond + -age → bondage
marry + -age → marriage
parent + -age → parentage
line + -age → lineage
4. forming nouns indicating a place
orphan + -age → orphanage
hermit + -age → hermitage
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5. forming nouns indicating a charge, toll, or fee
post + -age → postage
broker + -age → brokerage
cork + -age → corkage
6. forming nouns indicating a rate
percent + -age → percentage
mile + -age → mileage
7. forming nouns of a unit of measure
volt + -age → voltage
foot + -age → footage
ton + -age → tonnage
hour + -age → hourage
-al
A number of verbs take -al to form abstract nouns denoting an action or
the result of an action, such as arrival, overthrowal, recital, referral,
renewal.
NB: Base words for nominal -al all have their main stress on the last
syllable.
-ance (with its variants -ence/-ancy/-ency)
1. forming nouns indicating a state or condition, such as result or
capacity, associated with the verb from verbs or adjectives
ally + -ance → alliance
perform + -ance → performance
reluctant + -ance → reluctance
2. forming nouns indicating a process or action from verbs
appear + -ance → appearance
resist + -ance → resistance
9
NB: The suffix is closely related to -ce/-cy, which attaches to adjectives
ending in the suffix -ant/-ent. Thus, a derivative like dependency could
be analyzed as having two suffixes (depend-ent-cy) or only one (depend-
ency). The question then is to determine whether -ance (and its variants)
always contains two suffixes, to the effect that all action nominals would
in fact be derived from adjectives that in turn would be derived from
verbs. Such an analysis would signify that we should find -ance
nominals only if there are corresponding -ant adjectives. This is surely
not the case, as evidenced by riddance (*riddant), furtherance
(*furtherant), and we can therefore assume the existence of an
independent suffix -ance.
-ant
This suffix forms count nouns referring to persons (often in technical or
legal discourse, cf. applicant, defendant, disclaimant) or to substances
involved in biological, chemical, or physical processes (attractant,
dispersant, enchant, suppressant). Most bases are verbs of Latinate
origin.
-ce/-cy
This suffix derivatives can denote states, properties, qualities, or facts
(convergence can, for example, be paraphrased as ‘the fact that
something converges’) or can refer to an office or institution (e.g.,
presidency).
The distribution of the two variants is not entirely clear, although there
is a tendency for nominal bases to take the syllabic variant -cy.
The suffix attaches productively to:
1. adjectives ending in -ant/-ent:
convergent + -ce → convergence
efficient + -ce → efficience
emergent + -ce → emergence;
2. nouns ending in -ant/-ent:
agent + -cy → agency
10
president + -cy → presidency
regent + -cy → regency
3. adjectives and nouns ending in -ate:
adequate + -cy → adequacy
animate + -cy → animacy
candidate + -cy → candidacy
intimate + -cy → intimacy
pirate + -cy → piracy
-dom
The suffix -dom is closely related to -hood and -ship, which express
similar concepts.
1. It attaches to nouns to form nominals which can be paraphrased as
‘state of being X’:
bored + -dom → boredom
free + -dom → freedom
martyr + -dom → martyrdom
star + -dom → stardom
2. It can form nouns denoting domains, realms, territories, or the
jurisdiction:
Christen + -dom → Christendom
fief + -dom → fiefdom
king + -dom → kingdom
Saxon + -dom → Saxondom
professor + -dom → professordom
11
-ee
1. Added to transitive verbs to form words meaning a person or thing
that is the object of that verb (i.e., to whom or to which an action is
done):
examine + -ee → examinee
interview + -ee → interviewee
train + -ee → trainee
employ + -ee → employee
2. Added (less commonly) to intransitive verbs to form words meaning
a person or thing that is the subject of that verb (that is, who or that does
an action):
absent + -ee → absentee
respond + -ee → respondee
stand + -ee → standee
3. In the filed of law, forming words meaning a person who is involved
in an event as non-volitional participant, or who is the other party to a
contract:
assign + -ee → assignee
legate + -ee → legatee
mortgage + -ee → mortgagee
4. In the field of medicine, forming words meaning a person who has
undergone a particular medical procedure:
laryngectomy + -ee → laryngectomee
-eer
This is another person-noun-forming suffix. Its meaning can be
paraphrased as ‘person who deals in, is concerned with, or has to do with
X’:
auction + -eer → auctioneer
12
budget + -eer → budgeteer
camel + -eer → cameleer
mountain + -eer → mountaineer
pamphlet + -eer → pamphleteer
NB: Many words have a depreciative tinge. The suffix -eer attaches
almost exclusively to bases ending in a stressed syllable followed by an
unstressed syllable.
-er (and its orthographic variant -or)
1. Added to verbs to form words meaning a person or thing that does an
action indicated by the root verb; used to form an agent noun:
read + -er → reader
cook + -er → cooker
compute + -er → computer
run + -er → runner
toast + -er → toaster
swim + -er → swimmer
2. Added to nouns (chiefly denoting occupations) to forms words
meaning a person whose occupation is the root noun; more broadly,
(occasionally added to adjectives) a person characterized by the root:
astrology + -er → astrologer
baby boom + -er → baby boomer
cricket + -er → cricketer
trumpet + -er → trumpeter
3. Added to numbers, measurements or nouns denoting quantified sets
to form words meaning a person or thing to which a certain number or
measurement applies:
six foot + -er → six-footer
three-wheel + -er → three-wheeler
13
first grade + -er → first-grader
4.Added to nouns to form words meaning a person who is associated
with, or supports a particular theory, doctrine, or political movement:
anti-vax + -er → anti-vaxxer
birth + -er → birther
flat earth + -er → flat-earther
truth + -er → truther
5. Added to nouns or occasionally adjectives to form words meaning a
thing that is related in some way to the root, such as by location or
purpose:
bacon + -er → baconer
sternwheel + -er → sternwheeler
-(e)ry
1. This suffix is primarily used to denote a place where a specific activity
is carried out or place where a specific article or service is available:
bake + -(e)ry → bakery
brew + -(e)ry → brewery
fish + -(e)ry → fishery
pot + -(e)ry → pottery
eat + -(e)ry → eatery
2. In addition to the locations, -(e)ry derivatives can also denote
collectivities:
confection + -(e)ry → confectionery
cutler + -(e)ry → cutlery
machine + -(e)ry → machinery
pot + -(e)ry → pottery
14
-ess
This suffix derives a comparatively small number of established nouns
referring exclusively to female humans and animals:
prince + -ess → princess
steward + -ess → stewardess
lion + -ess → lioness
tiger + -ess → tigress
waiter + -ess → waitress
-ful
The suffix -ful derives measure partitive nouns (similar to expressions
such as a lot of, a bunch of) from nominal base words that can be
construed as containers:
cup + -ful → cupful
hand + -ful → handful
room + -ful → roomful
-hood
The suffix -hood is used to express concepts such as a condition or state
of being (1), but also a group sharing a specified condition or state (2):
(1) adult + -hood → adulthood
child + -hood → childhood
(2) brother + -hood → brotherhood
neighbour + -hood → neighbourhood
-(i)an (and its variant -ean)
Nouns denoting persons and places can take the suffix -(i)an.
It can denote a person:
1. ‘having to do with X’:
technic(s) + -ian → technician
15
history + -ian → historian
Utopia + -ian → Utopian
2. ‘being of X origin’
Boston + -ian → Bostonian
Lancaster + -ian → Lancastrian
Mongolia + -(i)an → Mongolian
Scandinavia + (i)-an → Scandinavian
Hungary + -(i)an → Hungarian
Egypt + -ian → Egyptian
NB: Many -(i)an derivatives are also used as adjectives.
-ing
Derivatives with this deverbal suffix denote a process (1) or, much rarer,
a result (2). The suffix is somewhat peculiar among derivational suffixes
in that it is primarily used as a verbal inflectional suffix forming present
participles. Examples of pertinent derivatives are abundant since -ing
can attach to practically any verb.
(1) begin + -ing → beginning
run + -ing → running
sleep + -ing → sleeping
(2) build + -ing → building
wrap + -ing → wrapping
stuff + -ing → stuffing
-ion (-tion)
Derivatives in -ion denote events or results of processes. As such, verbal
bases are by far the most frequent, but there is also a comparatively large
number of forms where -ation is directly attached to nouns without any
intervening verb in -ate. These forms are found primarily in scientific
discourse with words denoting chemical or other substances as bases (4).
16
1. If attached to a verb ending in -ify, the verbal suffix and -ion surface
together as -ification:
person + -ify + -ation → personification
2. If attached to a verb ending in -ate, the suffix -ion does not require
another suffix to form a noun:
hyphenate + -ion → hyphenation
3. The allomorph -ation is present in all other cases:
starve + -ation → starvation
colonise + -ation → colonisation
(4) epoxide + -(at)ion → epoxidation
sediment + -(at)ion → sedimentation
-ism
This suffix is used to form abstract nouns from other nouns and
adjectives, with its derivatives denoting related concepts such as state,
condition, attitude, system of beliefs, or theory:
Parkinson + -ism → Parkinsonism
conservate + -ism → conservatism
race + -ism → racism
revision + -ism → revisionism
Marx + -ism → Marxism
-ist
This suffix derives nouns denoting:
1. a person who studies or practices a particular discipline:
botany + -ist → botanist
psychiatry + -ist → psychiatrist
2. a person who uses a device of some kind:
piano + -ist → pianist
17
violin + -ist → violinist
bicycle + -ist → bicyclist
balloon + -ist → balloonist
3. a person who engages in a particular type of activity:
adventure + -ist → adventurist
art + -ist → artist
terrorism + -ist → terrorist
tour + -ist → tourist
4. a person who suffers from a specific condition or syndrome:
autism + -ist → autist
egoism + -ist → egoist
5. a person who subscribes to a particular theological doctrine or
religious denomination:
Buddhism + -ist → Buddhist
Baptism + -ist → Baptist
monotheism + -ist → monotheist
6. a person who has a certain ideology or set of beliefs:
nihilism + -ist → nihilist
fascism + -ist → fascist
pacifism + -ist → pacifist
activism + -ist → activist
environmentalism + -ist → environmentalist
7. a person who owns or manages something:
capital + -ist → capitalist
industry + -(al)ist → industrialist
18
8. a person who holds bigoted, partial views:
sexism + -ist → sexist
racism + -ist → racist
NB: many of these nouns are related to ‘-isms’.
-ity
This suffix is usually attached to Latinate adjectives forming abstract
nouns referring to the state, property, or quality conforming to the sense
of the base adjective:
absurd + -ity → absurdity
modern + -ity → modernity
curious + -ity → curiosity
profane + -ity → profanity
solid + -ity → solidity
productive + -ity → productivity
All adjectives ending in the suffixes -able, -al, and -ic can take -ity as a
nominalising suffix:
readable + -ity → readability
formal + -ity → formality
erratic + -ity → erraticity
-ment
This suffix derives action nouns denoting processes or results from
(mainly) verbs, with a strong preference for monosyllables or disyllabic
base words with stress on the last syllable.
assess + -ment → assessment
endorse + -ment → endorsement
involve + -ment → involvement
treat + -ment → treatment
19
-ness
Quality-noun-forming -ness is considered by many linguists to be one of
the most productive suffixes of English. Regarding potential base words,
-ness is much less restrictive than its close semantic relative -ity. The
suffix can attach to practically any adjective, and apart from that, there
are nouns derived from the other parts of speech thingness, pronouns as
in us-ness, and phrases as in over-the-top-ness, all-or-nothing-ness.
calm + -ness → calmness
dark + -ness → darkness
kind + -ness → kindness
one + -ness → oneness
sad + -ness → sadness
-ship
The suffix -ship forms nouns denoting state or condition, similar in
meaning to derivatives in -age, -hood, and -dom. Base words are mostly
person nouns (1).
However, extensions of the basic senses do occur, for example
collectivities (e.g., membership), ‘office,’ as in postmastership, or
‘activity,’ as in courtship ‘courting’ or censorship ‘censoring.’
(1) apprentice + -ship → apprenticeship
clerk + -ship → clerkship
friend + -ship → friendship
member + -ship → membership
statesman + -ship → statesmanship
vicar + -ship → vicarship
20
Verbal Suffixes
There are mainly four suffixes which derive verbs from other categories
(mostly adjectives and nouns); these are -ate, -en, -ify, and -ise.
-ate
Forms ending in this suffix represent a rather heterogeneous group.
A large proportion of forms in -ate do not conform to any pattern, with
-ate being apparently no more than an indicator of verbal status.
Examples of such non-canonical formations are back-formations
(formate ← formation), conversions (citrate), etc.
There is a class of derivatives with chemical substances as bases, which
systematically exhibit ornative and resultative meanings. These can be
paraphrased as ‘provide with X’, or ‘make into X.’
fluorine + -ate → fluorinate
methane + -ate → methanate
-en
The Germanic suffix -en attaches to monosyllables forming verbs
meaning ‘make something (more) X.’
Most bases are adjectives (1), but a few nouns can also be found (2).
(1) black + -en → blacken
broad + -en → broaden
quick + -en → quicken
ripe + -en → ripen
(2) strength + -en → strengthen
length + -en → lengthen
-ify
This suffix attaches to three kinds of base word:
1. to monosyllabic words (1),
2. to words stressed on the final syllable,
21
3. to words stressed on the penult (i.e., on the last-but-one syllable)
followed by a final syllable ending in /ɪ/ (2).
Semantically, -ify shows the same range of meanings as -ise (see below),
and the two suffixes could therefore be considered allomorphs.
(1) ample + -ify → amplify
just + -ify → justify
pure + -ify → purify
(2) humid + -ify → humidify
solid + -ify → solidify
-ise (and its orthographic variant -ize)
Both -ise and -ify are somewhat similar suffixes, which can express a
whole range of related concepts. These concepts can be paraphrased as
follows:
1. ‘put into X’ (locative sense):
computer + -ise → computerise
hospital + -ise → hospitalise
2. ‘make (more) X’ (causative sense):
random + -ise → randomise
formal + -ise → formalise
humid + -ify → humidify
3. ‘make into X’ (resultative sense):
carbon + -ise → carbonise
item + -ise → itemise
nazy + -ify → nazify
emphasis + -ise → emphasise
4. ’perform X’ (performative sense)
speech + -ify → speechify
22
memory + -ise → memorise
5. ’act like X’ (similative sense):
cannibal + -ise → cannibalise
NB: The suffix -ise attaches primarily to bases ending in an unstressed
syllable.
23
Adjectival Suffixes
The adjectival suffixes of English can be subdivided into two major
groups. A large proportion of derived adjectives are relational
adjectives, whose role is simply to relate the noun the adjective qualifies
to the base word of the derived adjective. For example, algebraic mind
means ‘a mind having to do with algebra, referring to algebra,
characterised by algebra,’ colonial officer means ‘officer having to do
with the colonies,’ etc. On the other hand, there is a large group of
derived adjectives that express more specific concepts, and which are
often called qualitative adjectives. Sometimes, however, relational
adjectives can adopt qualitative meanings. For example, the derivative
grammatical has a relational sense (i.e., ‘having to do with grammar’) in
the sentence She is a grammatical genius, but can at the same time also
have a qualitative sense (i.e., ‘conforming to the rules of grammar’) in
This is a grammatical sentence.
-able/-ible
1. Appended to the verbal base, the suffix forms adjectives with the sense
‘able to be done,’ ‘fit to be done’:
move + -able → movable
break + -able → breakable
blame + -able → blameable
sale + -able → saleable
2. Appended to the nominal base, it forms adjectives meaning ‘relevant
to or suitable to,’ ‘in accordance with’:
fashion + -able → fashionable
season + -able → seasonable
3. Appended to the nominal base, it can add the sense of ‘giving’, or
‘being inclined’ to a noun:
pleasure + -able → pleasurable
peace + -able → peaceable
24
4. Appended to the nominal base, it can also form adjectives meaning
‘subject to’:
tax + -able → taxable
5. Appended to the verbal base, the suffix forms adjectives denoting the
state of being ‘due to be’:
pay + -able → payable
NB: In established loan words (and occasionally in recent formations),
we also find the orthographic variant -ible: comprehensible, discernible,
flexible, reversible.
-al
This relational suffix attaches almost exclusively to Latinate bases
forming adjectives with the meaning ‘of or pertaining to’:
accident + -al → accidental
colony + -al → colonial
cultural + -al → cultural
institution + -al → institutional
mode + -al → modal
-ary
Another relational adjective-forming suffix, -ary usually attaches to
nouns (and to bound bases, as in binary):
compliment + -ary → complimentary
evolution + -ary → evolutionary
fragment + -ary → fragmen¬tary
legend + -ary → legendary
precaution + -ary → precautionary
25
-ed
This suffix derives adjectives with the general meaning ‘having X, being
provided with X.’ Many derivatives are based on compounds or phrases
(empty-headed, pig-headed, air-minded, fair-minded).
-esque
The suffix -esque is attached to both common and proper nouns to
convey the notion of ‘in the manner or style of X’:
Chaplin + -esque → Chaplinesque
Kafka + -esque → Kafkaesque
picture + -esque → picturesque
NB: There is a strong preference for polysyllabic base words.
-ful
The suffix -ful has the general meaning ‘having X, being characterised
by X’ and is typically attached to abstract nouns (1), but verbal bases are
not uncommon (2).
(1) beauty + -ful → beautiful
insight + -ful → insightful
purpose + -ful → purposeful
tact + -ful → tactful
(2) forget + -ful → forgetful
mourn + -ful → mournful
resent + -ful → resentful
-ic/-ical
Being another relational suffix, -ic also attaches to foreign bases (nouns
and bound roots).
myth + -ic(al) → mythic(al)
whim(s) + -ical → whimsical
26
NB: Quite a number of -ic derivatives have variant forms in -ical:
electric ~ electrical
economic ~ economical
historic ~ historical
Sometimes these forms are clearly distinguished in meaning (e.g.,
economic ‘profitable’ vs. economical ‘money-saving’); in other cases, it
remains to be determined what governs the choice of one form over the
other.
-ish
1. Attached to common nouns, this suffix can form adjectives with the
meaning ‘typical of’, ‘similar to’, ‘being like’:
girl + -ish → girlish
child + -ish → childish
2. Attached to other adjectives, -ish is used to forms adjectives meaning
‘somewhat’, ‘rather’:
blue + -ish → bluish
clear + -ish → clearish
3. Attached to roots of proper nouns denoting names of nations or
regions, this suffix derives adjectives meaning ‘of’, ‘belonging or
relating to’ (a nationality, place, or language):
Brit + -ish → British
Dane + -ish → Danish
Jew + -ish → Jewish
Spain + -ish → Spanish
Turkey + -ish → Turkish
-ive
This suffix forms adjectives mostly from Latinate verbs and bound roots
that end in [t] or [s] (1). Some nominal bases are also attested (2).
27
(1) connect + -ive → connective
explode + -ive → explosive
offend + -ive → offensive
prevent + -ive → preventive
receive + -ive → receptive
speculate + -ive → speculative
(2) instinct + -ive → instinctive
mass + -ive → massive
-less
Semantically, -less can be seen as antonymic to -ful, with the meaning
being paraphrasable as ‘without X’:
expression + -less → expressionless
hope + -less → hopeless
speech + -less → speechless
thank + -less → thankless
-ly
This suffix can be appended to both nouns and adjectives.
1. Appended to nouns, derived adjectives can signify ‘behaving like’, or
‘having a nature typical of what is denoted by the noun’:
brother + -ly → brotherly
daughter + -ly → daughterly
father + -ly → fatherly
woman + -ly → womanly
2. Other common types of derivatives have bases denoting temporal
concepts:
hour+ -ly → hourly
day + -ly → daily
28
month + -ly → monthly
3. The suffix may also form adjectives denoting directions:
east + -(er)ly → easterly
south-west + -(er)ly → southwesterly
-ous
This suffix derives adjectives from nouns and bound roots, the vast
majority being of Latin origin. Generally, the suffix denotes presence of
some quality in any degree (typically, abundance of something).
‘cura’ (Latin bound root) + -ous → curious
barbar + -ous → barbarous
fame + -ous → famous
synonym + -ous → synonymous
‘tremere’ (Latin bound root) + -ous → tremendous
joy + -ous → joyous
poison + -ous → poisonous
riot + -ous → riotous
There are further variants of the suffix, -eous (erroneous, homogeneous),
-ious (gracious, prestigious), and -uous (ambiguous, continuous).
29
Adverbial Suffixes
-ly
Adverbs derived by means of appending -ly to adjectival bases can be
distinguished from the adjectives ending in the same suffix mostly on
their syntactical role. Some linguists therefore see -ly as an inflectional
morpheme rather than a derivational one. Some examples of the adverbs
derived using this suffix include:
accidental + -ly → accidentally
certain + -ly → certainly
effortless + -ly → effortlessly
-wise
This suffix derives adverbs from nouns, with two distinguishable
subgroups: dimension adverbs (1), and viewpoint adverbs (2).
The former adverb type has the meaning ‘in the manner of X, like X,’ or
indicates a spatial arrangement or movement.
(1) The cone can be sliced lengthwise.
The latter group of viewpoint adverbs is made up of adverbs whose
meaning can be rendered as ‘with respect to, in regard to, concerning X.’
The scope of the viewpoint adverbs is not the verb phrase, but the whole
clause or sentence.
(2) They make no special demands food-wise.
30
Prefixes
The prefixes of English can be classified semantically into the following
groups.
First, there is a large group that quantify over their base words’ meaning.
Diving those prefixes may look something like this:
‘one’: uni-, (unilateral, unification);
‘two or twice’: bi-, (bilateral, bifurcation),
di-, (disyllabic, ditransitive);
‘many’: multi-, (multi-purpose, multilateral,
multinational),
poly-, (polysyllabic, polyclinic);
‘half’: semi-, (semi-conscious, semi-desert);
‘all’: omni-, (omnipotent, omnipresent);
‘small’: micro-, (micro-surgical, microwave);
‘large’: macro-, (macro-economics, macro-biotic);
‘to excess’: hyper-, (hyperactive, hypermarket);
over-, (overestimate, overtax);
‘not sufficiently’: under-, (undernourished, underpay).
Second, there are numerous locative prefixes.
circum- ’around’ (circumnavigate, circumscribe),
counter- ‘against’ (counterbalance, counterexample),
endo- ‘internal to X’ (endocentric, endocrinology),
epi- ‘on, over’ (epiglottis, epi-central),
inter- ‘between’ (interbreed, intergalactic),
intra- ‘inside’ (intramuscular, intravenous),
para- ‘along with’ (paramedic, paranormal),
retro- ‘back, backwards’ (retroflex, retrospection),
31
trans- ‘across’ (transcontinental, transmigrate).
Third, there are temporal prefixes. They may express following notions:
‘before’: ante- (antechamber, antedate),
pre- (preconcert, predetermine, premedical),
fore- (forefather, foresee);
‘after’: post- (poststructuralism, postmodify, postmodern);
‘new’: neo- (neoclassical, Neo-Latin).
Numerous prefixes do not fit into any of the four groups, however, and
express diverse notions. Here are some of them:
mal- ‘wrong, evil’ (malfunction, malnutrition),
mis- ‘badly, wrongly’ (misinterpret, mistrial),
pseudo- ‘false, deceptive’ (pseudonym, pseudoscience),
co- ’together, jointly’ (cowrite, coproduced),
vice- ‘in place of’(vice-president); etc.
In the following we look in more detail at the negative prefixes and two
of their close relatives, mis- and anti-. The negative prefixes appear to
be more complex in their distribution and behaviour than most of the
other prefixes, and their domains overlap considerably.
a(n)-
This prefix only occurs in Latinate adjectives. With denominal (i.e.,
those derived from nouns) adjectives, the meaning can either be
paraphrased as ‘without what is referred to by the nominal base,’ (1) or
simply ‘not X.’ (2)
(1) chromatic + a- → achromatic (‘without color,’ colourless)
(2) historical + a- → ahistorical
symmetrical + a- → asymmetrical
32
anti-
This prefix can express two different but related notions. The first can
be expressed as ‘against, opposing’:
war + anti- → anti-war
abortin + anti- → anti-abortion
scientific + anti- → anti-scientific
freeze + anti- → anti-freeze
glare + anti- → anti-glare
Those denominal, de-adjectival, and deverbal derivatives behave like
adjectives in sentence (anti-war movement, Are you pro-abortion or
anti-abortion?, an anti-freeze liquid).
Another type of anti- derivatives are nouns carrying the notion ‘the
opposite of an X’ or ‘not having the proper characteristics of an X.’
hero + anti- → anti-hero
particle + anti- → anti-particle
de-
This prefix attaches to verbs and nouns to form reversative or privative
verbs:
colonise + de- → decolonise
caffeine + de- → decaffeinate
flea + de- → deflea
pollute + de- → depollute
throne + de- → dethrone
select + de- → deselect
dis-
Closely related semantically to un- and de-, the prefix dis- forms
reversative verbs from Latinate verbal bases:
33
assemble + dis- → disassemble
associate + dis- → disassociate
charge + dis- → discharge
connect + dis- → discon¬nect
(ap)prove + dis- → disprove
qualify + dis- → disqualify
The prefix dis- also occurs in some adjectives with the meaning ‘not X’:
honest + dis- → dishonest
passionate + dis- → dispassionate
proportional + dis- → disproportional
in-
This negative prefix is exclusively found with Latinate adjectives and
the general negative meaning ‘not’:
comprehensible + in- → comprehensible
active + in- → inactive
tolerable + in- → intolerable
plausible + im- → implausible
legal + il- → illegal
regular + ir- → irregular
NB: It assimilates to the first sound of the base, in other words, the prefix
changes its ending depending on the following letter of the root word.
mis-
Modifying verbs and nouns, mis- conveys the meaning ‘inaccurate(ly),
wrong(ly)’:
align + mis- → misalign
pronounce + mis- → mispronounce
report + mis- → misreport
34
state + mis- → misstate
demeanour + mis- → misdemeanour
trial + mis- → mistrial
non-
When attached to adjectives this prefix has the general meaning of ‘not
X’:
biological + non- → non-biological
commercial + non- → non-commercial
profit + non- → non-profit
NB: In contrast to un- and in-, negation with non- does not carry
evaluative force, as can be seen from the pairs unscientific vs. non-
scientific, irrational vs. non-rational. That means that words derived
that way do not usually carry any attitude towards what is being
addressed. Furthermore, non- primarily forms contradictory and
complementary opposites.
Nouns prefixed with non- can either mean ‘absence of X’ or ‘not having
the character of X’:
delivery + non- → non-delivery
member + non- → non-member
profit + non- → non-profit
The latter meaning has been extended to ‘being X, but not having the
proper characteristics of an X’:
issue + non- → non-issue
answer + non- → non-answer
un-
The prefix un- can attach to verbs and sometimes nouns to yield a
reversative or privative (‘remove X’) meaning:
bind + un- → unbind
35
cork + un- → uncork
leash + un- → unleash
saddle + un- → unsaddle
wind + un- → unwind
wrap + un- → unwrap
The prefix is also used to negate simple and derived adjectives:
complicated + un- → uncomplicated
happy + un- → unhappy
successful + un- → unsuccessful
readable + un- → unreadable
Nouns are also attested with un-, usually expressing ‘absence of X’
ease + un- → unease
belief + un- → unbelief
36
Word-Formation Dictionary
Aa
Abstract Concrete Verb Adjective Adverb
noun noun
abbey,
abbot
abhorrence abhor abhorrent abhorrently
(dis)ability, (dis)ability, enable, (un)able,

ableism ableist disable (dis)abled, ableist
abolition, abolitionist abolish
abolishmen
t,
abolitionis
m
absence, absence, absent absent, absently
abstenteeis abstentee absentminded
m
absolutisati absolutist absolutis absolute, absolutely
on e absolutist
absolution absolution absolve
absorption, absorber (re)abso absorbing, absorbingly
absorptivit rb absorbed,
y, absorbent,(in)abs
absorbabili orbable
ty
abstinence, abstantion abstain abstemious, abstemiousl
abstentioni abstinent y,
sm abstinently
access, access (in)accessible accessibly
accessibilit
y
accomplish accompl accomplished
ment ish
accountabil account, account (un)accountable
ity accountant
37
noun noun
accuracy (in)accurate (in)accuratel
y
accusation accused, accuse (un)accusative, (un)accusing
accusation, (un)accusing ly
accuser
acquaintan acquaintan acquaint (un)acquainted
ce ce
acquisition, acquirer, acquire acquisitive acquisitively
acquiremen acquiremen
t, t
acquisitive
ness
acquittal acquittal acquit (un)acquitted
(de)activati act, act, (in)active, (in)actively
on, activator, (de)activ reactive
activism, activist ate
(re)activity
adaptation, adaptor adapt (un)adaptable,
adaption, (un)adapted,
adaptor adaptive
addition additive add additional, additionally
additive
addressing address, address (un)addressed
addresser,
addressee
(in)adequa (in)adequate (in)adequate
cy ly
adherence, adherent, adhere adherent, adherently
adhesion adhesive adhesive
admiration admirer admire (un)admirable (un)admirabl
y
admittance, admission admit (in)admissible admittedly
admission
adulthood, adult adult adultly
adultery
38
noun noun
advanceme advanceme advance advance,
nt, nt, advanced,
(dis)advant (dis)advant (dis)advantageou
age age s
adventuris adventure, adventur (un)adventurous,
m adventurer, e adventuresome
adventurist
advise advisor, advise (in)advisable, unadvisedly
advisory advised
affection, affectation affect affectionate, affectingly,
affectation, affecting, affectionatel
affectednes (un)affected y, affectedly
s
ageing, age, ageist age ageless
ageism
agility agile agilely
agreement agreement (dis)agre (dis)agreeable

e
ailment ail ailing
alarmism alarm, alarm (un)alarmed, alarmingly

alarmist alarming
allergy, (non)allergic
allergist,
allergen
allowance allow (un)allowable
allusion allude allusive
alliance ally, ally allied

alliance
alteration alter (un)altered,
(in)alterable
altruism altruist altruistic altruistically
amateurism amateur amateur, amateurishly
amateurish
39
noun noun
amazement amaze amazing, (un)amazing
(un)amazed ly
ambition, ambition (un)ambitious ambitiously
ambitiousn
ess
amendment amendment amend (un)amended
amusement amusement amuse amusing, amusingly

(un)amused
ancestry ancestor ancestral
angulation angle angulate angular
animation animateur, animate (in)animate,

animatic animated
annoyance annoyance annoy annoying, annoyingly
annoyed
annus, annuitis annual annually
annuity e
anonimity anonym anonymi anonymous anonymous
se
antiquity antique, antique,
antiquary, antiquarian,
antiquarian antiquated,
antiqued
anxiety, anguish anxious anxiously
angst
apology, apologis (un)apologetic (un)apologet
apologia, e ically
apologist
appearance apparition, appear (un)apparent apparently
appearance
appetite appetiser (un)appetising, (un)appetisi
appetitive ngly
40
noun noun
application, applicant, apply (in)applicable, (in)applicabl
applicabilit appliance, applicative y
y applicator
appointme appoint appointed
nt,
appointee
apprehensi apprehensi apprehe apprehensive, apprehensiv
on on nd (in)apprehensible ely
apprentices apprentice apprenti
hip ce
(dis)approv (dis)approv (dis)app (dis)approving (dis)approvi
al, er rove ngly
(dis)approb
ation
approximat approximat approxi approximate, approximate
ion ion mate approximative ly
(in)aptitude (in)aptitude (in)apt (in)aptly
, aptness , aptronym
architectur architectur architectural architectural
e e, architect ly
ardour, ardent ardently
ardency
argument, argument argue (un)arguable, (un)arguably
argumentat (un)argumentativ
ion e
arm, armless
armful,
armlet,
armrest
(dis)armam army, (dis)arm (un)armed
ent, armour armoury
arrival, arrival, arrive
arrivisme arriviste
art, art, artist, artistic, artful, artfully,
artwork, artisan artificial artistically,
artistry, artificially
41
artificiality,
artisanship
ascendancy ascent, ascend ascendant
Protestant
Ascendanc
y
assembly, assembly assembl (un)assembled
assemblage e
assertion, assertion assert (un)assertive (un)assertive
assertivene ly
ss
assessment assessor assess assessed
assistance, assistant assist assistive,

assistantshi (un)assisted
p
assumption assumption assume assumed, unassumingl
assumable, y
unassuming
atrocity atrocious atrociously
attachment attachment, attach (un)attached,
attaché attachable
attainment attain (un)attainable
attendance, attendee, attend (in)attentive, (in)attentivel
attention attendant attendant, y
(un)attended
attention, attention (in)attentive (in)attentivel
(in)attentiv y
eness
(in)authenti authenticat authenti (in)authentic (in)authentic
city, or cate ally
authenticati
on
authority, authority, authoris authoritative, authoritative
authoritaria authoritaria e (un)authorised, ly
nism n authoritarian
automation automaton automati automatic automaticall
se y
42
noun noun
autumn autumnal
availability avail (un)available
aversion aversion averse, aversive
avoidance avoid (un)avoidable (un)avoidabl

y
awe awe awesome, awful, awesomely,
awe-inspiring, awe-
awed, awestruck inspiringing,
awfully
43
Bb
noun noun
babyhood, baby, baby, baby, babyish
babysitting babysitter babysit
bachelorhoo bachelor,
d bachelorett
e
bankruptcy bankrupt bankrup bankrupt
t
bareness bare bare barely
base, basis, basement base basic, based, basically,
basics baseless baselessly
bathwater bath, bather bathe, bathing
bath
being being be
beauty, beautician beautify beautiful beautifully
beautificatio
n
become (un)becomin (un)becomingl
g y
beggary beggar beg, beggarly
beggar
belief believer believe (un)believabl (un)believably
e
belevolence benevolent
betrayal betrayer betray betrayed
bitterness bitter embitter bitter, bitterly

bittersweet,
embittered
blaze, blaze ablaze
blazer
blot, blotter blot
boardering board, board, boardering
boarder boarder
boast, boast boastful boastfully
boastfulness
44
noun noun
embodiment body, body, bodily
embodimen embody
t
bookishness, book, bookish bookishly
bookwork booklet,
bookmark,
bookkeeper
boredom bore bored, boring boringly
breakage break, break breaking,
breaker (un)breakable
breath, breath, breathe breathy, breathily,
breathing breather breathless, breathlessly,
breathtaking breathtakingly
brewing brewer, brew
brewery
brilliance brilliant brilliant brilliantly
breadth broaden broad broadly

(re)building building, (re)buil (re)built
builder d
buoyancy buoy buoy buoyant buoyantly
45
Cc
noun noun
calculus, calculator calculate (in)calculable, calculatingly
calculation (un)calculated
, calculating
captivity captor, capture, captive, captivatingly
captive captivate captivating
care, care, care careful, carefully,
carefulness, caretaker careless, carelessly,
carelessness (un)caring, (un)caringly
carefree
carriage carry, carry carrying
carrier,
carriage
categorisatio category categorise categorised, categorically
n categorical
causation, cause, cause causal,
causality causerie causeless
(pre)caution caution (pre)cautious, (pre)cautious
(pre)cautionar ly
y
ceasefire cease ceaseless ceaselessly
cello,
cellist
centrality, centre centre, central, centrally
(de)centralisa (de)central centred
tion ise
ceremonialis ceremony ceremonial, (un)ceremoni
m, , (un)ceremoni ously
ceremonious ceremoni ous
ness, al
ceremonial
(un)certainty, ascertain (un)certain (un)certainly
certitude,
ascertainmen
t
46
noun noun
chance chance (un)chancy (un)chancily
changement, changeme (ex)change (un)changeabl

exchange nt, e,
(game)ch (un)changed,
anger, (un)exchange
exchanger able
characterisati character, characteris (un)characteri (un)character
on characteri e stic, istically
stics (un)characteri
sed,
characterful,
characterless
charge charge, (dis)charg chargeable,
surchage e, (un)charged
surcharge
charm charmer charming, charmingly
charmed,
charmless
chivalry, cavalrym chivalrous,
cavalry an cavalier
choice choice choose choosy,
chosen
Christianity, Christ, christen, (un)Christian
Christendom, Christian, christianis
christening Christmas e
circumsta circumstan circumstantial
nce tiate
citizenship citizen
civilian civilianise (un)civil, (un)civilly,
(un)civilised
claim, claim
claimant
cleanliness, cleaner clean, (un)clean, cleanly
cleaning cleanse cleansing
47
noun noun
clearance, clearance, clear, (un)clear, clearly
clarity, clearer clarify (un)cleared
clarification
cleavage cleavage, cleave
cleaver
climax climax climactic
(en)closure closer (en)close close, closing, close

closed
clothing cloth, clothe clad
clothes
(in)cohesion, cohere (in)coherent, (in)coherentl
(in)coherenc (in)cohesive y
e
coincidence coinciden coincide (in)coincident (un)coincide
ce , ntally
(un)coinciden
tal
collusion collude collusive
(dis)comfort, comfort (un)comfortab (un)comforta

comfortabilit le, comforting bly
y
command command, commanding
, commande
command er
er,
Comman
dment
commerce, commerc commecial (un)commerci (un)commerc
commercialis e, ise al, ially
ation, commerci commercialis
commercialis al ed
m
commitment, committe commit (un)committe
commital e d
48
noun noun
(mis)commu communit commune, communal, communally
nication, y communic (un)communi
communion ate cative,
communicatio
nal
companionsh company, accompan accompanyin
ip, companio y g,
accompanim n, (un)accompan
ent accompan ied
iment
(in)completio complete (in)complete (in)completel
n, y
(in)complete
ness
complication complicat complicate complicating,
ion (un)complicat
ed
complime complime complimentar
nt nt y
composure, composer compose composed, composedly
composition , composite,
compositi compositional
on,
composite
(mis)compre (mis)comp (in)comprehe comprehensi
hension, rehend nsible, vely
incomprehen comprehensiv
sion, e
comprehensi
veness,
(in)comprehe
nsibilty
compulsion compulsi compel (non)compuls compulsorily
on ory, ,
(un)compellin (un)compelli
g ngly
49
noun noun
councealmen concealer conceal concealed,
t concealing
concession concessio concede concessional,
naire concessive
conception, concept conceive, (in)conceivabl

contraception conceptual e,
, ise contraceptive
conceptualisa
tion
conclusion conclusio conclude (in)conclusive (in)conclusiv
n ely
confidence, confidant( confide confidential confidentiall
confidentialit e) y
y
(non)confor conforme conform (non)/(un)con
mity, r, formable
(non)confor (non)conf
mism, ormist
conformance
,
conformabilit
y
(sub)conscio (sub)consciou (sub)conscio
usness, s, usly,
conscience conscientious conscientiou
sly
conspiracy conspirac conspire conspiratorial conspiratoria
y, lly
conspiraci
st,
conspirat
or,
conspirer
(in)constancy constant (in)constant (in)constantl
y
50
noun noun
construction,constructi construct (un)constructi constructivel
constructivenon, ve, y
ess construct constructional
or
consumption, consumer consume consumable, consumingly
consumerism , consumerist,
consumab consuming
le
contempt contemn contemptible, contemptuou
contemptuous sly
contention contend contentious
continuation, continuat continue continuous, continuously

continuance, or continual , continually
continuity
contradiction contradict contradictory
contributi contribute contributory
on,
contributo
r
control, controller control (un)controllab
controllabilit le,
y (un)controlled
controversy, controver controversial controversial
controversial sy ly
ity
convenience conventio convene (in)convenien (in)convenie
n t, ntly,
(un)conventio conventional
nal ly
conversion converter, convert (non)converti
conversio ble, converted
nist
(in)correctne corrector correct (in)correct, (in)correctly
ss, corrective
correctitude
51
noun noun
corruption corrupt corrupt, corruptly
(in)corruptibl
e
count count countless,
(un)countable,
(un)counted
courage, encourage, courageous, (un)encourag
encourageme discourage (un)encouragi ingly
nt, ng
discouragem
ent
courtship court court courtly, courteously
courteous
coverage cover, (dis)cover covert,
coverage, covering,
discovery (dis)coverable
,
discovere
r, covert
creativity, creation, create (un)creative (un)creativel
creation, creature, y
creativeness creator
credence, credit, (ac)credit, (dis)creditable (in)credibly
(in)credibilit creditor, discredit , (in)credible,
y, credential accredited,
accreditation , creed discredited
cross, cross (un)crossable
crossing
culture culturist culture culture, culturally

(un)cultured
cure cure cure (in)curable, (in)curably,
curative, curatively
(un)cured
curse curse accursed
52
noun noun
custom customer, custom, (un)accustom customarily
customs accustom ed, customary
cycling cycle, cycle cyclic cyclically
cyclist
53
Dd
noun noun
damage damage, damage damaging, damagingly
damages (un)damage
d,
damageable
danger endanger dangerous, dangerously
endangered
debate debater debate (un)debatabl
e
debt debt, debtor indebt indebted
deception deception, deceive deceitful, deceptively
deceit, deceptive,
deceiver deceiving
decency (in)decent (in)decently
decoration decoration, decorate decorative decoratively
decorator
deduction deduce deducible
deduction deduct (non)deduct

ible
depth deepen deep deeply
defect defective defectively
defence defender, defend (in)defensib

defendant le, defensive
definition definition define definitive, (in)definitel
(in)definite, y,
(in)definabl definitively
e,
(un)defined
defiance defier defy defiant defiantly
delicacy delicacy, (in)delicate (in)delicatel

delicatessen y
54
noun noun
delivery, delivery, deliver (un)delivera
deliverance deliverer, ble,
deliveree, (un)delivere
deliverable, d
deliverance
dentistry, dentist, dental
dentition dentifrice
denial denier deny (un)deniable (un)deniabl
y
(in)depende dependant, depend (in)depende (in)depende
nce dependency nt, ntly,
(un)dependa dependably
ble
depletion deplete depleted
derision deride derisive, derisively,

derisory, deridingly
deriding
designation designee designate designate,
(un)designat
ed
desire desire (un)desired, (un)desirabl
(un)desirabl y
e,
(un)desirous
despair despair desperate desperately
destruction destroyer destroy, destructive, destructivel
destruct (in)destructi y
ble
detention, detainee, detain
detainer detainer
detestation detest detestable
developmen developer develop (under)deve
t loped,
(un)develop
ed,
55
developmen
tal,
developing
deviation, deviant deviate deviant,
deviance deviate
dictatorship, dictator dictate dictatorial
dictation
death death die dead, deadly
digit digital digitally

diligence diligent diligently
diner, dinner dine dining
diplomacy diplomat diplomatic diplomatical
ly
direction, director, direct (in)direct, (in)directly
directorate, directress, directional,
directorship, direction, directionless
directness directive, , directorial
directory
disappointm disappoint disappointe disappointin
ent d, gly
disappointin
g
(in)disciplin discipline discipline (un)discipli
e ned,
disciplinary,
disciplinal
discretion, discreet discreetly
discreeness
discriminati discriminato discriminate indiscrimina (in)discrimi
on r te, nately,
discriminato (un)discrimi
ry, natingly,
(un)discrimi discriminati
nating, vely
discriminati
ve
56
noun noun
dismissal dismiss dismissive dismissively
dispensation dispenser dispense (in)dispensa
, ble
(in)dispensa
bility
disruption disruptor disrupt (non)disrupt
ive
dissension dissent, dissent dissentient
dissenter
distribution distributor distribute distributive,

distributiona
l
disturbance disturb disturbing, disturbingly
(un)disturbe
d
diversity, diversify diverse, diversely
diversificati (un)diversifi
on ed
divinity divinise divine divinely
dizziness dizzy dizzy,

dizzying
docility docile
documentati document, document documentar
on documentar y,(un)docu
y, mented
documentari
an
dog dog dogged doggedly
(pre)domina dominion, (pre)domina (pre)domina predominant

nce, dominatrix te nt ly
dominion,(p
57
re)dominati
on
doubt, doubter doubt undoubted, undoubtedly
dubitation doubtful, , doubtless,
dubious dubiously
drainage drainer, drain
drainpipe
drama, dramatist, dramatise dramatic, dramatically
dramatisatio dramatics dramatised
n
drawer, draw drawn,
drawaback, drwan-out
drawdown
drunkenness drink, drink (un)drinkabl
drinker e,
(un)drunk,
drunken,
drinking
dullness dullard dull dull, dullish dully
duty (un)dutiful, (un)dutifull

dutiable y
58
Ee
noun noun
earthenware earth earth (un)earthly,
earthy,
earthen,
earthbound
east, eastern, easterly
easterner, easternmost
Easter , easterly
eater, eatery eat eatable,
(in)edible
eccentricity eccentric
economics, economy, economis economic, (un)economi
economisatio economist e (un)econom cally
n ical
edification edify edifying
effect, effect affect, (in)effective (in)effectivel
(in)effectiven effect, , y
ess, effectuat (in)effectual
affectation e ,
(un)affected
elusion, elusion elude elusive elusively
elusiveness
embroidery embroidery, embroide
embroiderer r
emergence, emergency emerge emergent emergently
emergency
emphasis emphasis emphatic emphatically
e
empire, imperious imperiously
emperor
(un)employm employee, (mis)emp (un)employ
ent employer loy ed
emptiness empty empty
59
noun noun
enchantment enchanter, enchant enchanting,
enchantress enchanted
endurance endure (un)endurab

le
enmity enemy
energy energy, energise (un)energeti energetically
energiser c
enormity enormity enormous enormously
entrance entry, enter

entrance,
entrant
entertainmen entertainer entertain entertaining
t
enthusiasm enthusiast enthuse (un)enthusi (un)enthusias
astic ticly
envy envy envious enviously
event, eventuate eventual, eventually
eventuality (un)eventful
, eventless
evocation evoke evocative
examination examiner, examine examinatori
examinee, al
examination
excellence Excellency, excel excellent excellently
excelsior
excess, excess excess, excessive excessively,
excessivenes exceed exceedingly
s
excitement, excitant excite (un)exciting (un)excitingl
excitation , y
(un)excited
excusal excuse excuse (in)excusabl
e,
60
excusatory,
(un)excused
exhaustion exhaust exhaust (in)exhausti exhaustively
ble,
exhaustive
exhibition, exhibit, exhibit exhibitive,

exhibitionis exhibition, exhibitory,
m exhibitor, exhibitionis
exhibitionist tic
expansion, expander, expand expansive, expansively
expansionis expanse, expansionis
m expansionist t
expectation, expect (un)expecte (un)expected
expectancy d ly
expulsion expellee expel expelled
explanation explanation, explain (un)explain (un)explaina

(explication), able, bly
explainer ((in)explica
ble),
explanatory
explication explication explicate (in)explicab (in)explicabl
le y
explosive, explode (non)explos explosively
explosion ive
exploitation exploit, exploit exploitative
exploiter (exploitive)
expression, expression, express (un)expressi expressively

expressivene expressionist ve,
ss, expressionl
expressionis ess,
m expressionis
t
61
noun noun
extent, extender extend extensive, extensively
extension, (in)extensib
extensibility le,
(un)extende
d
exultation exult exultant,
exulting
endowment endowment endow
education educator educate (un)educate educationally
d,
educational,
educative
environment, environment environmen environment
environment alism tal ally
alism
(in)equality equaliser, equal, (un)equal, (un)equally
equation, equalise, (un)equalle
equator equate d,
equatorial
equipment equip (un)equippe
d
exception exception except exceptional, exceptionally
exceptionab
le
exclusion, exclude exclusive, exclusively
exclusivity, exclusionar
exclusivenes y
s
expenditure, expenditure, expend (in)expensi (in)expensive
expense, expense, ve, ly
expensivenes expender expendable
s
experimentat experiment, experime experimenta experimental
ion experimenter nt l ly
62
noun noun
(in)experienc experienc (in)experien experientiall
e e ced, y
experiential
externalisatio externalist externalis external externally
n, externals, e
externalism
63
Ff
noun noun
facing face, face facial
facing,
facer
fact factual factually
fallibility failure, fail (un)failed,
fallacy fallible,
fallacious
falsehood falsify false falsy
fancy fancy,
fanciful
fantasy fantasy, fantasise fantastic, fantasticall
fantasist fantastical y
farce farce, farcical
farceur
fate, fate fatal, fateful fatally
fatality
favour, favourite favour favourite, (un)favoura
favouritism (un)favourab bly
le, favoured
fear, fear fear afraid, fearsomely,
fearmongering fearsome, fearfully,
fearful, fearlessly
fearless
feel feeling, feel (un)felt
feeler
fellowship fellow fellow
ferocity ferocious ferociously
fever fever feverish feverishly
disfigurement figure, (dis)figure figurative figuratively

disfigurem ; !
ent configure
64
finance, financier finance financial financially
financialisatio
n
fire firearm, fire, fiery, firelit,
firefighter, firewall fireproof
fireplace,
firepower,
firestorm,
fireside
fitness fitting, (un)fit (un)fit, fittingly
fitter (un)fitted,
(un)fitting
fixation, fixity fixture fix (un)fixed, fixedly
fixated
flaw flaw flawed, flawlessly
flawless
flippancy flipper flip flippant flippantly
flora, flora, floral, florid, floridly

florescence, florist, floristic,
floriculture floriculturi flory
st
flourish flourish flourishing
flying fly, flight, fly flightless,

flyer flighty,
flying, fly
focus focus focus, focal,
focalise (un)focused
foolishness, fool fool foolish, foolishly
foolery foolhardy,
foolproof
footing, foot, footnote footloose
footage, footboard,
footfall footer,
footnote,
footprint
65
force, enforcer force, forcible, forcibly,
reinforcement, enforce, forceful, forcefully
enforcement reinforce (un)enforcea
ble,
reinforced
(de)forestation forest, deforest forested
, forestry forester
(de)/(re)format (re)form, (re)form, reformatory, formatively
ion, deformity, formula, deform, formative, , formerly
formulation, deformity, formalise deformed,
formalism format, formless,
formalist former
(in)formality, formality formalise (in)formal (in)formall
formalwear y
fortification, fort, fortify fortress-like
fortitude fortificatio
n, fortress,
fortune, fortune (un)fortunate (un)fortunat
fortuity , fortuitous ely
fragmentation fragment fragment fragmenatry fragmenatri
ly
fragrance fragrant
(un)freedom free (un)free free, freely
frequency frequency frequent (in)frequent (in)frequent
ly
friendship, friend, befriend (un)friendly, (un)friendly
friendliness friendship frendless
frost, frost (de)frost frosty,
(de)frosting (de)frosted
frut, fruition, fruit, fruit fruitful,
fruitarianism fruiter, fruitless,
fruitarian fruity
fulfilment fulfil fulfilled,
fulfilling
(dys)function, (mal)functi (mal)funct (dys)functio functionally
functionality, on, ion nal
functionalism functionary
66
noun noun
furring, fur fur furry
furriness
fury, furore infuriate furious, furiously,
infuriating furioso
67
Gg
noun noun
gallantry gallant gallantly
gardening garden, garden
gardener
gasification gas, gas, gaseous,
gasoline, gasify gassy
gasman
gaslighting gaslighter gaslight
ingenuity genius ingenious,
genius
ghosting ghost, ghost ghostly
ghostwriter
glaze glazier glaze
globalisation globe globalise global globally
glory glorify (in)glorious, gloriously
glorified
going goer (under)g (on)going
o
(dis)grace (dis)grace (dis)grac (un)gracious (un)graciousl
e , y,
(dis)graceful (dis)gracefull
, graceless y
grade, grade, (de)grad degraded, gradually
gradualism, (de)gradatio e (de)grading
(de)gradation n, gradient
grandeur grand
gratification, gratifier gratify (un)grateful (un)gratefull
(in)gratitude, y
(un)gratefulne
ss
grief grievance grieve aggrieved, grievously
grievous
grounding ground, ground (un)grounde
groundling d, grounded,
groundless
68
noun noun
grudge grudge grudging grudgingly
guardianship guard, guard guarded

guardian
guidance guide, guide (un)guided,
guideline guiding
69
Hh
Abstract Concret Verb Adjective Adverb
noun e noun
habitation, habit, inhabit, habitual, habitually
habitus habitat, habitate (in)habitable
inhabita
nt
hardness, harden hard, hardy, hardly
hardiness, hardened
hardening
harm, harm harmful, harmfully,
harmfulness, harmless harmlessly
harnlessness
(dis)harmony harmoni harmonise (dis)harmoni (dis)harmonio
st ous usly
haste, hasten hasty hastily
hastiness
hatred hater hate hateful hatefully
hazard hazard hazardous hazardously
headage, head, head, head,

headship heading behead headless
disheartenme heart dishearten
hearty, heartily,
nt wholehearted wholeheartedl
, y
disheartening
,
disheartened
disheartenme heart (dis)hearte hearty, heartily,
nt n heartless, (dis)heartening
(dis)hearteni ly
ng,
disheartened
upheaval, upheava (up)heave heavy heavily
heavinesss l
70
Abstract Concret Verb Adjective Adverb
noun e noun
hellishness hell, hellish hellishly
hellscap
e
heresy heretic heretical
hesitation, hesitater hesitate (un)hesitant hesitantly

hesitancy
height height, heighten high high, highly
Highnes
s,
highland
,
highland
er
hindranc hinder hindering,
e (un)hindered
history historian historic, historically
historical
hold, hold
holding(
s)
(dis)honour, honoree, (dis)honou (dis)honoura honourably
honourability honorifi r ble,
c honorary,
honorific
horror, horrify
horrible, horribly,
horridness horrid, horridly,
horrifying, horrifyingly,
horrific, horrendously
horrendous
humanity, human, (de)human (in)human, (in)humanly,
humankind, humanis ise (in)humane, (in)humanely
humanism, t, humanitarian
humanitariani humanoi ,
sm d (de)humanisi
ng,
71
humanoid,
humanlike
humility, humble, humble,
humiliation humiliate humiliating
humour humour humorous, humorously
humourless
hysteria hysteric hysterical hysterically
72
Ii
noun noun
ice, icing icicle ice icy
inclusion include inclusive
idealism, idealist, idealise ideal, ideally

idealisation, ideality, idealistic
ideality idealiser
identificatio identity identify identical, identically
n, identity (un)identifiab
le,
(un)identified
, identifying
idiocy idiot idiotic idiotically
idleness idler idle idle idly
idolatry idol, idolise idolatrous

idolater
ignorance ignoramus ignore ignorant ignorantly
illusionism illusion, illusory,
illusionist illusive,
illusionary
illustration, illustrate (un)illustrativ (un)illustrative
illustrator e, ly
(un)illustriou
s
imagination, image imagine (un)imaginati (un)imaginabl
imagery ve, y,
(un)imaginab (un)imaginativ
le, imaginary ely,
imaginarily
imitation imitator imitate imitative
immunity, immunis immune

immunisatio e
n
73
noun noun
impediment impede
,
impediment
a
impulsion, impulse impel impulsive impulsively
impulsivenes
s
improvemen improver improve (un)improvab
t, le,
improvabilit (un)improved
y
inauguration inaugurator inaugura inaugural
te
inferiority inferior inferior
influence influencer, influenc influential influentially
influential e
information informant inform (un)informati (un)informativ
ve ely
inhalation inhaler, inhale inhalant
inhalant
inheritance inheritance, inherit inheritable
inheritor
initiation, initiator, initiate initial, initially
initiative initiative (un)initiated
injury injury injure injurious,
(un)injured
inquisition inquiry inquire inquisitive,
(enquiry), inquisitorial
inquisitor
insription inscribe
insertion insertion insert
insistence insist insistent insistently
inspection, inspector inspect inspectorial

inspectiorshi
74
p,
inspectorate
installation installation, install
installer
instantaneity instant instant, instantly,
instantaneous instantaneousl
y
instruction instruction, instruct instructive,
instructor instructional,
(un)instructed
instrumentati instrument, instrumental
on, instrumenta
instrumentali list
ty
insulation insulator, insulate (un)insulated,
insulant insular
intensity intensifier intensify intense, intensively
intensive
interference interfere interfering
interrogation interrogator interrog interrogatory,

ate interrogative
interpretatio interpreter interpret (un)interpreta interpretively
n, ble,
interpretabili interpretive
ty
intervention intervenor, interven interventional
interventio e ,
nist interventionis
t
intimacy intimate intimate intimately
intrigue intrigue, intrigue (un)intriguing (un)intriguingl
intrigant y
introduction introductio introduc introductory
n, intro e
intrusion intruder intrude intrusive intrusively
invasion invader invade invasive invasively

75
noun noun
invention, inventor, invent (un)inventive (un)inventivel
inventivenes invention y
s
investment, investment, invest investible
investiture investor
irritation, irritant irritate irritable,
irritancy irritant,
irritating,
irritated
76
Jj
noun noun
jest jester jesting jestingly
jewellery jewel, jewelled

jeweller
joinder joint join joint jointly
joke, joker, joke jocular, jokingly
jokester, jokey,
jokesmith joking
journalism journal, journalise journalistic journalistically
journalist,
journalese
joy, joy, enjoy enjoyable, joyously
enjoyment enjoyer, joyous
enjoyment
judgement, judge, judge judicial, judgingly,
judicature, judgement judgemental judgementally
judiciary,
judgeship
77
Kk
noun noun
(un)kindness (un)kind, (un)kindly
kindly
kingdom king, kingly, kingless
kingdom
knowledge, know knowledgeable, (un)knowingly
knowing (un)knowing,
(un)known,
knowable,
unbeknownst
78
Ll
noun noun
lament, lament lament lamentable
lamentation
landing landing, land land,
landscape, landless,
landowner, andlocked
landmark
enlargement enlargement enlarge large largely
lateness late, belated late, lately,

belatedly
laughter laugh, laugher laugh laughable laughably
law law, lawyer, legalise (un)lawful, (un)lawfully,
lawmaker, lawless lawlessly
lawsuit,
lawbreaker
leadership lead, leader lead, leading
mislead
leakage leak leak leaky,

leaking
lean, leaning lean
learning learner (un)lear (un)learned
n
legalisation, legalese, legalise (il)legal, (il)legally
(il)legality, legalist legalistic
legalism
(il)legibility (il)legible (il)legibly
(il)legitimacy legitimis (il)legitimat (il)legitimatel
e e y
lessen less
liability liability liable
liar lie
enlightenmen light, (the) lighten, light lightly
t, lightness Enlightenmen enlighte
t, lighter, n
79
lightning,
lightener
likelihood, likely, alike alike
likeness
limitation limit, limiter, limit limitless,
limitation (un)limited,
limiting
linearisation line, lineage, line linear
lining
liquid, liquify liquid
liquidity
liquidation liquidator liquidate
(il)literacy (il)literate (il)literate
belittle little,
belittling
living, life live, lively, lively,
livelihood, liven, alive, lifelessly
lifelessness enliven livable,
lifeless
localisation, local, locale, localise, local locally
location location, locate
locator,
locality
lock, locker lock
lodgement lodge, lodge

lodging,
lodger
logic logician (il)logical logically
loneliness loner lone, alone, lonely, alone
lonely,
lonesome
elongation, length, lengthen long, longitudinall
prolongation longitude , lengthy, y
elongate, longitudinal
prolong
80
loosen loose
loss, loss- loser, loss- lose lost, losing,

making maker lossless
(dis)loyalty, loyalist (dis)loyal (dis)loyally
loyalism
lunacy lunatic lunatic
81
Mm
noun noun
madness madman mad mad, madding madly
magic magician magic magic, magically

magical
magnetism magnet magnetise magnetic magneticall
y
maintenance maintainer maintain (un)maintaine
d
man manly, manfully
manful
marking (re)mark, (re)mark remarkable, remarkably
marker (un)marked
mass massif mass mass, massive massively
mastery, master, master masterful, masterfully
masterpie masterly
ce
material, materialist materialis materialistic materially
materialism, e
materialisatio
n, materiality
maturity, mature (im)mature (im)maturel
maturation y
meanness mean meanly
meaningfulnes meaning mean meaningful,

s meaningless
medal, medal medallic
medallist,
medallion
melody melody, melodise melodious, melodiously
melodist melodic ,
melodically
82
noun noun
membership, member, dismembe dismembered
dismemberme membersh r
nt ip
remembrance memory, memorise, memorable, memorably
memorial, remember immemorial
memorabi ,
lia memoriali
se
mercy mercy merciless, mercilessly,
merciful mercifully
mercy merciful, mercifully,
merciless mercilessly
merger, merge
merge
merit, merit, merit meritorious, meritoriousl
meritocracy meritocrat meritless, y
meritocratic
metallurgy metal metallise metallic,
metallurgical
meteoritics, meteor, meteoric,
meteoromanc meteoroid meteorous
y ,
meteorite,
meteoritic
ist
methodology method, methodical, methodicall
Methodist methodologic y
al
metreage metre, metricate metric,
metronom metrical
e
might, mighty,
mightiness almighty
mileage mile, miles
milestone
million, millionfold millionfold
millionair
83
e,
millionair
ess
mime, mimic mimic, mimic,
mimicry, mime mimetic
mimesis
minimalism minimum, minimise minimum, minimally
minimalist minimal
miraculousnes miracle miraculous miraculous
s
mischief mischievous mischievous
ly
mission, missionary
missionar
y,
missioner
mistake mistake mistaken, mistakenly,
(un)mistakabl (un)mistaka
e bly
mixer, mix (un)mixed,
mixture miscible
mobilisation, (im)mobil mobile,
mobility ise (im)mobilised
mockery mocker mock mocking mockingly
modesty (im)modest (im)modestl
y
moisture moisturise moisten, moist
r moisturise
moment momentary momentaril
y
momentousne momentu momentous momentousl

ss m y
money, monetise monetary
monetisation
monstrocity monster, monstrous monstrously
monstrocit
y
84
noun noun
month monthly
mood moody
moral, (im)moral moralise (im)moral, (im)morally
(a)/(im)morali ist amoral,
ty, moralistic
(im)moralism
(im)mortality mortal immortali (im)mortal (im)mortall
se y
motherhood, mother mother motherly,
mothering motherless
mountain (sur)moun mountainous,
t mountainy,
(in)surmounta
ble
mourning mourner mourn mournful
mouth, mouth mouthy
mouthful
moving move, move (im)movable
mover,
movement
movement movement (re)move (im)movable,
, mover removable
multiplication, multiply multiple

multiplicity
muscle, muscular,
musclema muscled,
n muscleless
music, musician, musicalise musical musically
musicality musical
(de)mystificati mystery, (de)mystif mysterious, mysteriousl
on, mystic y mystical y,
mysteriousnes mystically
s, mysticism,
mystique
85
Nn
noun noun
nationalism, nation, nationalis(inter)natio (inter)nation
nationality, nationality, e nal, ally
nationalisatio nationalist nationalisti
n c
navigation navigator navigate navigationa
l
negotiation negotiator negotiate negotiable
neighbourhoo neighbour, neighbour neighbourin
d neighbourh g
ood
neutrality, neutralise neutral neutrally
neutralisation
renewal renewal, renew new, newly
novelty renewable
nightmare nightmarish nightmarishl
y
nobility, nobility, ennoble noble
noblesse nobleman,
noblewoma
n
noise noisy, noisily,
noiseless noiselessly
nomad nomadic
nomination nomination, nominate nominated
nominee
norm, norm normalise (ab)normal (ab)normally
(ab)normality,
normalisation
noteworthines note, note notable, notably
s notables noteworthy
notoriety notorious notoriously
86
noun noun
(mal)nourish nourish malnourish
ment ed,
nourishing
novelty novel, novelise novel,
novella, novelistic
novelist
(in)numeracy, number, (out)numb numerous, numerically
enumeration, numeral, er, numeral,
numerology innumerate, numerate, innumerabl
enumerator enumerate e,
numberless,
innumerate
nurse, nurse
nursery
nutrition, nutriment, nutrify nutritious, nutritiously
nutriment nutritionist nutritive,
nutritional
87
Oo
noun noun
(dis)obedienc obeisance, (dis)obey (dis)obedient, (dis)obedient
e, obeisance obeyer obeisant ly
objectivity, objectivist objectify objective objectively
objectivism
objection, objection object (un)objectiona objectionabl
objectionabili ble y
ty
oblivion oblivious
obscurity, obscurity, obscure obscure, obscurely

obscuration, obscurant, obscurant,
obscurantism obscuranti obscurantist
st
observation, observatio observe (un)observant, observantly
observance, n, (un)observable
observeship observer, , observational
observator
y
obstinacy obstinate obstinately
obstruction, obstructor obstruct obstructive obstructively

obstructivene
ss
(de)occupatio occupation (de)occu (un)occupied, occupational
n, occupancy , occupant py occupational ly
occurence occurence occur occurrent
oceanology, ocean, oceanic, oceanward
oceanograph Oceania, Oceanian,
y Oceanian, oceanological,
oceanologi oceanographic
st
oddity odds odd, oddish oddly
odour odourless
88
noun noun
offense, offender offend (in)offensive, (in)offensive
offensiveness (un)offending ly
omen ominous ominously
operation operator, operate (in)operative,
operation (in)operable,
operational
oppression oppressor oppress oppressive, oppressively
oppressed
optics optician optic, optical optically
(pre)ordinati (pre)orda (pre)ordained
on, in
ordainment
organism organ, (in)organic organically
organism,
organelle
origin, origin, originate (un)original originally
(un)originalit originator
y,
ostentation ostentatious ostentatiousl
y
ownership, owner, (dis)own disowned
disownment ownsome
(pronoun)
89
Pp
noun noun
package pack, pack (un)packed
package
parenthood, parent parent parental,
parentage parentlesss
passage pass, pass (im)passabl passably

passage, e
password,
passcode,
passport
point, point pointless pointlessly
pointer
pollution pollutant, pollute (non)polluti
polluter ng,
(un)polluted
exposure, position, (ex)pose, (un)exposed
positioning posture position , positional
power, power power, powerful, powerfully
empowerme empower powerless,
nt empowering
,
empowered
precision precis (im)precise precisely
principality prince, (un)princely

princess,
principality
pursuit pursuer pursue pursuable
performanc perform (un)preform

e, performer ed,
(un)perform
able
90
noun noun
pressure, press, (sup)press pressing
pressing, suppressor,
suppression suppressant
pathos pathetic pathetically

piece piece apiece
appraisal praise praise, praiseful
appraise
postage post postal
procedure proceedings proceed procedural procedurally
, proceeds,
procedure
patronising patron patronise patronising patronisingly
practicality practice, practise practising, practically
practician, (im)practica
practitioner l
postponeme postpone
nt
profundity profound profoundly
perception, perceiver perceive (im)percepti perceptibly,
percipience ve, (im)perceptiv
(im)percepti ely
ble,
perceptual
pride proud proudly
prescription prescribe prescriptive,
(un)prescrib
ed
(re)presentat present, (re)present representati presently
ion, presenter, ve,
presence, presentation representati
presentabilit , onal,
y representati (un)presenta
ve ble
permeation permeate (im)permea
ble
91
noun noun
preservation preservative preserve preserved,
, preservative
preservatio
nist,
preserver
presidency president preside presidential
(dis)passion (dis)passion (dis)passiona
ate, tely
passionless
proof, proof, prove proven,
(un)provabili proofreader (un)provabl
ty e, proofless
presumption presumptio presume presumptuo presumedly,
n us presumably
(re)payment, (re)payment (re)pay (re)payable
payback , payback,
payer,
payable
prevalence prevail prevalent, prevalently,
prevailing prevailingly
passivity, passivate, (im)passive (im)passively
passivation pacify
pertinence pertain (im)pertinen (im)pertinent
t ly
prevention preventativ prevent (un)prevent preventively
e, preventer able,
preventative
(re)placemen place, (re)place (ir)replacea
t (re)placeme ble
nt
price, pricing price priceless,
pricey
(im)patience (im)patient (im)patiently
pavement paver, pave paved
pavement
paternity pater paternal
92
noun noun
perpetuity, perpetuate perpetual perpetually
perpetuation
privacy, private, privatise private privately
privatisation privateer
peace pacifier, pacify peaceable, peacefully
pacifist, peaceful
peacekeeper
problematisa problem problemati problematic problematical
tion se ly
(im)propriet (im)proper, proper,
y, (in)appropri (im)properly,
appropriacy ate (in)appropria
tely
property, property, appropriat proprietary
proprietorshi
proprietor, e
p, proprietress
appropriatio,
n appropriato
r
pharmacy, pharmacy, pharmaceuti
pharmacolog pharmacist, cal,
y pharmaceut pharmacolo
ical gical
pearling pearl pearl pearly,
pearled,
pearlescent
proclamation proclamatio proclaim self-
n proclaimed,
proclamator
y
pedantry pendant pedantic pedantically
peasantry peasant
peculiarity peculiarity peculiar peculiarly
profitability profit, profit, (un)profitab profitably
profiteer profiteer le, profitless
93
noun noun
prohibition prohibitor, prohibit prohibitive, prohibitively
Prohibitioni prohibited,
st prohibitory
penalisation penalty penalise penal
physics, physicist, physicalise physical physically
physicality physician
perplexity perplexity perplex perplexing, perplexingly
perplexed
perseverance persevere perseverant
penetration penetrator penetrate penetrative,
penetrating
prosecution prosecutor prosecute prosecutoria
l
penny penniless
prospect prospect, prospect prospective prospectively
prospectus
pity, pity pity pitiful, pitifully,
pityfulness pitying, pitiably
pitiable,
pitiless
persistence persist persistent persistently
pension, pension pensionable
pensioner
(dis)pleasure pleasure, (dis)please pleasurable, (un)pleasantl
, pleasantry , pleasure pleasing, y
unpleasantne (un)pleasant
ss
proverb, proverbial
proverbial
providence provider provide providential providently
, provident
impersonatio person, impersonat (im)persona personally
n, people, e, l,
personalisati personnel, personify, personable
on, personality, personalise
personificati personage,
94
on, impersonat
personality, or
persona
provocation provocateur provoke provocative, provokingly,
provoking provocatively
peril peril perilous perilously
(im)prudenc prude (im)prudent (im)prudentl
e, prudery , prudish, y, prudishly
prudential
(im)partialit (im)partial impartially
y
publicity, public, publicise public, publicly
publication publicist (un)publicis
ed
persuasion persuader persuade (un)persuasi persuasively
ve
premonition premonish premonitory
pulsation pulse, pulsate pulsating
pulsator,
pulsar
punishment, punisher punish punishable,
impunity punitive,
(un)unpunis
hed
periodisation period periodise periodic periodically
perjury perjure perjurious
perturbation perturbation perturb (im)perturb perturbingly
able,
perturbative
,
(un)perturbe
d
(im)plausibil plaudits applaud (im)plausibl (im)plausible
ity, applause e,
applaudable
pleading plea plead pleading pleadingly
95
noun noun
picture, picture, picturesque, pictorially
pictograph picturise pictorial
pilgrimage pilgrim pilgrimage
plant, plant plantless
plantation,
planter,
plantsman,
plantswoma
n
(re)playabilit play, player (re)play playful,
y (un)playabl
e,
replayable,
playing
portrayal portrait, portray portrait
portraitist
possession possession, possess possessed, possessively
possessor possessive,
possessionle
ss
preparation preparative, prepare preparatory,
preparer preparative,
(un)prepare
d
pottery pot, potter, pot
pottery
precedence precedent precede precedent,
preceding,
unprecedent
ed
pain pain pain painful, painfully,
painless painlessly
plenty, plenitude plentiful,
plenitude plenteous
prediction, prediction, predict (un)predicta (un)predictab
(un)predicta predictor ble, ly
bility
96
(un)predicte
d, predictive
parachuting parachute, parachutin
parachutist g
prestige prestigious prestigiously
palace palatial
paralysation paralysis, paralyse paralytic,
paralytic paralysing
pregnancy, pregnancy impregnate pregnant,
impregnatio (im)pregnab
n le
paranoia paranoid, paranoid, paranoiacally
paranoiac paranoiac
pardon pardon pardon pardonable
parenthesis parenthetica
l
part, partner partner part partially
partnership
plumage plume plume plumose,
plumed,
plumy,
plumaged
partition, part, part, (multi)partit
partitioning partitionist partition e,
partitionist
psychology psycho, psychologi psychologic psychologica
psychologis se al, lly
t, (anti)psycho
(anti)psych tic
otic
participation participant participate participator
y
percentage percent percent
(im)perfectio perfectionis perfect (im)perfect (im)perfectly
n, t
perfectionis
m
planet planetary
97
noun noun
(de)populati populace, (de)popula (un)popular, popularly
on, population, te, (un)populat
popularity, popularise ed,
popularisatio overpopulat
n ed,
populous
pretence, pretender pretend (un)pretenti (un)pretentio
pretension, ous usly
pretentiousn
ess
primacy, prime, prime prime, primarily,
primitivenes primer primary, primitively
s primal
(re)productio (re)producti (re)produc (re)producti productively
n, on, e ve
productivity producer,
product
prosperity prosper prosperous prosperously
professionali profession, profession (un)professi (un)professio
sm (un)professi alise onal nally
onal
98
Qq
noun noun
quarrel, quarrel quarrelsome,
quarreller quarrelling
questionin question, questio (un)questionabl (un)questionabl
g questioner, n e, questioning y
questionnair
e
99
Rr
noun noun
racism race, racialise (inter)racial racially
racist , racist,
recialised
radio, radio, radiate radiant, radiantly
radiation, radiologis (non)radioa
radiology t, ctive,
radiosond radiative
e, radiant
rage, rage, rage, raging,
outrage, outrage, enrage, outraged,
enragement rager outrage outraging,
enraged
rapidity rapid rapid rapidly
rapture enraptur rapt, enrapt,
e rapturous
raven raven ravening,
ravenous
reactivity reaction, react reactionary, reactively
reactor, (un)reactive
reactionar
y
reading, reader read (un)readabl
readership e
readiness ready (un)ready readily
realisation, realist realise (un)real, (un)really,(un)real
reality, (un)realistic istically
realism,
realness
rear rear, rearwards
rearmost
reason reasonable
rebellion rebel, rebel rebellious rebelliously
rebellion
receipt, receptioni receive recipient,
reception st, receptive,
100
recipient, (un)receiva
receptacl ble
e
recital, recital, recite
recitation recitative
recognition recognis (un)recogni (un)recognisably
e sable
reconciliatio reconcile reconcilable
n ,
reconciliato
ry
recovery recovery recover (un)recover
able,
(un)recover
ed
recuperation recuperat recuperativ
e e
recurrence recur recurrent, recurringly
recursive
redness, redden red, reddish
reddishness
redemption Redeeme redeem redemptive, irredeemably
r (ir)redeema
ble
reduction reduction reduce reductive,
ist reducible,
reductionist
redundancy redundan redundant
cy
reference, reference, refer, referential
referral, referee, reference
refereeing referral
refinement refinery refine (un)refined
reflection, reflector reflect (un)reflecti reflectively
reflectance, ve,
reflectivity (un)reflecti
ng
101
noun noun
refreshment refreshme refresh refreshing refreshingly
nt,
refresher
refuge refugee
refusal, refuse
refusenik
regard regard unregarded regardless
rehearsal rehearse
relation, relation, relate relative, relatively
relativity, relative (un)related,
relationship (un)relatabl
e
relaxation relaxer, relax (un)relaxed,
relaxant (un)relaxin
g
(ir)relevanc irrelevanc (ir)relevant (ir)relevantly
e e
relief relieve (un)relieved
reliance reliable rely (un)reliable unreliably

, reliant
remainde remain remnant,
r, remaining
remnant,
remains
remittance, remit, remit remittable,
remittal remittal remittent,
unremitting
remuneratio remuner remunerativ
n ate e
renunciation renunciati renounce renunciant,
on, , renounceabl
renounce renunciat e
ment e
renting rental, rent rental,
renter rentable
102
noun noun
repairability repairma repair (un)repaira
n ble
repetition repeat repetitive repetitively
reproach reproach reproachful, reproachfully
(ir)reproach
able
requirement, requirem require, requisite,
requisition ent, requisiti required
requisitio on
n
resemblance resembler resemble resembling
residency residence, reside residential,
resident residual,
residuary
resignation resign resigned resignedly
resistance, resistor resist (ir)resistible irresistibly
(ir)resistibili , resistant
ty
resourcefuln resource resource resourceful,
ess, resourceless
resourceless
ness
respect, respect, respect respectable, (dis)respectfully,
respectabilit respecter respected, respectively
y (dis)respect
ful
respiration respirator respire respiratory,
(ir)respirabl
e
respondence response, respond (un)respons
responde ive
nt,
responder
(ir)responsi responsib (ir)responsi (ir)responsibly
bility ility ble
103
noun noun
rest rest rest restless, restlessly
restful
restoration, restorer, restore restorative,
restorationisrestoratio restorationi
m nist st
restriction restrictio restrict restrictive, restrictively,
n, (un)restricte (un)restrictedly
restrictio d
nist
resumption resume
resurrection resurrect
retention retainer retain (ir)retentive
,
(un)retainab
le
retirement retiree retire retired
return, return (un)returna

reternee ble
revelation revelation reveal revelatory, (un)revealingly
(un)revealin
g,
revelational
reversion reverse, reverse reverse, (ir)reversibly
reversal reversal,
(ir)reversibl
e
revival, revivalist revive,
revivalism revivify
revolution revolutio revolve, revolutionar
n, revolutio y
revolutio nise
nary,
revolver
reward reward (un)rewardi
ng
104
noun noun
richness, riches enrich rich richly
enrichment
ridicule ridicule ridicule ridiculous ridiculously
(un)righteou right righten right, (un)rightfully

sness (un)rightful
,
(un)righteo
us
riskiness risk risk risky, riskily
riskless
rivalry rival rival rivalrous,
unrivalled
room, room roomy
roomful,
roommat
e
rosiness rose, rose rosy rosily
rosette
rottenness rot rotten
roughness roughhou roughen, rough roughly
se roughho
use
rudiment rudimentary
, rudimental
ruling rule, ruler rule unruly
running runner, (out)run runny

forerunne
r
rust rust rusty, rustily
rusting,
rustproof
105
Ss
noun noun
scenery, scene, scenic, scenically
scenography scenario, scenographi
scenarist, c
scenograph
er
seasoning season (un)seasone
d
socialisation, society, socialise (un)social, socially,
socialism, socialite, antisocial, (un)sociably
sociology sociologist, (un)sociable
socialist ,
(un)socialise
d, socialistic
speed speedy
stretching stretchers stretch stretchy
strength strengthen strong strongly

(in)sufficien suffice (in)sufficien (in)sufficientl
cy t y
(re)assuranc (re)assuran (re)assure, sure, surely,
e, sureness ce, surety ensure (re)assuring (re)assuringly
suspicion suspect, suspect (un)suspicio (un)suspiciou
suspicion us sly
stardom star star

competition, competitio compete (un)competit (un)competiti
competitiven n, ive vely
ess competitor
spectacle, spectacular spectacularly
spectator
standardisin standard
g
starvation starveling starve starveling
106
noun noun
(in)sanity (in)sane (in)sanely
solving solution solve (un)solvable
shame, shame, shame ashamed, shamefully,

shamelessne shamer shameful, shamelessly
ss, shameless,
hamefulness shamefaced
(con)seque sequence (con)sequent consequently

nce ial,
consecutive
(un)suitabilit suit, suitor suit (un)suitable (un)suitably
y
shacke shake shaky
submergence submersibl submerse, submersible
e submerge
suddenness (un)sudden suddenly
summation, summary sum, summary summarily
summarisati summarise
on
sweetness sweeter, sweeten (un)sweet, sweetly
sweetie (un)sweeten
ed
sustainabilit sustenance sustain (un)sustaina sustainably
y ble
solitude solo, solo sole, solo, solely
soloist, solitary
soliloquy
stiffness stiffener stiffen stiff stiffly
sobriety, sober sober, soberingly
soberness sobering
specialisatio specialty, specialise (un)special specially,
n specialist especially
sameness same
savagery savage savage savagely
107
noun noun
seclusion seclude secluded,
seclusive
secrecy secret (un)secret, secretly
secretive
schooling school school
swelling swell swollen
seemliness seem seeming, seemingly
seemly
seizure seize
sentimentalit sentiment, sentimenta sentimental, sentimentally
y, presentime lise sentimentali
sentimentalis nt, stic,
m sentimenta presentient
list
sense, (non)sense, sense, sensory, (in)sensitivel
sensation, sensor, sensitise (in)sensible, y,
sensibility, sentiment, senseless, sentimentally
(in)sensitivit sentimenta (in)sensitive
y, list , sensate,
sentimentalis sensual,
m nonsensical
suicide suicidal
sequence sequence sequence sequential sequentially
sewerage sewer
summer, summery
summertim
e
supposition suppositio suppose supposed, supposedly
n suppositious
supremacy supremacis supreme supremely
t, supremo
summons summon
(in)stability, stabiliser stabilise (un)stable (un)stably
stabilisation
surgery surgeon, surgical surgically
surgery
108
noun noun
silk silken, silky
survival, survival, survive survival,
sirvivorship, survivor (un)survivab
survivability le
significance, significatio signify (in)significa (in)significant
signification n nt ly
skeleton skeletal
swampland swamp swamp swampy
suspension, suspend suspended,
suspense suspenseful,
suspensive,
suspensory
slacktivism slack, slacken slack, slackly
slacktivist slackened
slant slant slanting slantwise
symbolism symbole, symbolise symbolic, symbolically
symbolist symbolist
synonymy synonym synonymous synonymousl
y
sympathy sympathise sympathise sympathetic sympathetical
r ly
slippage slipper slip slippery,
slipping
sloppiness slop sloppy sloppily
safety safe, save (un)safe, safely
saving, (un)saved
saviour
sadism sadist sadistic sadistically
salutation salute salutary
sand, sand sandy,
sander, sandlike
sandglass
snobbery snob snobbish, snobbishly
snobby
satire satire, satirise satirical satirically
satirist
109
noun noun
(dis)satisfact (dis)satisfy (un)satisfact satisfyingly
ion, satiety , sate, ory,
satiate (dis)satisfied
, (in)satiable
scarcity scarce scarcely
skepticism skeptic skeptic, skeptically
skeptical
scholarship, school, school scholarly,
schooling scholar scholastic
Scientology science, scientific scientifically
scientist,
Scientologi
st
sculpture sculpture, sculpt sculptural,
sculptor sculptured
scorn scorner scorn scornful scornfully
scrutiny scrutineer scrutinise inscrutable
seasonabilty season (un)seasonal seasonally
settlement setting, set, settle unsettling
settlement,
settler
subsidisation subsidy, subsidise (un)subsidis
subsidiary ed,
subsidiary
severity severe severely
sharpness sharpener sharpen sharp, sharply
sharpish
spark, spark, sparkling
spark sparkle
status, state status stately
shortness shortage shorten short short, shortly
sickness sickness sicken sick, sickly,
sickening
shrinkage shrink shrinking
signature, signature, sign (un)signed
signing signee,
110
signer,
signatory
storage store store stored
silence, silencer silence silent, silently
silencing silenced
stuff, stuffing stuff stuffed,
stuffing stuffy
slang slangy
(in)sight, (in)sight, see, sight, (un)seen,
sighting sightseer sightsee insightful,
sightless,
sighted,
sightly
stun, stun stunned, stunningly
stunner stunning
slavery slave, enslave enslaved
slaver,
enslaver
solicitude, solicitor solicit solicitous,
solicitation unsolicited
space, space space spacial, spatially
spacing spacious
spice spice (un)spiced,
spicy
speech, speech, speak speechless, unspeakably,
speaking speaker unspeakable speechlessly
,
(un)spoken,
speaking
subscription subscriber subscribe (un)subscrib
ed
subjectivity subject subjective subjectively
estrangemen stranger estrange strange, strangely
t, estranged
strangeness
stature stand stand standing
specification specificati specify (non)specifi specifically
, specialism on, c
111
specifics,
specialism
spirit, (un)spiritual spiritually,
spirituality , spiritlessly
(high)sprited
, spiritless
spontaneity, spontaneous spontaneousl
spontaneous y
ness
statistic(s), statistical statistically
statistician
substance, substance substantiat (in)substanti (in)substantia
substantiatio e al, lly,
n substantive substantively
success successor succeed (un)successf (un)successfu
ul lly
superiority superior superiorly
112
Tt
noun noun
tact (un)tactful, tactfully,
tactless tactlessly
taste, taste, taste tasty,
tastiness taster, tasteful,
tastebud tasteless
telegraphy telegram, telegraph telegraphic telegraphica
telegraphis lly
t,
telegrapher
telepathy telepathise telepathic telepathicall
y
tempest tempestuous tempestuous
ly
temptation Tempter tempt tempting, temptingly
temptatious
terminology term, term terminologi terminologi
terminolog cal, termless cally
ist
terror, terrorist terrify, terrifying, terrifyingly,
terrorism terrorise terrified, terrifically
terrific,
terroristic
thanksgiving, thanks thank (un)thankful (un)thankful
thankfulness , thankless ly
theatrics, theatre theatricalise theatrical theatrically
theatricals,
theatricality
therapy, therapist therapise therapeutic therapeutica
therapeutics lly
thickening, thickener, thicken thick,
thickness thicket, thickset
thickness
forethought thought think unthinkable, thoughtfully
thoughtless, ,
thoughtful unthinkably
113
noun noun
threat threaten (un)threaten
ing,
(un)threaten
ed
ticklishness tickle, tickle ticklish
tickler
tide tidal
tidiness tidy tidy tidily
tightness tights tighten (un)tight (un)tightly
time, timing timer, time timeless, timelessly,

timepiece (un)timely untimely
tiredness tire tired, tiring, tirelessly
tiresome,
tireless
tobacco tobacco,
tobacconist
(in)tolerance, tolerate (in)tolerable (in)tolerably
toleration
tonnage ton
touch touch, touch touching, touchingly
toucher, touchy,
touchline (un)touched
toughness toughener toughen tough toughly
tradition, tradition, (un)traditio traditionally

traditionalis traditionali nal
m st
traffic, trafficker traffic
trafficking
trail, trailer trail
transaction transact transactiona
l
114
noun noun
transcendenc transcend, transcenden
e, transcendent t,
transcendenta alise transcenden
lism tal
transcription transcript, transcribe transcriptio
transcriptio nal
n,
transcriber
transmission transmissio transmit transmissive
n,
transmitter
(non)transpar (non)transp transparentl
ency arent y
transport, transporter transport transportabl
transportatio e
n
treachery traitor treacherous, treacherousl
traitorous y
treason treasonable,
treasonous
treasure, treasurer treasure treasured,
treasury treasurable
treatment treat, treat (un)treatabl
treatise, e
treaty
trespassing trespasser trespass
triumph, triumphalis triumphant, triumphantl

triumphalism t triumphal y
trouble trouble, trouble troublesome
troublesho , troubling
oter,
troublemak
er
truancy truant truant
115
noun noun
truth (un)true, truly,
(un)truthful, (un)thruthfu
truthless lly
trumpet, trumpet
trumpeter
(dis)trust, trust, (dis)trust, (un)trustwor trustingly
trustworthine trustee entrust thy,
ss, (dis)trustful,
entrustment trusting,
trusted
tumult tumult tumultuous tumultuousl
y
typing typist type
tyranny tyrant tyrannise tyrannical tyrannically
116
Uu
Abstract Concre Verb Adjective Adverb
noun te noun
misunderstand (mis)underst understanda understanda
ing and ble, bly
misundersto
od
(mis)usage, user (mis)use (un)usable, usefully,
disuse, (un)used, uselessly,
usability useful, (un)usually
useless,
(un)usual
117
Vv
noun noun
variety, variant vary various, invariably
variability (in)variable,
varied
vegetation vegetable, vegetate vegetative,
veg, vegan,
vegetarian vegetarian
(un)veiling veil (un)veil (un)veiled
vengeance, avenger avenge, (re)vengeful (re)vengefully
revenge revenge
vibrance vibration, vibrate vibrant,
(vibrancy), vibrator, vibratory
vibration vibrissa
victory victorious victoriously
vigour invigorate vigorous vigorously
virus viral
vision vision visualise, visionary

envision
vivacity vivacious, vivaciously,
vivace vivace
voluntarism volunteer, volunteer (in)voluntary, (in)voluntarily
voluntarist voluntaristic
118
Ww
noun noun
warfare war, war warring,
warrior, warlike
warlord
wariness, beware wary, unawares
(un)awareness (un)aware
warmth warmer warm warm warmly
warning warning warn (un)warned warningly

wastage waste waste wasted, wastefully
wasting,
wasteful,
wasteless
water waterfall, water watery,
waterline waterproof,
waterless
weaponry weapon weaponis
e
weariness weary weary,
wearisome,
wearying
weight, weigh weighty, weightily,
weightlessness weightless weightlessly
weirdness weirdo weird weird weirdly
welcome welcome (un)welcome,
(un)welcomin
g
width widen wide widely
widow, widow widowed
widower
wilderness, bewilder wild, wildly
wilding, bewildering
bewilderment
will, will will (un)willing, (un)willingl
(un)willingnes willful y
s
119
noun noun
wiring, wire, wire wireless, wirelessly
wiretap wiretap, wired
wiretapper
wisdome wiseacre (un)wise (un)wisely
withdrawal withdraw withdrawn

wizardry wizard wizard wizardly
work, work (un)workable,

workshop, workless,
workflow
worshippe worship worshipful
r
worth, worth, worthlessly,
(un)worthines (un)worthy, (un)worthily
s worthless,
worthwhile
wretchedness wretch wretched wretchedly
wrong wrongly
120
Xx
noun noun
xenophobia xenophobe xenophobic
121
Yy
noun noun
year yearly yearly
youth youth, young
youngster
122
Zz
noun noun
zeal zealot zealous zealously
123
A Handbook on Word Formation in
English
Language is a multifaceted entity that plays a pivotal role in the way people
communicate. The English language, in particular, has evolved to become a dominant
means of communication, shaping the global cultural landscape. Yet, despite its ubiquity
in the modern world, the very existence of words is usually taken for granted by some
speakers.
At the heart of language lies morphology, an abstract and complex field that examines
how words are formed by means of combining morphemes.
Word formation is a fascinating area of study that provides a window into the inner
workings of the language. It enables learners, among other things, to recognise and
comprehend the meaning of unfamiliar words, providing them with a more nuanced
and profound understanding of the language intricacies. Additionally, by studying the
subject, learners can create new words and expressions which would help to convey
thoughts and ideas more accurately.
Through this handbook, learners and teachers can delve into the realm of word-
formation, gaining a deeper understanding of the structure of words and the way they
can be derived from one another.
The book covers the basics of derivational morphology and presents a compendious
study of morphemes. In addition to that, readers will find a comprehensive dictionary
designed to help with finding derivatives.
In essence, the exploration of word-formation is an exercise in expanding the limits
of human expression, enriching vocabulary, and gaining a deeper understanding of the
world around us. This handbook aims to offer learners and teachers a valuable resource
to enhance their language skills and explore the abstract world of language.
124

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In essence, the exploration of word-formation is an exercise in

(dis)ability, (dis)ability, enable, (un)able,

agreement agreement (dis)agre (dis)agreeable

ailment ail ailing

alarmism alarm, alarm (un)alarmed, alarmingly

alliance ally, ally allied

amusement amusement amuse amusing, amusingly

angulation angle angulate angular

animation animateur, animate (in)animate,

assistance, assistant assist assistive,

aversion aversion averse, aversive

avoidance avoid (un)avoidable (un)avoidabl

bitterness bitter embitter bitter, bitterly

breadth broaden broad broadly

changement, changeme (ex)change (un)changeabl

(en)closure closer (en)close close, closing, close

(dis)comfort, comfort (un)comfortab (un)comforta

conception, concept conceive, (in)conceivabl

continuation, continuat continue continuous, continuously

culture culturist culture culture, culturally

deduction deduct (non)deduct

defect defective defectively

defence defender, defend (in)defensib

delicacy delicacy, (in)delicate (in)delicatel

derision deride derisive, derisively,

digit digital digitally

distribution distributor distribute distributive,

dizziness dizzy dizzy,

(pre)domina dominion, (pre)domina (pre)domina predominant

duty (un)dutiful, (un)dutifull

endurance endure (un)endurab

entrance entry, enter

exhibition, exhibit, exhibit exhibitive,

explanation explanation, explain (un)explain (un)explaina

expression, expression, express (un)expressi expressively

fever fever feverish feverishly

disfigurement figure, (dis)figure figurative figuratively

flora, flora, floral, florid, floridly

flying fly, flight, fly flightless,

guardianship guard, guard guarded

headage, head, head, head,

hesitation, hesitater hesitate (un)hesitant hesitantly

idealism, idealist, idealise ideal, ideally

idleness idler idle idle idly

idolatry idol, idolise idolatrous

immunity, immunis immune

insistence insist insistent insistently

inspection, inspector inspect inspectorial

interrogation interrogator interrog interrogatory,

intrusion intruder intrude intrusive intrusively

invasion invader invade invasive invasively

jewellery jewel, jewelled

lateness late, belated late, lately,

leakage leak leak leaky,

(il)literacy (il)literate (il)literate

lodgement lodge, lodge

loss, loss- loser, loss- lose lost, losing,

magic magician magic magic, magically

meaningfulnes meaning mean meaningful,

momentousne momentu momentous momentousl

multiplication, multiply multiple

notoriety notorious notoriously