Transducers

(EEEN202)

Eng. I.A. Shehu

(Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K Zarewa)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Ahmadu Bello University,Zaria (A.B.U)

September 2, 2019
Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K Zarewa)
Transducers
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(EEEN202)
of Electrical Engineering
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2019
University,Zaria
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 Transducers

Transducer is defined as a device, which converts energy or information

from one form to another. The transducer may be mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, optical, chemical, acoustic, thermal nuclear, or a combination of
any two or more of these.

Figure: Example;Transducers System

Transducer Classification
content...
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 Transducers

Transducer Classification
Two general types of transducer
Electrical (Sensors)
Mechanical (Actuator)

Actuator
Converts an electrical signal to a physical output.
Something that convert energy into motion e.g.:solenoid valve
Pumps, motors or drives
Flow transducer, turbine flow convert current force to motion and the
motion representing the flow rate.

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 Transducers Classification Cont.

Sensor
A sensor converts a physical parameter to a direct or indirect electric
output.
Direct: electrochemical sensor convert chemical reaction on the
electrode surface to electrical signals (current)
Indirect: potentiometer,change in resistance of the circuit and caused
change in the electrical signals.

SELF GENERATING (Active Transducers)

Electrical signals are produced from nonelectric inputs without the
application of external energy. Examples of self generating transducers are
thermocouple, photovoltaic cell and piezoelectric . Active transducers
Produce very small signals, which may need additional signal conditioning

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 Sensor Classification Cont.

SELF GENERATING (Active Transducers)

Figure: Active Transducers System

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 Sensor Classification Cont.
Modulator
Normally are passive transducers. Require external power source for power
conversion. Examples of modulator type transducers are potentiometer,
strain gauge, thermistor, resistance thermo detector (RTD), variable
capacitance gauge and linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).

Figure: Modulator System

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 Sensor Classification Cont.

Modifier
A particular form of energy is modified rather than converted; the same
form of energy exists in both the input and output stages e.g. gear box,
float level transducer and chemical reaction sensors

Figure: Modifier System

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 Sensor Classification

Active Transducers
Generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical parameter
and does not require an external power source in order to operate

Passive Transducers
Operate under energy controlling principles. Need external electrical source
to operate and depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R,L,C).

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 Selecting a Transducer

Figure: Selecting a Transducers

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 Selecting a Transducer

Figure: Selecting a Transducers

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 Selecting Transducer
Physical quantity that to be measured E.g. Temperature, pressure,
flow etc
Availability of transducer.
Examine the available transducer principles for measurement of desired
quantity. The type of transducer selected must be compatible with the
type and range of the quantity to be measured and the output device
Invasive or non-invasive measurement
Lifetime
Cost
Electrical connection or signal conditioning
Compatibility
Installation
Maintenance
Technical supports
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 Selecting Transducer

Ease Of Installation
Common or standard body fittings and connectors
Available with a variety of body fittings and core assemblies

Figure: Selecting a Transducers

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 Selecting Transducer

Delivery
Another parameter that is occasionally overlooked is the time it takes the
product to be delivered to you after you order it

Figure: Selecting a Transducers

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 Measurable Physical Parameters

Figure: Selecting a Transducers

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 Temperature Transducers

Figure: Selecting a Transducers

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 Temperature Transducers Cont.

Thermal Sensing
Creating a change in voltage/resistance based upon the changes of the
measured temperature.
Why it is important to measure temperature?
Characteristic of thermal sensorsâĂę

Contact Temperature Sensors:

Thermocouple, Resistance (RTD-PRT), Thermistor, Labels, Glass
Thermometers, Filled Systems, Bimetallic

Non contact Temperature Sensors & Thermography:

IR-Spot & Line, Thermal Imagers, Optical Pyrometers

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 Temperature Transducers Cont.

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 Temperature Transducers Cont.

Temperature Selection Guides

TEMPERATURE RANGE
ACCURACY
REPEATABILITY / STABILITY
VIBRATION
RESPONSE TIME
SENSITIVITY
LIFE EXPECTANCY / REPLACEMENT COST
COST

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 Temperature Transducers Cont.

THERMOCOUPLES
In 1822, an Estonian physician named Thomas Seebeck discovered
(accidentally) that the junction between two metals generates a voltage
which is a function of temperature.

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 Temperature Transducers Cont.

THERMOCOUPLES Principles
If two wires from dissimilar metals are connected at both ends to make
two junctions, when one end is heated, a small amount of current
would flow through the circuit.
Based on Seebeck effect:
Conversion of heat differences into electricity
EMF produced around a circuit of different metals
Output voltage related to the temperature difference between the
measurement and reference junction

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 Example of Thermocouple

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 Thermocouple Cont.
Advantage of Thermocouple
Self-powered
Inexpensive
Rugged
Cater to a wide temperature ranges : Range −7000 C to + 27000 C

Disadvantage of Thermocouple
Thermocouples generate extremely low voltages, making them
susceptible to noise.
A thermocouple’s temperature sensitivity is small, requiring accurate
instrumentation.
A cold-junction compensation sensor is required when using
thermocouples.
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 Thermocouple Cont.

Disadvantage of Thermocouple Cont.

Thermocouples are not as stable as other available temperature
sensors.
Typical thermocouple accuracy is ∼ 10 C

Cold Junction Compensation Technique .

Controlled Temperature block
IC cold junction compensation
Software programming for cold junction compensation.

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 Thermocouple Cont.

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 Thermocouple Cont.
Things to be considered
Wire Size of Thermocouple:
Longer life - the larger size wires. sensitivity - the smaller sizes should
be used.
Length of Thermocouple Probe:
It is suggested the thermocouple be immersed for a minimum distance
equivalent to four times the outside diameter of a protection tube or
well.
Location of Thermocouple:
Thermocouples should always be in a position to have a definite
temperature relationship to the work load. Usually, the thermocouple
should be located between the work load and the heat source and be
located approximately 1/3 the distance from the work load to the heat
source
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 Thermocouple Cont.
Precautions and considerations for using thermocouples
Connection problems;-
If you need to increase the length of the leads from your thermocouple,
you must use the correct type of thermocouple extension wire
Lead Resistance;-
To minimise thermal shunting and improve response times,
thermocouples are made of thin wire.
Thin leads or long cables are needed;-
keeping the thermocouple leads short and then using thermocouple
extension wire (which is much thicker, so has a lower resistance) to
run between the thermocouple and measuring instrument.
De-calibration;-
Cause is the diffusion of atmospheric particles into the metal at the
extremes of operating temperature
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 Thermocouple Cont.

Noise reduction techniques

Extension / lead wires are twisted & then wrapped with a grounded
foil sheath
Measurement junction itself is grounded at the point of measurement.
Typically inside of the stainless steel sheath that covers the actual
thermocouple.
An instrumentation amplifier that has excellent CMRR is employed for
measurement

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 Thermistor

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 Thermistor Cont.

Thermistor
The word "Thermistor" derives from the description "thermally
sensitive resistor ".
PTC devices - "Positive Temperature Coefficient" . devices whose
resistance increases as their temperature increases.
NTC devices - "Negative Temperature Coefficient" . devices whose
resistance decreases as their temperature increases
NTC thermistors are manufactured from proprietary formulations of
ceramic materials based on transition metal oxide.

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 Linear Displacement Transducer
Potentiometer, LVDT, strain gauge e.t.c.

Figure: LDT

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 Linear Displacement Transducer
Strain Gauge Transducers
A device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount
of strain in the device.
A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain,
expressed quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF).
Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical
resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):

Figure: Strain Gauge Transducers

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 Linear Displacement Transducer Cont.

Strain Gauge Transducers Cont.

∆R ∆R
R R
G .F = ∆L
= (1)
L


Stress is defined as the object’s internal resisting forces;

F
Stress = (2)
A
Strain is defined as the displacement and deformation that occur or as
the amount of deformation per unit length of an object when a load is
applied.
∆L
Strain = (3)
L

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 Linear Displacement Transducer Cont.
Resistive Transducer - Potentiometer
A resistive transducer contains a translational- or angular-displacement
sensing shaft
This shaft drives a wiper in the transduction element that slides along
the resistive layer.
The resistance measured between the wiper and one of the ends of the
layer is a function of the position, motion, or displacement

Figure: Potentiometer
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 Linear Displacement Transducer Cont.
Types of Potentiometer
Linear potentiometers - the resistance between the wiper and one end
terminal is proportional to the distance between them.
Logarithmic potentiometers - the distance between the wiper and one
end terminal is proportional to the logarithm of the resistance between
them.
Potentiometers with switch - Same as a linear potentiometer, except
that it has a switch mounted on itÂťs back or that it has a dead
section on one end of the resistive element
High-power types - rheostat

Figure: Rheostat
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 Linear Displacement Transducer Cont.

Figure: Resistive Transducers; Potentiometer

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 Linear Displacement tranducers

Application of Potentiometers
Audio Control
Both sliding pots (also known as faders) and rotary potentiometers
(commonly called knobs) are regularly used to adjust loudness, frequency
attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.

Figure: Application of Potentiometers

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 Linear Displacement tranducers
Application of Potentiometers
Audio Control

Figure: Application of Potentiometers

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 Linear Displacement transducers
Application of Potentiometers
Trimpots;
Pots designed for "set and forget" applications.Âă They are used for
"trimming" the value of a resistor, and are commonly used for calibrating
instruments, setting the bias current on power amplifiers, and a host of
other areas where a circuit cannot be relied upon to give an exact gain,
output voltage, or current.

Figure: Application of Potentiometers

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 Linear Displacement transducers

Figure: Fuel Level Sensor System in a Car

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 Linear Displacement transducers Cont.

capacitive Sensor
The value of capacitance is determined by:
1 The area of the plates (A)
2 The distance between the plates (d)
3 The type of dielectric between the plates (0 )

KA0
C=
(Farad) (4)
d
The sensing shaft in a capacitive transducer changes the position of
the dielectric between the capacitor’s plates in the transduction
element, or it changes the distance and area between the plates.
A change of these three parameters leads to a change in capacitance,
which is a measure of the quantity to be measured.

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 Linear Displacement Transducers Cont.

Figure: Capacitive Sensor transducers

Capacitive displacement transducers with variation in dielectric constant

(a), gap between plates (b), and area of capacitor’s plates (c). 1 and 2 =
capacitor’s plates, 3 = dielectric

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 Angular Displacement Transducers

Figure: ADT

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 Pressure Transducers
U-tube manometer, Dead-weight gauge, bellows, bourdon type,
thermocouple gauge, pirani gauge, thermistor gauge, ionization gauge &
intelligent pressure transducers.

Figure: Manometer
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 Pressure Transducers

Figure: Capacitive Pressure Transducers

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 TRANSDUCERS PARAMETER

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 Range/Span

Figure: ADT

Minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is

designed to measure or The range of the sensor is the maximum and
minimum values of applied parameter that can be measured Eg. Measuring
range between -50 and 200o C (−58 and 392o F )
What is out of range and dead band?
What is Limit of detection (LOD) - chemical sensors ?
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 Accuracy

How close an instrument measures the true or actual value of the process
variable being measured or sensed.

Figure: Accuracy

The degree of veracity. How close the arrow to the bullseye at the target
center.

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 Accuracy
The transducer should have the accuracy needed for the application e.g.
thermal transducer for body temperature measurement for H1N1 patient
What do you think the accuracy should be?

Figure: Accuracy
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 Precision
The concept of precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a
measurement. In other words, if exactly the same value were measured a
number of times, an ideal sensor would output exactly the same value every
time.

Figure: Precision

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 Repeatability

The closeness of output readings when the same input is applied

repetitively over a short period of time, with SAME measurement
conditions, SAME instrument and observer, SAME location and SAME
conditions of use maintained throughout
Repeatability is the variation in measurements taken by a single person or
instrument on the same item and under the same conditions. A
measurement is said to be repeatable when this variation is small.

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 Reproducibility

The closeness of output readings when the same input is applied

repetitively over a short period of time, with CHANGE measurement
conditions, CHANGE instrument and observer, CHANGE location and
CHANGE conditions of use maintained through OR
The variation arising when using the same measurement process
among different instruments and operators, and over longer time
periods.

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 Sensitivity

Measure of the change in instrument output which occurs when the

quantity being measured by a given amount.
Two slopes plotted from transducer A and B on a graph paper. How
to identify the sensitivity of the transducers?

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 Offset

The offset error of a transducer is defined as the output that will exist
when it should be zero

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 Response Time

It is the time required for a sensor output to change from its previous state
to a final settled value within a tolerance band of the correct new value.

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 Hysteresis
Transducer should be capable of following the changes of the input
parameter regardless of which direction the change is made, hysteresis is
the measure of this property.

Figure: Hysteresis loop

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