Solar PV array and system design

calculation for grid connected solar

system

AUTHOR : SUBRATA BANERJEE

This is conceptual guide only. This should be based on actual vendor data and relevant
standards to carry out actual sizing

1.0 Introduction

Whether you live on a farm or ranch, in an urban area, or somewhere in between, it is likely you
and your family or your process system rely on electricity. Most of us receive our electrical
power from a power grid. A growing trend has been to generate our own electrical power.
Solar energy systems have grown in popularity as source of clean energy devoid of emissions
and available for residential, agricultural, and commercial applications.

This technology is due to Albert Einstein who got Noble prize for his paper on Photoelectric
effect when incident light ( Photon) on photoelectric material transfers its energy to move the
loose electrons in outermost shell of atom to move in kinetic energy derived from incident
energy as energy quanta and thereby producing a direct current.

Of the various types of solar photovoltaic systems, grid connected systems --- sending power to
and taking power from a power grid is the most common. The grid-connected system consists of
a solar photovoltaic array mounted on a racking system (such as a roof-mounted, pole
mounted, or ground mounted), connected to a combiner box, a boost converter, a bidirectional
converter , a battery system , a string inverter and an ACDB connecting one incomer to solar
system and the other incomer to power grid through an HMT( Harmonic Mitigated
Transformer / K rated Transformer while outgoing supplying load ( Refer Typical SLD
enclosed). The HMT/K transformer is excluded from this write up as the details of it already
shared before.

The inverter converts the DC electrical current produced by the solar array, to AC electrical
current for use in the residence or business. Excess electricity not used by the solar owner enters
the utility electrical grid and is used by other consumers connected to grid.

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2.0 Energy Use

To determine the total energy usage, the owner will refer to their utility bill or do load
calculation in same way shared earlier. This value will vary depending on the size of plant
/building/consumer, number of occupants, number of appliances, lights, and electrical heating
and cooling systems etc. Monthly energy use values will vary with geographic location, time of
year, and energy use habits of the occupants, type of process etc

Spring and summer months with higher temperatures result in frequent use of air conditioning
systems resulting in higher energy consumption. If electricity is the sole power source and is
provided by a local utility, a grid-connected system can be designed to offset all (100%) or a
partial amount of the electrical needs.

The size of the system will vary and is affected by multiple variables: location, space, and cost.
System costs will vary based on size and complexity. A 6 kW system in 2016 would have been
costed about $21,000.00, or about $3.50 per watt.

3.0 Solar Insolation and Peak Sun Hours

In the solar energy industry, calculations are made using the amount of sun energy provided by
the sun over the period of a day. The intensity (brightness) of the sun is referred to as solar
insolation. When the sun is at its brightest during the day, the light intensity is measured using
an irradiance meter (or pyranometer) and measured in Watt per meter squared (W/m2). The
target value is approximately around 1,000W/m2. This value is typical of sunlight intensity at
12:00 noon, when the sun is highest in the sky.

Peak sun-hours (PSH) is equal to the number of hours the insolation value is at 1,000W/m2.
For example, a geographic region with a PSH of 3.5 is interpreted as solar insolation reaches
1,000W/m2 for of 3. 5 hours per day. The amount of peak sun-hours (PSH) for the region needs
to be determined and is used in making a PV Array and solar system sizing calculation. The
average daily peak sun-hour per day value for fixed-plate solar array installation at a particular
latitude are used in system sizing calculation.

4.0 Derating Factors

Each component of solar power system has efficiency losses. High ambient temperature can
result in loss of voltage produced by an array. Dust on the surface of an array results in energy
loss. System wiring has efficiency losses. The solar industry refers to these as derating factors.

Examples of specific derating factors include: inverter efficiency, module power tolerance, and
wiring losses. The overall derating factor is arrived at by multiplying all the individual derating
factor values together: (say 0.95 x 0.96 x 0.98 x 0.995 x 0.98 x 0.99 x 0.95 x 0.98 x 0.90 =
0.722). Additional derating factors include temperature losses, and inverter efficiencies. These
are included in calculations for solar array sizing.

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5.0 Calculating PV Array Size ( P: Photo V: Voltaic) : Item 1 of Conceptual SLD

A formula is available for calculating the size of the solar PV array. The variables are electrical
energy usage, peak sun-hours (PSH), and system derating factors.

The first step is to determine the average daily solar PV production in kilowatt-hours. This
amount is found by taking the owner’s annual energy usage and dividing the value by 365 to
arrive at an average daily use. This will tell us how much energy we will need on a daily basis.

For example, a consumer has an annual energy usage of 6,000 kWh. Divide this value by 365 to
arrive at the average daily consumption. The owner needs to determine how much of their energy
usage they wish to offset with solar PV energy production. Available space for installing an
array, site quality (shading), and system cost are the immediate factors. We will use 100% for
this example. Assuming the consumer uses 6,000 kWh of electrical energy, then the average
daily consumption is (6,000 kWh ÷ 365 days) 19.2 kWh. The goal is to offset all (100%) 19.2
kWh electricity used with solar PV. The system with an inverter, will need to produce 19.2 ac
kWh per day. This value will be divided by the average peak sun-hours (PSH) for the geographic
location. System losses (derating factors) will also be applied. The final value is the calculated
solar PV array size in kilo-watts.

Avg. daily PV production in kWh(19.2) ÷ Avg. peak sun hours per day(6.5) ÷ Temperature
losses(.88) ÷ Inverter efficiency(.96) ÷ General system derating factor(.774) = PV array size in
kW

0r, 19.2 ÷ 6.5 ÷ 0.88 ÷ 0.96 ÷ 0.774 = 4.52 kW

Flipping the equation, if an existing PV array size in kW is known, it is possible to calculate the
average daily PV production in kWh.

PV array size in kW(4.52) X Avg. peak sun hours per day(6.5) X Temperature losses(.88) X
Inverter efficiency(.96) X General system derating factor(.774) = Avg. daily PV production in
kWh (19.2)

= 4.52 X 6.5 X 0.88 X 0.96 X 0.774 = 19.2

The next step is to determine the amount of solar PV energy which can be produced from a solar
PV array at a specific space (location). Assuming the owner plans to install the array on the south
facing roof of their building, a general rule is one kilowatt (1 kW) of solar PV module will fit in
100 square feet of space, or 10 watts per square foot.

A typical roof will have plumbing vents, and may include a sky light, or air conditioning system
mounted on it. Space needs to be left for access to service these items. Some locations and
jurisdictions may require walking space (up to 36 inches) around the perimeter of the array for
fire access. This reduces the amount of usable roof space for an array.

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As an example, assuming a roof has a usable space of 500 square feet, the available area in
square feet is multiplied by the value 10 watts/ft2 = 500 sq. ft. x 10 watts/ft2 = 5,000 watts of
solar PV, or 5 kW. Plugging this value into the equation from above: PV array size in kW X
Avg. peak sun hours per day X Temperature losses X Inverter efficiency X General system
derating factor = Avg. daily PV production in kWh

= 5 X 6.5 X 0.88 X 0.96 X 0.774 = 21.25

So, the average daily PV production of 21.25 kWh can be obtained from a system this size. This
is enough to meet the calculated 19.2 previously.

Another Example:

Lets assume consumption rate is 4,000 kWh per year.

Average PSH per day for a south-facing array = 6.5 and Overall average system efficiency factor
is 66%.

To calculate the array size needed to offset annual energy consumption, divide the annual kWh
consumption by 365. The result is the average daily consumption in kWh. Divide this amount by
average daily peak sun hours (PSH) to get approximate array size in kW. Divide this amount by
the system’s efficiency derating factor.

So, 4,000 kWh/yr ÷ 365 days/yr. = 10.96 kWh/day. 10.96 kWh/day ÷ 6.5 sun-hours/day = 1.69
kW. 1.69 kW ÷ 0.66 efficiency factor = 2.55 kW array
With a cost of $3.50/Watt (installed) the estimated array cost is: 2,500 watt x $3.50/watt =
$8,750.00.

6.0 Solar Module Selection ( Item 1 of conceptual SLD)

Once the size of the array has been selected, determining the number of solar modules needed to
produce the power is the next step.

Modules are marketed by the amount of power (in watts) produced. The larger the amount of
watts per module, the fewer the modules are required.
For example, for a 2,000 watt system, it would make more sense (economically) to install larger
175-watt modules than smaller 20-watt modules (2,000 watts ÷ 175-watt/module = 11.43 or 12
modules; whereas 2,000 watts ÷ 20-watt/module = 100 modules).

Not only would the amount of racking material would be higher for higher no modules, but the
labor time for installation would also be greater. Module availability and price are two factors
that need to be considered. System installers typically buy modules in bulk to reduce the cost per
unit. This minimizes the type and amount of racking material required.

When available space is a factor, the most efficient module should be selected. Crystalline
modules are more efficient than thin-film modules. Though cheaper, it would take more space

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using thin-film to achieve the same amount of power produced by crystalline modules. Using the
2.5kW size array example, assume the available module is rated at 240-watts/module. 2,500
watts ÷ 240-watts/module = 10.41 modules. Since a part of a module is not possible, it is
recommended to round up to 11 modules.

Looking at specifications for Module A(240W/module) from data sheet:

STC (Standard Test Condition) Power (Pmp) : 240 W

Maximum power voltage (Vmp) : 29.86 V
Maximum power current (Imp): 8.10 A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) : 36.45 V
Short-circuit current (Isc) : 8.59 A
Temperature coefficients: TkVoc -0.32%/ o C
TkVmp -0.42%/o C
Tstc : Temperature under standard test condition under which above data are obtained for
Module A.: 25 deg.C

An array with a series string of 11 modules is capable of producing 11x240 = 2,640 watts, or
2.64 kW. Larger systems will likely have more than one string of modules. Each string is wired
in series to build the voltage. This is referred to as a source circuit. As the strings are connected
to a combiner box, they are wired in parallel to build system current. At this point, an output
circuit is created.

7.0 Inverter Sizing ( Item 4 of conceptual SLD)

An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the
inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the
same nominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of
Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts
of appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be
minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter capacity
to handle surge current during starting for short duration as Overload capacity .

For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same
as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.

The next step in grid-connected system sizing is determining the size of the inverter. The role of
the inverter is to convert DC electricity produced by the solar array to AC electricity used by the
consumer.

Selection of the inverter is based on: PV array capacity the inverter can handle (in watts), output
voltage (240 volts is typical for residential systems or 415volts for industrial), and the DC input
voltage range ( Max and Min).

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An inverter has a DC input voltage window. The goal is to design a system where the DC
voltage produced remains within that voltage range/window.

As an example, an inverter has a range of 230 V to 600 V. The critical factor is temperature.
A high ambient temperature results in high solar cell temperatures that can result in array voltage
loss, while low ambient temperature can result in increased array voltage production.
Failure to attain the minimum voltage due to high temperatures results in inverter shutdown.
Likewise, exceeding the maximum voltage due to low temperatures also results in the inverter
going offline, and possible inverter damage.

So, the calculations to be performed for the following:

1. What is the minimum number of modules in series in a PV array?

2. What is the maximum number of modules in series in a PV array?

3. How many source circuits can be wired in parallel in a PV array?

To begin with, the record high and low temperatures for the location need to be referenced.

The goal of this part of the calculation is to determine the maximum number of modules to be
wired in series.

The open-circuit voltage (Voc) of the source circuit cannot exceed the inverter’s maximum DC
input voltage during cold temperatures.
For this example, the maximum input voltage is say 450 volts.

Calculation of the temperature-corrected maximum open circuit voltage for the single
module:

Module Vocmax = Voc x [1 + (Tmin – Tstc) x (TkVoc)] = 36.45 V x [1 + (-9o C – 25o C) x (-

0.32 %/oC)] = 36.45 V x [1 + (-34 x -0.0032)] = 36.45 V x [1 +0.1088] = 36.45 V x 1.1088 =
40.52 V

Dividing the maximum inverter input voltage of 450 volts by the module temperature-corrected
Voc will provide the maximum number of modules to be wired in series. = 450 V ÷ 40.52 =
11.11 = 11 modules The 11.11 value is rounded down to 11. Rounding up would result in
exceeding the 450 V maximum. On the coldest days, when the temperature is low, the array
voltage will not exceed the inverter max voltage.

The next step is to determine the minimum number of modules based on the temperature
corrected minimum module voltage.

On the hottest days, the array voltage will decrease. If the minimum number of modules is not
calculated correctly, the drop in module voltage may result in the inverter minimum voltage not
being met, and the inverter going offline.

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The module temperature coefficient for voltage max power (Vmp) is used. For this module, the
temperature coefficient indicates for every one degree change in temperature, the Vmp decreases
0.42%.

Example of temp adder for estimating solar module cell temperature (Refer catalogue).
Type of Mount Adder Pole or Ground 25° C
Tilted rack on roof 30° C
Roof mount 35o C.

The formula is:

Module Vmpmin = Vmp x [1 + ((Tadd +Tmax – Tstc) x (TkVmp))]
Interpreting the equation variables, Vmp = the module rated Vmp at Standard Test Condition
(STC)
Tadd = the temperature adder value specific to an array mounting system, 35o C for a roof-
mounted array
Tmax = maximum expected temperature in degree C
Tstc = the STC temperature at 25o C
TkVmp = the temperature coefficient of Vmp as listed in the module specs = 29.86 V x [1 +
((35o C + 47o C – 25o C) x (-0.42%/o C)] = 29.86 V x [1 + (57 x (-0.0042)] = 29.86 V x [1 + (-
0.2394)] = 29.86 V x 0.7606 = 22.71 V
This calculation shows the minimum module Vmp which may occur if operating on the hottest
day .
205 V ÷ 22.71 = 9.03 = 10 modules So the array string can have a minimum of 10 modules in a
string and no more than 11 for the desired inverter.

Inverters are available based on total wattage of PV array. Using the size of 4.52 kW calculated
earlier, either a 4 or 5 kW inverter will be selected. The DC input voltage window is range of
voltage, usually 203 V to 450 V. For the AC output voltage, it is desired to obtain say 240 volts
to meet the needs of larger household appliances, such as an electric range, or water heater etc .

Inverter A Maximum dc input voltage 500 V DC minimum starting voltage 220 V Continuous ac
output power 4,600 W DC input voltage window 205 V - 450 V AC output voltage range 183 V
– 229 V
Inverter B Maximum dc input voltage 500 V DC minimum starting voltage 255 V Continuous ac
output power 5,200 W DC input voltage window 240 V - 450 V AC output voltage range 211 V
– 264 V

Choose A or B that suits most.

8.0 Battery sizing ( Item 6 of conceptual SLD)

The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle
battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or
cycle charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery should be large enough to

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store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the size
of battery, calculate as follows:

A. Refer dc UPS sizing calculation and follow that concept. Here, the load cycle will be flat
with days of autonomy.
OR, Simplify as below
B.
a) Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
b) Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
c) Divide the answer obtained in item b by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
d) Divide the answer obtained in item c by the nominal battery voltage.
e) Multiply the answer obtained in item d with days of autonomy (the number of days that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

9.0 Solar charge controller/ DC-DC Converter sizing ( Item 3, 5 of conceptual SLD)

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select
the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify
which type of solar charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that solar charge
controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input
current which is delivered to the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series
or parallel configuration).

A. Refer dc UPS sizing calculation including charger and follow that concept.
OR, B. Simplify as below

According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit
current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
Remark: For MPPT charge controller sizing will be different. (See Basics of MPPT Charge
Controller)

Example of battery and charger sizing calculation

Suppose a house has the following electrical appliance usage:

One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.
One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.

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One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours and off 12
hours.
The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.

Battery sizing
Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days

Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3

(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 Ah
So the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3 day autonomy.

Solar charge controller sizing

PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater

10.0 Basics of MPPT Charge Controller) ( Integrated in Item 3, 5 of conceptual SLD)

What is MPPT?
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is an algorithm that is included in charge controllers
used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The
voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called maximum power point (or
peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature and
solar cell temperature.

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) techniques are used to maintain the PV
array's operating point at its maximum power point (MPP) and extract the
maximum power available in PV arrays.

MPPT demands the dc-dc converter in between PV array and load to keep the PV
array voltage or current at MPP point for a particular condition of irradiation and
temperature by controlling the duty ratio of converter

Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V when
measured at a cell temperature of 25°C, it can drop to around 15 V on a very hot day and it can
also rise to 18 V on a very cold day.

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How MPPT works?
The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by
making them operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power point). That is to say:
MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best
power that PV module can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to
get maximum current into battery. It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected
directly to the battery.

MPPT is most effective under these conditions:

a. Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold
temperatures and MPPT is utilized to extract maximum power available from them.

b. When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the
battery if the state of charge in the battery is lowers.

MPPT solar charge controller

A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with MPPT algorithm to
maximize the amount of current going into the battery from PV module.

MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC input from PV module, changing it to

AC and converting it back to a different DC voltage and current to exactly match the PV module
to the battery.

Examples of DC to DC converter are

Boost converter is power converter which DC input voltage is less than DC output voltage. That
means PV input voltage is less than the battery voltage in system.

Buck converter is power converter which DC input voltage is greater than DC output voltage.
That means PV input voltage is greater than the battery voltage in system.
MPPT algorithm can be applied to both of them depending on system design. Normally, for
battery system voltage is equal or less than 48 V, buck converter is useful. On the other hand, if
battery system voltage is greater than 48 V, boost converter should be chosen.

MPPT solar charge controllers are useful for off-grid solar power systems such as stand-alone
solar power system, solar home system and solar water pump system, etc.

Main features of MPPT solar charge controller

In any applications which PV module is energy source, MPPT solar charge controller is used to
correct for detecting the variations in the current-voltage characteristics of solar cell and shown
by I-V curve.

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MPPT solar charge controller is necessary for any solar power systems need to extract
maximum power from PV module; it forces PV module to operate at voltage close to maximum
power point to draw maximum available power.
MPPT solar charge controller allows users to use PV module with a higher voltage output than
operating voltage of battery system.
For example, if PV module has to be placed far away from charge controller and battery, its
wire size must be very large to reduce voltage drop. With a MPPT solar charge controller, users
can wire PV module for 24 or 48 V (depending on charge controller and PV modules) and bring
power into 12 or 24 V battery system. This means it reduces the wire size needed while
retaining full output of PV module.

MPPT solar charge controller reduces complexity of system while output of system is high
efficiency. Additionally, it can be applied to use with more energy sources. Since PV output
power is used to control DC-DC converter directly.

MPPT solar charge controller can be applied to other renewable energy sources such as small
water turbines, wind-power turbines, etc.

How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module

Step 1 : SPT-XXYY (XX is nominal battery voltage, YY is maximum charge current)

Step 2 : Find out what is nominal battery voltage that charge controller will charge and select
XX
Step 3 : Find out what is Wp of PV module and
Step 4 : Select the suitable charge current (CC) = (Wp) / XX
Step 5: Find out YY by multiply CC by safety factor (NEC requirement) = (CC) x 1.2
Step 6 : Select SOLARCON SPT-series model/ Equivalant that covers YY
Step 7 : Check that Vpm(system) is in range that SPT-XXYY can handle (MPPT voltage range)
Step 8 : If PV modules are in series, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module) x Module
in series
Step 8 : If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module)
Step 9 : Check that Voc(system) is not more than SPT-XXYY range (Maximum open circuit
voltage)
Step 10 : If PV modules are in series, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module) x Module in
series.
Step 11 : If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module)

11. ACDB ( AC Distribution Board) :

The DB Connects input from Solar system and also connects grid and load. Self explanatory
being a standard DB

12. Automatic solar PV module tilt control

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The write will be incomplete not to have included this control feature. Hence a brief outline is
given here. See the overall system sld.
The Tilt sensors significantly impact the output of solar power plants (CSP) and hence,
are commonly used for solar tracking. Though the importance of solar tracking and the
boost in production due to it is proven, there is a lot of confusion around how this
system works and what are the expected gains out of it.
Importance Of Solar tracking

In the case of solar power plants, the power output depends on the orientation of the
panels with respect to the sun. As the misalignment increases beyond a point, the
output starts falling sharply. To be precise, the output of panels drops off with the
cosine of the angle between the incident radiation and the panel.

It is a common misunderstanding that most of the solar power is available only in the
noon times. In fact, several studies have demonstrated that the power available during
early mornings and evenings are roughly half of the power available during noon time.
In fact, the inclination angle at which maximum power may be expected also of
function of location (latitude) and season. An absence of solar tracking means most of
this energy is lost due to misalignment between sun rays and the collectors.

In countries like India, for most of the year, solar energy is available abundantly. But in
other parts of the globe, due to poor availability of solar power, not having solar
tracking system leads to poor power output and hence long payback periods. Even in
regions like India, use of solar tracking can significantly improve the power output
resulting in the fast recovery of the investments made.

Solar tracking can improve the output of solar power plants by 10-25% depending on
the location and weather conditions. In case, if there is space constraint, more output
can be achieved using solar tracking systems.

Types of solar tracking

Solar tracking can be done in two ways- single axis (only elevation) and dual
axis(elevation and azimuthal).

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Single Axis Solar Tracking
In single-axis solar tracking, with the help of tilt sensors, the solar collectors are
moved only to match the elevation of the sun. This means, if the sun moves
horizontally in the sky, the panels won’t be moved to face the sun.

The tilt sensors used for single axis tracking are generally single axis tilt sensors. The
output achieved with single axis solar tracking is certainly more than output without
any tracking system but is a bit lower than the dual-axis tracking system.

Dual Axis Solar Tracking

In dual axis solar tracking, the angle of elevation as well as azimuthal (horizontal)
angle are controlled so that the collector always faces the sun accurately. The tilt
sensors used for dual axis solar tracking are capable of detecting inclination in two
dimensions. Though dual axis solar tracking systems are costlier than the single axis
ones, the increase in output achieved justifies the extra expenses.

Role Of Tilt Sensors In Solar Tracking

Though different techniques can be used for solar tracking, tilt sensors are probably
the most widely used technology for solar tracking.

Another technology, which is used for solar tracking is optical encoders. Optical
encoders have a disc with slits of different sizes and shapes on it at different angles.

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The light pulse coming through this slit is monitored to find out the angle of
orientation. As the motor moves the shaft, the disc also rotates and as a result, the
light pulse varies. This variation is used to find out the angle of rotation. In case of
dual-axis tracking, two separate motors are used and two optical encoders are
installed to calculate elevation as well as azimuthal angle.

What makes tilt sensors a preferred choice for this application over the other
technologies such as optical encoders?

Following are a few of the features of tilt sensors that make them a perfect fit for this
application.

1. Tilt sensors are compact, easy to install and use and affordable. Their costs are significantly
lower than the cost benefits one reaps out of them, justifying their use for this application. On
the other hand, optical encoders are difficult to install and mis-alignments during the
installation can produce a permanent error in the output unless corrected.
2. Tilt sensors provide a digital output which can be fed directly to controllers to actually
control the orientation of the collectors. The output remains accurate over the period. In case
of optical encoders, since they’re relative angle sensors, operation over the period can
introduce a small error in the output which may gradually increase.
3. Tilt sensors are rugged and hence, withstand heat, rains, and other extreme weather
conditions. When compared with tilt sensors, optical encoders having moving components
and hence, are subject to wear and tear. Dust and dirt also affect their performance.

12. V, I, F Control

This is achieved through gate control of inverter thyristors to vary V and hence I and
F( Frequency by a controller that received feedback from grid through CT and PT

13. Inertia to contribute to grid stability

Refer my earlier note shared in detail.

14.0 Conclusions

When sizing the grid-connected array system, the solar owner needs to consider size limitations.
Available space for the array, including physical location if it will be mounted to the roof, the
direction the roof it is facing, the amount of shade on the roof during the day, the initial cost of
the system, and the amount of energy required to produce are the questions to consider.

The first step is to review is energy consumption habits. Look at a year’s worth of electrical
usage. An energy audit can help identify where energy conservation practices (such as improving

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insulation, using energy-efficient appliances, and switching to low-energy lighting, etc list is
long) can reduce the kilowatt-hour usage.

Next, is to locate the average daily peak sun-hours (PSH) for the array location. Be sure to use
derating factors to calculate average daily production. Decide how much of your electrical
energy use you desire to offset using solar energy --- 100%, 75%, or 50%. There are incentives
available for solar users.
Attachments to be read in conjunction with this write up: See Annexure 1

-: The End :-

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