Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers & Education

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Usage of social media, student engagement, and creativity: The

role of knowledge sharing behavior and cyberbullying
Muhammad Imran Rasheed a, *, Muhammad Jawad Malik b, Abdul Hameed Pitafi c,
Jawad Iqbal a, Muhammad Khalid Anser d, Mazhar Abbas e
a
School of Business Management and Administrative Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
b
School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai Road, Hefei, China
c
Department of Computer Science, Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
d
School of Public Administration, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, China
e
Department of Management & MIS. College of Business Administration University of Hail, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Despite the increasing use of social media, very little is known about its consequences for students
Social media of graduate research training. The purpose of this study is to look into the outcomes of social
Knowledge sharing media usage while answering when and how the use of social media may lead to students’
Student engagement
creativity and engagement. Primary data were collected from 383 research students studying in
Student creativity
Cyberbullying
different universities in eastern China. Findings reveal that students’ use of social media is related
Research students to their creativity and engagement in graduate research training through knowledge sharing
behavior. In addition, cyberbullying was found to play the role of boundary condition such that
the mediated relationships are weak for the students facing more cyberbullying. Limitations and
future directions, as well as implications for research and practice, are discussed.

1. Introduction

Global Digital Report 2019 reveals that the total number of social media users in the world has been raised to 3.484 billion and it is
increasing with a rapid rate of 9% per annum. Today, the use of social media is not limited to any specific segment of the society, it has
penetrated to every ones’ life including but not limited to students. The trend of using social media is rapidly growing in the education
arena particularly for student’s collaboration as the usage of social media has the potential of increasing knowledge of the users
through a facilitated knowledge-sharing environment (Mäntymäki & Riemer, 2016). There are several reasons behind this popularity
of social media among students which include but are not limited to its features of reaching the mass audience and a virtual interaction
among them. Students today are using social media for several purposes such as searching for information and collaborating and
interacting with others. Specifically, graduate research students are using several social media tools (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn,
Researchgate, Academia.edu, and Slideshare.net, etc.) for facilitation in their research training and education projects. The use of
social media is, therefore, expected to increase knowledge sharing among its user students (Ahmed, Ahmad, Ahmad, & Zakaria, 2019).
Bukowitz (1999), described that knowledge sharing is an activity through which knowledge (such as information, expertise, or
abilities) is disbursed among people. Scholars, for instance, Argote and Ingram (2000); Ko, Kirsch, and King (2005) view knowledge

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: emranrsheed@hotmail.com (M.I. Rasheed), jawadmalik@ustc.edu.cn (M.J. Malik), hameedpitafi@hotmail.com (A.H. Pitafi),
mkhalidrao@xauat.edu.cn (M.K. Anser), m.hussain@uoh.edu.sa (M. Abbas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104002
Received 9 February 2020; Received in revised form 14 August 2020; Accepted 23 August 2020
Available online 1 September 2020
0360-1315/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

sharing as a transfer of knowledge and information from one source to another. Scholars believe that the use of technology facilitates
an autonomous and friendly environment that leads to knowledge sharing among individuals (Lai & Kritsonis, 2006; Tong, Tak, &
Wong, 2015). The role of social media in educational activities and enhancing student engagement and performance is considered
critical by recent researchers (Narayan, Herrington, & Cochrane, 2019).
Koranteng, Wiafe, and Kuada (2018) view student engagement as “the amount of physical and psychological energy that the
students devote to the academic work” (p. 11), while creativity is understood as the ‘production of new and useful ideas’ (Wierenga,
Althuizen, & Chen, 2017). Students’ engagement and creativity are expected to be facilitated with knowledge sharing among students.
We assume that the usage of social media among students increases knowledge sharing behavior which subsequently leads to their
engagement and creative behavior in their graduate research training and education.
Although, the usage of social media increases knowledge sharing among students that further leads to students’ engagement and
creativity in their graduate research training. These relationships among students’ use of social media and its positive outcomes are
expected to be weak with the negative consequences of cyberbullying defined as “an aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group
or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and overtime against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself”
(Smith et al., 2008). Some recent studies, for instance, Sarwar, Zulfiqar, Aziz, and Ejaz Chandia (2019) have given attention to the
destructive effects of cyberbullying on students’ learning and performance.
Suggesting and testing a model on student use of social media and its outcomes, our study makes several contributions to the
literature. For instance, our study investigates two important outcomes of social media usage including student engagement and
creativity with a specific sample of research graduates from China. Second, we not only link the usage of social media with students’
creativity and engagement in our study but also explain knowledge sharing as the underlying reason in these relationships. We propose
that when students are involved in sharing knowledge and information, and exchanging ideas, knowledge, and thoughts with others
through social media, this enhances their engagement and creativity in research training and education. Third, our model investigates
the buffering role of cyberbullying on the relationships between usage of social media and its positive outcomes. Fig. 1 depicts the
theoretical model of our study.

2. Theory building and hypotheses development

2.1. Social media, knowledge sharing behavior, and student outcomes

In the past few years, social media has come close to the people and is taking part in almost all spheres of life (Rauniar, Rawski,
Yang, & Johnson, 2014; Ruleman, 2012). Social media has gained equal popularity in the field of education as recent scholars have
studied a significant impact of social media in education (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016). For example, the research found a positive
relationship between the use of social media and students’ performance (Alwagait, Shahzad, & Alim, 2015). Social media tools have
emerged as excellent educational technology that facilitates students’ learning. Al-Aufi and Fulton (2015), analyzed the impact of
social network sites on the educational patterns of academic communication and indicated that perceived usefulness of social media
has a significant relation with academic communication.
Social networking sites help in creating a useful learning climate for students as social media inspires users for participating in
online discussions (Chen, 2019). Today, social media has become the basic necessity as most of the people give a huge importance to
social media in their way of life (Karpinski, Kirschner, Ozer, Mellott, & Ochwo, 2013). Social media is being extensively used for
information sharing, entertainment, and other kinds of activities among students. In the higher education field, the use of social media
is more proximal as it greatly helps students in knowledge sharing and collaboration working in their graduate research training
(Dabner, 2012). The graduate research students are, therefore, using social media tools such as Researchgate, Academia.edu,
Slideshare.net, Facebook research-groups, Whatsapp groups, and others for collaboration in their research and training. Here, we
assume that usage of social media among students of higher education is positively associated with their knowledge sharing behavior
in their research training. We, therefore, hypothesized that;

Fig. 1. Model diagram.

2
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

2.2. Hypothesis 1a: students’ use of social media has a positive relationship with their knowledge sharing behavior

Josefsson, Hrastinski, Pargman, and Pargman (2016), argue that student engagement is a key factor for student’s achievement and
learning. Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004), suggested that different factors affect student engagement. They discovered three
core dimensions of student engagement that includes behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement.
These three components influence students from different perspectives and keep them engaged in different academic efforts. Chick­
ering and Gamson (1987), recommended seven principles that can enhance student engagement, these include teacher-student
interaction, providing advice and feedback to students’ active learning, diversity, high anticipation, task efficiency, and student
collaboration. Today, in the era of technology, social media is trying to meet these principles effectively and in a superior way (Crews,
Wilkinson, & Neill, 2015).
Social learning is shaped to link the community through team working and information sharing. Social media encourages active
learning (Seifert, 2016), effectual conversation (Cunha Jr, van Kruistum, & van Oers, 2016), and the distribution of information
(Osatuyi, 2013). It can escalate students’ engagement (Sadaf, Newby, & Ertmer, 2012). For these reasons, we believe that there is some
level of connection between social media and student engagement. Past scholars have also indicated that the usage of social media can
positively promote the educational environment by enhancing students’ time invested in their study (Eid & Al-Jabri, 2016). For
example, Kim, Wang, & Oh, (2016) suggested that social media can enhance student engagement through learning new educational
tools.
Studies have found that students who have access to the internet are more attached to their study than those who do not have access
to social media websites (Rashid & Asghar, 2016). Junco, Heiberger, and Loken (2011), agree to the idea that the usage of social media
among students may enhance their engagement in research training and education. They conducted experimental research involving
125 students (70 in the experimental group and 55 in the control group). To measure differences in engagement they performed
mixed-effects ANOVA models and found that the experimental group had a significantly greater increase in engagement than the
control group. They also found that students and teachers were highly engaged in the learning process in ways that go beyond
traditional study approaches. Fewkes and McCabe (2012), suggested that it is the responsibility of educational institutions to provide
basic technology that has the potential to engage students with work and can enhance their productivity in education. These research
arguments provide us a base to assume a positive association between student use of social media and student engagement in higher
education. Here we hypothesized that;
H1b: Students’ use of social media has a positive relationship with students’ engagement.
Creativity is considered as an important driver of scientific advancement. Researchers argue that learning and knowledge boost
individuals’ creativity (García-García, Chulvi, & Royo, 2017). Studies suggest that the usage of social media can enhance student
creativity in research and education (Hu, Gu, Liu, & Huang, 2017). Social media provides platforms to the students where the exchange
of productive knowledge takes place which results in more creative students. Craft (2005), describes creativity as an important element
of the twenty-first century as he takes creativity as a part of the learning process which is important for researchers and educators.
Although creativity is important for students at every stage, in the twenty-first century the importance of creativity has been increased
at higher education levels (Jahnke, Haertel, & Wildt, 2017). Eid and Al-Jabri (2016), argued that students of higher education who are
active on social media have more chances of interaction with others which may subsequently result in their learning and creativity in
their research training. Allen, Caple, Coleman, and Nguyen (2012), suggested a positive association between social media usage and
student creativity. They believe that social media tools have a very important role in democratizing creativity as these tools facilitate
learning activities by promoting digital literacy, independent learning, collaboration, and critical thinking of the user students.
Greenhow, Peppler, and Solomou (2011), conducted a research on the social media environment where 85 people participated. The
study was designed to explore the nature of creativity and collaborative learning within the context of virtual 3D architectural con­
struction. They found the rise and spread of creativity in online communities. Budge (2013), argued a positive association between
social media usage and student creativity as he believes that digital media offers a range of interesting benefits for creative practices.
Fewkes and McCabe (2012), investigated the question of whether Facebook is a tool for learning or distraction and recommended that
teachers and institutions should take responsibility for guiding their students about using social media in a way that can boost their
creativity.
H1c: Students’ use of social media has a positive relationship with students’ creativity.

2.3. Mediating role of knowledge sharing behavior

Internet is the easiest, fastest, and cheapest way to access the necessary information and knowledge sharing (Jeffres, Neuendorf, &
Atkin, 2012). The internet is a platform where students can access information about anything around the world. With the devel­
opment of the internet, social media has come up as a mode of communication and knowledge sharing among individuals. Students can
better learn new skills and share knowledge through social media (Tarantino, McDonough, & Hua, 2013). By using social media,
students make friendships with more learned and skillful people from around the world, this helps them to learn things from online
(Gikas & Grant, 2013). When students work closely and make collaborations, and exchange information on social media, they
construct learning communities where they learn from each other. Students who are part of such learning communities stay more
connected and engaged with their studies and are more creative in their research training (Gray & DiLoreto, 2016).
Scholars are of the view that the development of web2.0 has increased collaboration, and information sharing among individuals
(McLoughlin & Lee, 2007). In recent times, the popularity and increasing usage of social networking sites have boosted the sharing of
information among academicians (Huang, 2018). Socio-cultural theory of learning (Scott & Palincsar, 2013) helps us to understand

3
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

this phenomenon, for example, this theory describes that when people create social interaction, they express their views and share
information and knowledge, and by doing so they learn from each other. Researchers such as Kirkwood (2008); Ruzgar (2005) explain
that students who explore more information or knowledge on the internet are more creative in their research training and education.
Scholars view social networking sites and related tools to provide awareness and knowledge that enhances individuals’ creativity
(Boyd & Ellison, 2007). Some studies (Chan, Chu, Lee, Chan, & Leung, 2013) investigated the role of blogs and Facebook in relation to
knowledge sharing and creativity and found that Facebook has a very critical role in this context. Others have also discovered the
impact of certain factors on using social networking sites and different tools for sharing knowledge (Jadin, Gnambs, & Batinic, 2013).
With a variety of online resources accessible for readers for getting information (Adkins & Bossaller, 2007), digital media has pene­
trated widely among graduate research students. Owen, Grant, Sayers, and Facer (2006), mentioned that the innovation in technology
has introduced many new platforms of studying which are reliable, smart, worthwhile, and different from previous modes of studying.
In this learning style, people communicate, share knowledge, and work together as a team while staying far from each other. Lin and
Tsai (2011); Thoms and Eryilmaz (2014) argued that students who use social media platforms for learning are more creative in their
education. This discussion leads us to assume the mediating role of knowledge sharing among students’ usage of social media and their
engagement and creativity in research training. Here we hypothesized that;
H2a: Students’ knowledge sharing mediates the relationship between their social media use and engagement.
H2b: Students’ knowledge sharing mediates the relationship between their social media use and creativity.

2.4. Moderating role of cyberbullying

There is no doubt that technology has made people’s lives more easy and comfortable, on the other hand, it has resulted in several
negative consequences such as cyberbullying.
Cyberbullying is a behavior in which people intend to harm others using the internet. Cyberbullying is similar to traditional
bullying, but it includes the mode of communication technologies (Smith et al., 2008). Cyberbullying is now widely acknowledged as a
serious problem to disturbing individuals specifically children and teens (Anderson, 2018). Cyberbullying has proven to be very
harmful in several fields of life, for instance, a study reported that approximately half (46.2%) of trainee doctors have experienced
cyberbullying, which has negatively impacted their job satisfaction (Farley, Coyne, Sprigg, Axtell, & Subramanian, 2015). Scholars
believe that the role of cyberbullying has become more prominent in disturbing students and learners’ performance with the increasing
spread of social media (Sarwar et al., 2019).
Recently, scholars have started giving attention to exploring cyberbullying as a commonly occurring issue on social media
(Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). Usage of social media provides several benefits, meanwhile, it can lead to
negative consequences such as cyberbullying (Hudson, 2018). By using messaging, emails, and social networking sites, bullies are
regularly engaged in mocking, sneering, harassment, and threatening behavior on social media (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007). Scholars
such as Faryadi (2011); Lau (2017) mention that, getting messages, images, and e-mails and news items put a negative impact on
students’ educational performance. Shneiderman (2019), is of the view that cyberbullying can negatively affect students’ creativity,
while Al-Rahmi et al. (2019) argue that students are the most vulnerable to cyberbullying as it can reduce their interaction, collab­
oration, and knowledge sharing. This discussion leads us to assume the following hypotheses;
H3a: Cyberbullying moderates the relationship between students’ use of social media and their knowledge sharing.
H3b: Cyberbullying moderates the relationship between students’ use of social media and their engagement through knowledge
sharing.
H3c: Cyberbullying moderates the relationship between students’ use of social media and their creativity through knowledge
sharing.

3. Methodology

3.1. Participants and procedure

To collect data for our study, we conducted a research survey involving graduate research students from the universities situated in

Table 1
Demographics information of the sample.
N Percentage

Gender
Male 260 67.9
Female 123 32.1
Age
21–25 years old 205 53.5
25–30 years old 153 39.9
30–35 years old 25 6.5
Education level

Masters/Graduate 258 67.4

Doctoral Degree 57 14.9

4
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

the Anhui Province of the Peoples’ Republic of China.

To meet our objective of investigating the relationship between social media usage and engagement and creativity of students in
their graduate research training, we contacted Master’s and Ph.D. research students. We generated an online survey link and
distributed it through our contacts to the respondents. During a period of two months, that is, from July 2019 to August 2019, we
collected a total of 383 (56.32% response rate) useable responses. As such we distributed a total of 680 surveys during this time and
received 383 responses. Due to the specific settings of the online survey link, we did not face any issue of missing value. Of the 383
respondents, 67.9% were male students, 53.5% were in the age group of 21–25 years, and 67.4% were Master’s degree (by research)
students (see Table 1).

3.2. Measures

In order to achieve the objective of this study we adopted all the measurement items from the previous studies. However, to
accomplish the objective of this study, some items were slightly modified according to the context of graduate research training. The
detailed measurement items are shown in appendix.

3.2.1. Social media usage

14-items scale were taken from Ali-Hassan, Nevo, and Wade (2015) to measure the students’ use of social media. All items were
designed on a five-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. Sample items are for example., “I use social
media to discover people with interests similar to mine” and “I use social media to create content in collaboration with fellow re­
searchers”. The Cronbach’s alpha value of this scale used in our study was 0.92.

3.2.2. Knowledge sharing behavior

To assess the knowledge sharing behavior of our participant students, we used a four-items scale from the study of Farooq, Farooq,
and Jasimuddin (2014). Questions were designed on a five-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Sample
items are for example, “I always exchange information, knowledge, and skills with my fellow students around me”, and “I like to share
my special knowledge and expertise with my other research colleagues”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale in our study was found to

Table 2
Results of confirmatory factor analysis.
Variable Name Items Loadings CA CR AVE

Social Media Usage SU1 0.868 0.92 0.95 0.69

SU2 0.887
SU3 0.861
SU4 0.794
SU5 0.760
SU6 0.852
SU7 0.920
SU8 0.803
SU9 0.879
SU10 0.784
SU11 0.865
SU12 0.880
SU13 0.774
SU14 0.713
Knowledge sharing behavior NSB1 0.638 0.77 0.85 0.58
NSB 2 0.755
NSB 3 0.835
NSB 4 0.813
Creativity CRV1 0.756 0.94 0.94 0.72
CRV 2 0.721
CRV 3 0.955
CRV 4 0.937
CRV 5 0.937
CRV 6 0.756
Cyber bullying CB1 0.866 0.90 0.91 0.78
CB2 0.842
CB3 0.931
Engagement Eng1 0.849 0.92 0.94 0.73
Eng2 0.847
Eng3 0.864
Eng4 0.820
Eng5 0.894
Eng6 0.837

Note: Items: = no of items used in constructs, Loadings:= Factor Loading, CA = Cronbach’s alpha; CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance
extracted.

5
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

be 0.86.

3.2.3. Student creativity

Students’ creativity was assessed using a six-item scale from Zhang and Bartol (2010); Meng, Tan, and Li (2017) and Tierney,
Farmer, and Graen (1999) studies. All items were designed on a five-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = strongly
agree. Sample items are for example, “I suggest new perspectives to approaching research questions” and “I seek new evidence to
answer study questions”. The Cronbach’s alpha value of this scale in our study was 0.92.

3.2.4. Student engagement

We adapted a six-items student engagement scale from Stearns, Moller, Blau, and Potochnick (2007). A sample item is, “I often miss
my school/research lab”. All items were designed on a five-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The
Cronbach’s alpha value of this scale used in our study was 0.82.

3.2.5. Cyberbullying
We used a three-items scale from Lacey and Cornell (2013) to measure cyberbullying being faced by our respondent students. A
sample item is, “I have been teased or bothered online because of unwanted messages/pictures.” All items were designed on a
five-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The Cronbach’s alpha value of this scale in our study was
0.87.

3.2.6. Control variables

We included age, gender, and education level (Master or Ph.D.) as the control variables in this study as past studies have shown
relationships of these variables with the main variables of our study.

4. Analysis and results

We examined the research model of the study using several statistical procedures, for instance, we computed the factor loading of
all the items of the constructs used in our research. The results of Table 2 indicate that the loading of all the items is higher than the
minimum threshold value of 0.60 as suggested by Hair, Hollingsworth, Randolph, and Chong (2017). Moreover, to compute the
convergent validity of the proposed model, we examined Cronbach alpha (CA), Composite reliability (CR), and variance extracted
(AVE) of all the constructs. Results indicate that CA and CR of all the constructs were higher than 0.70, and AVE values were higher
than 0.50 and are acceptable as suggested in the previous research (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair Jr, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2016;
Nunnally & Bernstein, 1978). Hence, these results indicate that the research model has an acceptable level of convergent validity.
We examined the possible threat of common method variance (CMV) in our data set using three different methods. First, the results
of Table 3 indicate that all the constructs have co-relation values less than 0.90, which is evidence of the non-existence of CMV (Pavlou
& El Sawy, 2006). Second, we used Herman single factor test to analyze the possible issue of CMV in the study (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
& Podsakoff, 2012), Results show that the first factor has a value of 32.8% which is less than the threshold value of 50%.
Descriptive statistics and inter-correlation values have been reported in Table 3. These values provide preliminary support to our
hypotheses.

4.1. Hypotheses testing

We examined our hypothesized model using PROCESS macros in SPSS24. We tested our proposed research model in two steps. We
utilized PROCESS model 8, first with student engagement as a dependent variable (DV) and then with student creativity as a DV.
Table 4 indicates that students’ use of social media is positively related with students’ knowledge sharing behavior (B = 0.36, t = 4.72,
and p < 0.001), students’ engagement (B = 0.14, t = 2.25, and p < 0.05), and students’ creativity (B = 0.13, t = 2.11, and p < 0.05),
thereby supporting our H1a, H1b, and H1c. The results also indicate that students’ knowledge sharing behavior mediates the rela­
tionship between student use of social media and students’ engagement (effect = .081, se = 0.01, LLCI: 0.076, ULCI: 0.094), and
creativity (effect = 0.018, se = 0.01, LLCI: 0.017, ULCI: 0.045). Hence our H2a, and H2b are supported.

Table 3
Means, standard deviation, and correlations.
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Social Media Usage 3.45 0.60 0.83

2. Knowledge sharing behavior 3.99 0.61 0.34** 0.77
3. Creativity 3.58 0.76 0.23** 0.22** 0.85
4. Cyber bullying 3.75 1.04 0.60 0.04 0.09* 0.86
5. Engagement 3.94 0.77 0.06** 0.28** 0.01 0.10 0.85
6. Education level NA NA 0.11* 0.01 0.14** 0.11 0.05 NA
7. Age NA NA − 0.12 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.01 0.38* NA
8. Gender NA NA 0.04 0.11* 0.14 0.12 0.06 0.09 − 0.05 NA

Note:*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, M = mean; SD = standard deviation. The diagonal elements are the square root of the AVE.

6
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

Table 4
Regression Results.
Mediator Dependent Variables
Independent Variable
Knowledge Sharing Behavior Student Engagement Student Creativity
2 2
B SE t R B SE t R B SE t R2

0.14 0.11 0.11

Constant − 0.07 0.04 − 1.7 2.19 0.48 3.39 3.27 0.5 6.55***
Knowledge Sharing Behavior – – – 0.1 0.04 2.01* 0.11 0.04 2.03*
Social Media Usage 0.36 0.07 4.72** 0.14 0.1 2.25* 0.13 0.06 2.11*
Cyberbullying − 0.11 0.053 2.08*
Social media*Cyber bullying − 0.18 0.05 − 3.35**
Effect SE LLCI ULCI Effect SE LLCI ULCI
Indirect effect of Social media 0.081 0.01 0.076 0.094 0.018 0.01 0.017 0.045
Through knowledge sharing
behavior

Note: Unstandardized regression coefficients are shown; Bootstrap sample size = 5000; LLCI = Bias corrected lower limit confidence interval; ULCI =
Bias corrected upper limit confidence interval; Significant at: *p < 0.05; * *p < 0.01; and ***p < 0.001.

In addition, our results indicate that cyberbullying is negatively related with knowledge sharing behavior (B = − 0.11, t = − 2.08,
and p < 0.01) and the interaction term between social media usage and cyberbullying is significant (B = − 0.18, t = − 3.35, and p <
0.0.01), thereby supporting our H3a. The results hence validate the moderating role of cyberbullying with the relationship of social
media usage and knowledge sharing behavior.
We examined our moderator cyberbullying across three levels (i.e., at 1 SD above the mean, at the mean, and at 1 SD below the
mean) to analyze the conditional indirect effects of social media usage on student engagement and student creativity through
knowledge sharing behavior. Table 5 reports that the indirect effect of social media usage on student engagement is weak at +1SD
(effect = − 0.01, LLCI: 0.052, ULCI: 0.002) that when it is at -1SD (effect = − 0.04, LLCI: 0.118, ULCI: 0.006). Similarly, the indirect
effect of social media usage on student creativity is weak at +1SD (effect = − 0.01, LLCI: 0.056, ULCI: 0.002) that when it is at -1SD
(effect = − 0.05, LLCI: 0.124, ULCI: 0.005). These results support our moderated mediation hypotheses 3b and 3c.
In addition, we used a graphical approach to understand the moderating role of cyberbullying on the relationship between social
media usage and knowledge sharing behavior. Fig. 2 depicts that the relationship between social media usage and knowledge sharing
behavior is weak at the higher levels of cyberbullying.

5. Discussion

This research study was conducted to explore the relationships between students’ use of social media and their engagement and
creativity in graduate research training. We found that the student use of social media is positively associated with their engagement
and creativity in graduate research training while knowledge sharing behavior plays a mediating role in these relationships. In
addition, we found the moderating role of cyberbullying in such a way that cyberbullying weakens the relationships between student
use of social media and its positive outcomes such as knowledge sharing, engagement, and creativity. Our results are consistent with
the information processing theory and past empirical studies such as Junco (2012) who found a positive association between social
media use and student engagement.
Our findings are important in the areas of social media and higher education, for instance, we found important links between
research students’ use of social media and their engagement and creativity in research. Our findings reveal that the usage of social
media may help students to be more engaged and creative in their research training. The underlying reason we found in these re­
lationships between social media and students’ engagement and creativity is their knowledge sharing behavior. It can be explained as,

Table 5
Conditional indirect effects at specific value of moderator.

Dependent variable creativity Effect SE LLCI ULCI

− 1 (Low) − 0.05 0.02 − 0.124 − 0.005

+1 (High) − 0.01 0.01 − 0.056 − 0.002

Dependent variable Engagement

− 1 (Low) − 0.04 0.04 − 0.118 − 0.006

+1 (High) − 0.01 0.01 − 0.052 − 0.002

Note: Unstandardized regression coefficients are shown; LLCI = 95% Bias corrected lower limit confidence interval; ULCI = 95% Bias corrected upper limit
confidence interval.

7
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

Fig. 2. Interaction between social media usage, Knowledge shaing behavior, and cyber bullying.

the more use of social media inspires students to share knowledge among them which subsequently results in more engagement and
creativity in their research training. Our results are consistent with the noting of past research in other contexts. For example, Ruleman
(2012) argued that social media enhances students’ communication, teamwork, and relation-building with others. Scholars such as
Al-Khalifa and Garcia (2013) and Esam and Hashim (2016) suggested that social media helps people to exchange ideas and information
in a more cooperative and effective environment. Karunanayaka (2008), argued that the online environment provides access to
different resources, education tools, and collaboration amenities for enhanced learning. This rapid expansion of information tech­
nology has promoted social media integration in the existing educational system in several ways. Al-Aufi and Fulton (2015), analyzed
the impact of social networking sites on the educational patterns of academic communication and indicated that perceived usefulness
of social networking sites by students has a significant relation with their academic communication. The social media tools such as
Facebook, Researchgate, Academia.edu, Linkedin, Whatsapp groups, and many others are particularly important in boosting research
students’ knowledge sharing behavior.
Knowledge sharing is an activity through which knowledge is exchanged among friends, families, communities, and organizations.
Social networking based tools encourage teamwork that facilitates knowledge sharing (Junco et al., 2011). Studies, for instance, Bosch
(2009); Yu, Lu, and Liu (2010) suggest that the students having better educational learning are more engaged in social networking sites
as it is easier to exchange information on different social media platforms. Scholars argue that the main ingredient of creativity is new
knowledge and new knowledge is generated when the existing knowledge is shared among people through interactions (Csikszent­
mihalyi & Sawyer, 2014, pp. 67–71; Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). These arguments support our finding that how knowledge sharing is
positively associated with creativity in graduate research training. We can explain that the sharing of existing knowledge among
graduate research students through social media helps them to create new knowledge in their research projects. Our results regarding
the mediating role of knowledge sharing make a substantial theoretical contribution as it explains an underlying psychological
mechanism in the relationship between student use of social media and their engagement and creativity in graduate research training.
Knowledge sharing behavior thus provides us an answer to the question that how social media use by students can enhance their
engagement and creativity in their graduate research training. After answering the question of how and why social media use is linked
to student engagement and creativity, our research answers when these indirect and direct relationships are stronger. We concep­
tualize cyber bullying as an important boundary condition that weakens the relationship between social media use and its outcomes in
the form of knowledge sharing behavior, student engagement, and creativity.
Cyberbullying is a form of bullying that occurs over electronic devices and tools. Although there are several modes of cyberbullying
including emails, text messages, blogs, and websites, researchers recommend that social media platforms have become one of the
strongest sources of cyberbullying (Agatston, Kowalski, & Limber, 2007; Campbell, 2005; Kowalski & Giumetti, 2017, pp. 167–186;
Olweus & Limber, 2018). Examples of cyberbullying include anything that is posted online and is meant to harass, hurt, and upset
others. Students may become a victim of cyberbullying while using social media (Rice et al., 2015). When students face cyberbullying
they may not get equal benefits of using social media, as we found that the relationships between social media usage and its outcomes
are weaker for the students facing a higher level of cyberbullying on social media. This finding plays a very important role to un­
derstand the context of when social media usage is beneficial for the students in terms of boosting their knowledge sharing behavior
and their engagement and creativity in research training. We can explain this finding as; cyberbullying occurring through social media
may weaken the relationships between social media usage and its positive outcomes (such as knowledge sharing, student engagement,
and creativity in graduate research training) because of the negative consequences of cyberbullying being faced by the victim student.
Researchers have found negative consequences of cyberbullying on individuals’ health, well-being, and work engagement (Muhonen,
Jönsson, & Bäckström, 2017). Miller (2016) argued depression and self-esteem as the outcomes of cyberbullying. These negative
consequences of cyberbullying found in past research may also explain the reason for its buffering effect on the relationships between
student use of social media and its positive outcomes as found in our research. Thus this boundary condition role of cyberbullying
found in our study is a critical finding in the literature of social media and its link to student outcomes.

5.1. Practical implications

Our study has important implications for students, educational institutes, policymakers, and the general public. For instance, the
relationships found between social media use and its positive outcomes for graduate research students are critical to understanding the

8
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

role of social media in facilitating research training in modern days. Students, parents, teachers, research supervisors, and educational
institutes can, therefore, better understand the benefits associated with social media and should, therefore, utilize social media tools in
their research training. Our research indicates that social media usage can be very useful for students in a variety of ways. For instance,
the use of social media may help research students to make more collaboration with the people having similar research interests but
who are working at other far places. The more links with the external people may result in more sharing of information and thus this
knowledge sharing may lead to more engagement and creativity in their research training. Our findings also help educational in­
stitutes, teachers, and research supervisors to understand the benefits associated with social media in enhancing knowledge sharing,
engagement, and creativity among their graduate research students. They can specifically encourage their students to learn using
modern social media tools while effectively avoiding cyberbullying. Teachers, supervisors, and educational institutes can guide their
students on how to prevent cyberbullying. They can specifically arrange workshops with a focus on how to avoid cyberbullying and
becoming more involved in knowledge sharing behavior to utilize the benefits of social media. Governments can play their role in
terms of reducing cyberbullying on social media by introducing the relevant regulations. Specific legislations should be introduced and
strictly implemented in the digital era for reducing the frequency of cyberbullying so that students can better use social media for their
positive benefits.

5.2. Limitations and future directions

Although our study has found important results in the areas of social media and student outcomes, our findings should be seen in
terms of its limitations. For instance, our data is cross-sectional which has a potential threat of CMV. Although, we took procedural
remedies such as ensuring anonymity of identity and confidentiality of responses to our participants, and we statistically found that
there was no such issue of CMV in our data. Future researchers can still test our research model in a longitudinal or experimental design
to further validate the findings of our research. Second, our model theorized and tested one underlying mechanism in the relationships
between graduate research student use of social media and its outcomes. Future researchers can explore some more alternative ex­
planations, for instance, student motivation can be investigated other than knowledge sharing behavior as a mediating variable in our
model. Third, future researchers can theorize and investigate more moderating variables in our model such as social support. We tested
student engagement and creativity as the ultimate outcomes in our research model. Some more outcomes can also be investigated;
academic performance or well-being will be of great value in this context. Finally, although we utilized established measures, we admit
that some of the measures used in our research are general. Future research can involve designing more specific measures for the
variables used in our theoretical model.

6. Conclusion

Social media is getting popular in every ones’ life including students and researchers. This study has found important outcomes
associated with the use of social media by graduate research students. Although knowledge sharing behavior has been found as the
underlying reason in the positive relationships between social media use and student engagement and creativity in their graduate
research training, the role of cyberbullying is critical. The boundary condition role of cyberbullying found in our research has thus
called for more research in this area.

Authors’ contribution

Muhammad Imran Rasheed: as a principal author of this research paper proposed initial research model, designed the method,
wrote introduction and discussion sections and well as edited the whole manuscript time and again. He also handled revisions.Jawad
Malik: conducted initial literature review, drafted initial theory building section, and collected the required data.Abdul Hameed Pitafi:
mainly worked on empirical analyses required for this study but his support remained available throughout the study.Jawad Iqbal
provided: his expert guidelines at each phase of this study as well as he edited the whole manuscript.Muhammad Khalid Anser: worked
mainly on designing the method and writing theory and literature.Mazhar Abbas: helped in working on some parts of the literature
review as well as he helped the principal author in working on revisions in different phases

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Muhammad Imran Rasheed: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.

APPENDIX. The Measurement Instrument

Social media use. I use social media to Social use.

1. Create new relationships for my research training

2. Get to know people I would otherwise not meet during my research
3. Maintain close social relationships with people at my research training
4. Get acquainted with fellow researchers who share my interests
5. Discover people with research and education interests similar to mine

9
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

Cognitive use.

1. Share content with fellow researchers

2. Create content in collaboration with fellow researchers
3. Create content for research training
4. Disseminate content at research training
5. Access content created by my fellow researchers

Hedonic use.

1. Enjoy my break during research work

2. Take a break from research training
3. Entertain myself during research work
4. Relax at research training

Knowledge Sharing Behavior.

Kindly report the extent of your agreement with the statements below.

1. I like to share my special knowledge and expertise with my other research colleagues
2. If I have some special knowledge about how to perform a certain task, I am likely to tell the other research fellows about it
3. I always exchange information, knowledge, and skills with my fellow students around me
4. I freely provide my research colleagues with hard to find knowledge or specialized skills

Student Engagement

1. I often miss my school/research lab

2. I often cut/skip my classes/research workshops
3. I often get late to reach my school/research lab
4. I often go to my school/research lab without prepared
5. I often go to my school/research lab without research tools such as needed research apparatus/laptop
6. I often go to my school/research lab without needed books/material etc.

Student Creativity

1. I suggest new perspectives to approaching research questions

2. I seek new evidence to answer research questions
3. I demonstrate maximum originality in my research work
4. I take risk in terms of producing new ideas in my research
5. I often come up with creative solutions to research problems
6. I often suggest new ways of performing work tasks at my research lab

Cyberbullying
Indicate your level of agreement with the statements below as you experience during your research.

1. I have been teased or bothered online because of unwanted messages/pictures

2. I felt insulted or ridiculed because of comments or messages through social media forums that I use for during my research training
3. I was excluded from a research oriented social media forum through blocking my comments or removing them

References

Adkins, D., & Bossaller, J. E. (2007). Fiction access points across computer-mediated book information sources: A comparison of online bookstores, reader advisory
databases, and public library catalogs. Library & Information Science Research, 29(3), 354–368.
Agatston, P. W., Kowalski, R., & Limber, S. (2007). Students’ perspectives on cyber bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6), S59–S60.
Ahmed, Y. A., Ahmad, M. N., Ahmad, N., & Zakaria, N. H. (2019). Social media for knowledge-sharing: A systematic literature review. Telematics and Informatics, 37
(April 2019), 72–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2018.01.015.
Al-Aufi, A., & Fulton, C. (2015). Impact of social networking tools on scholarly communication: A cross-institutional study. The Electronic Library, 33(2), 224–241.
Al-Khalifa, H. S., & Garcia, R. A. (2013). The state of social media in Saudi Arabia’s higher education. International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing, 3
(1), 65–76.
Al-Rahmi, W. M., Yahaya, N., Alamri, M. M., Aljarboa, N. A., Kamin, Y. B., & Saud, M. S. B. (2019). How cyber stalking and cyber bullying affect students’ open
learning. IEEE Access, 7, 20199–20210.

10
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

Ali-Hassan, H., Nevo, D., & Wade, M. (2015). Linking dimensions of social media use to job performance: The role of social capital. The Journal of Strategic Information
Systems, 24(2), 65–89.
Allen, B., Caple, H., Coleman, K., & Nguyen, T. (2012). Creativity in practice: Social media in higher education (Paper presented at the ASCILITE: Future Challenges-
Sustainable Futures Conference, Wellington, New Zealand).
Alwagait, E., Shahzad, B., & Alim, S. (2015). Impact of social media usage on students academic performance in Saudi Arabia. Computers in Human Behavior, 51,
1092–1097.
Anderson, M. (2018). A majority of teens have experienced some form of cyberbullying.
Argote, L., & Ingram, P. (2000). Knowledge transfer: A basis for competitive advantage in firms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82(1), 150–169.
Bosch, T. E. (2009). Using online social networking for teaching and learning: Facebook use at the University of Cape Town. Communicatio: South African Journal for
Communication Theory and Research, 35(2), 185–200.
Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, 13(1), 210–230.
Budge, K. (2013). Virtual studio practices: Visual artists, social media and creativity. Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts, 5(1), 15–23.
Bukowitz, W. R., & Williams, R. L. (1999). The knowledge management field book. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Financial Times (FT) Press, Prentice Hall.
Campbell, M. A. (2005). Cyber bullying: An old problem in a new guise? Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 15(1), 68–76.
Chan, R. C. H., Chu, S. K. W., Lee, C. W. Y., Chan, B. K. T., & Leung, C. K. (2013). Knowledge management using social media: A comparative study between blogs and
Facebook. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 76th ASIS&T Annual Meeting: Beyond the Cloud: Rethinking Information Boundaries.
Chen, L.-L. (2019). Utilizing online collaboration to enhance learners’ social emotional competencies (Paper presented at the EdMedia+ Innovate Learning).
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 3, 7.
Craft, A. (2005). Creativity in schools: Tensions and dilemmas. Routledge.
Crews, T. B., Wilkinson, K., & Neill, J. K. (2015). Principles for good practice in undergraduate education: Effective online course design to assist students’ success.
Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 11(1), 87.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Sawyer, K. (2014). Shifting the focus from individual to organizational creativity The systems model of creativity. Springer.
Cunha, F. R.d., Jr., van Kruistum, C., & van Oers, B. (2016). Teachers and Facebook: Using online groups to improve students’ communication and engagement in
education. Communication Teacher, 30(4), 228–241.
Dabner, N. (2012). ‘Breaking ground’in the use of social media: A case study of a university earthquake response to inform educational design with Facebook. The
Internet and Higher Education, 15(1), 69–78.
Eid, M. I., & Al-Jabri, I. M. (2016). Social networking, knowledge sharing, and student learning: The case of university students. Computers & Education, 99, 14–27.
Esam, N., & Hashim, N. (2016). The impact of social media use on academic performance among UITM Puncak Perdana Students. Research Hub, 2(2), 16–23.
Farley, S., Coyne, I., Sprigg, C., Axtell, C., & Subramanian, G. (2015). Exploring the impact of workplace cyberbullying on trainee doctors. Medical Education, 49(4),
436–443.
Farooq, M., Farooq, O., & Jasimuddin, S. M. (2014). Employees response to corporate social responsibility: Exploring the role of employees’ collectivist orientation.
European Management Journal, 32(6), 916–927.
Faryadi, Q. (2011). Cyber bullying and academic performance. Online Submission, 1(1), 23–30.
Fewkes, A. M., & McCabe, M. (2012). Facebook: Learning tool or distraction? Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 28(3), 92–98.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18,
39–50.
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1),
59–109.
García-García, C., Chulvi, V., & Royo, M. (2017). Knowledge generation for enhancing design creativity through co-creative Virtual Learning Communities. Thinking
Skills and Creativity, 24, 12–19.
Gikas, J., & Grant, M. M. (2013). Mobile computing devices in higher education: Student perspectives on learning with cellphones, smartphones & social media. The
Internet and Higher Education, 19, 18–26.
Gray, J. A., & DiLoreto, M. (2016). The effects of student engagement, student satisfaction, and perceived learning in online learning environments. International
Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 11(1), n1.
Greenhow, C., Peppler, K. A., & Solomou, M. (2011). Building creativity: Collaborative learning and creativity in social media environments. On the Horizon.
Hair, J., Hollingsworth, C. L., Randolph, A. B., & Chong, A. Y. L. (2017). An updated and expanded assessment of PLS-SEM in information systems research. Industrial
Management & Data Systems, 117(3), 442–458.
Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage publications.
Huang, C. (2018). Social network site use and academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Computers & Education, 119, 76–83.
Hudson, S. (2018). The impact of cyber-bullying on adolescents. Georgia Milestones Scores.
Hu, S., Gu, J., Liu, H., & Huang, Q. (2017). The moderating role of social media usage in the relationship among multicultural experiences, cultural intelligence, and
individual creativity. Information Technology & People.
Jadin, T., Gnambs, T., & Batinic, B. (2013). Personality traits and knowledge sharing in online communities. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(1), 210–216.
Jahnke, I., Haertel, T., & Wildt, J. (2017). Teachers’ conceptions of student creativity in higher education. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 54(1),
87–95.
Jeffres, L. W., Neuendorf, K., & Atkin, D. J. (2012). Acquiring knowledge from the media in the Internet age. Communication Quarterly, 60(1), 59–79.
Josefsson, P., Hrastinski, S., Pargman, D., & Pargman, T. C. (2016). The student, the private and the professional role: Students’ social media use. Education and
Information Technologies, 21(6), 1583–1594.
Junco, R. (2012). The relationship between frequency of Facebook use, participation in Facebook activities, and student engagement. Computers & Education, 58(1),
162–171.
Junco, R., Heiberger, G., & Loken, E. (2011). The effect of Twitter on college student engagement and grades. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 27(2), 119–132.
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2016). Higher education and the digital revolution: About MOOCs, SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster. Business Horizons, 59
(4), 441–450.
Karpinski, A. C., Kirschner, P. A., Ozer, I., Mellott, J. A., & Ochwo, P. (2013). An exploration of social networking site use, multitasking, and academic performance
among United States and European university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 1182–1192.
Karunanayaka, S. (2008). Designing an online learning community among teacher educators. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 3(2), 71–82.
Kirkwood, A. (2008). Getting it from the web: Why and how online resources are used by independent undergraduate learners. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning,
24(5), 372–382.
Ko, D.-G., Kirsch, L. J., & King, W. R. (2005). Antecedents of knowledge transfer from consultants to clients in enterprise system implementations. MIS Quarterly, 29
(1), 59–85.
Koranteng, F. N., Wiafe, I., & Kuada, E. (2018). An empirical study of the relationship between social networking sites and students’ engagement in higher education.
Journal of Educational Computing Research, Article 0735633118787528.
Kowalski, R. M., & Giumetti, G. W. (2017). Bullying in the digital age Cybercrime and its victims. Routledge.
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research
among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1073.
Lacey, A., & Cornell, D. (2013). The impact of teasing and bullying on schoolwide academic performance. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 29(3), 262–283.
Lai, C.-C., & Kritsonis, W. A. (2006). The advantages and disadvantages of computer technology in second language acquisition. Online Submission, 3(1).
Lau, W. W. (2017). Effects of social media usage and social media multitasking on the academic performance of university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 68,
286–291.

11
M.I. Rasheed et al. Computers & Education 159 (2020) 104002

Lin, H.-M., & Tsai, C.-C. (2011). College students’ conceptions of learning management: The difference between traditional (face-to-face) instruction and web-based
learning environments. Learning, Media and Technology, 36(4), 437–452.
Mäntymäki, M., & Riemer, K. (2016). Enterprise social networking: A knowledge management perspective. International Journal of Information Management, 36(6),
1042–1052.
McLoughlin, C., & Lee, M. (2007). Social software and participatory learning: Pedagogical choices with technology affordances in the Web 2.0 era.
Meng, Y., Tan, J., & Li, J. (2017). Abusive supervision by academic supervisors and postgraduate research students’ creativity: The mediating role of leader–member
exchange and intrinsic motivation. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 20(5), 605–617.
Miller, K. (2016). Cyberbullying and its consequences: How cyberbullying is contorting the minds of victims and bullies alike, and the law’s limited available redress.
S. Cal. Interdisc. LJ, 26, 379.
Muhonen, T., Jönsson, S., & Bäckström, M. (2017). Consequences of cyberbullying behaviour in working life. International Journal of Workplace Health Management.
Nahapiet, J., & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23(2), 242–266.
Narayan, V., Herrington, J., & Cochrane, T. (2019). Design principles for heutagogical learning: Implementing student-determined learning with mobile and social
media tools. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. (1978). Psychometric theory (2ed). New York: New York: McGraw-Hill.
Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2018). Some problems with cyberbullying research. Current opinion in psychology, 19, 139–143.
Osatuyi, B. (2013). Information sharing on social media sites. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2622–2631.
Owen, M., Grant, L., Sayers, S., & Facer, K. (2006). Social software and learning. Futurelab. HAL, 1, 1–36.
Pavlou, P. A., & El Sawy, O. A. (2006). From IT leveraging competence to competitive advantage in turbulent environments: The case of new product development.
Information Systems Research, 17(3), 198–227.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual
Review of Psychology, 63, 539–569.
Rashid, T., & Asghar, H. M. (2016). Technology use, self-directed learning, student engagement and academic performance: Examining the interrelations. Computers in
Human Behavior, 63, 604–612.
Raskauskas, J., & Stoltz, A. D. (2007). Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43(3), 564.
Rauniar, R., Rawski, G., Yang, J., & Johnson, B. (2014). Technology acceptance model (TAM) and social media usage: An empirical study on Facebook. Journal of
Enterprise Information Management, 27(1), 6–30.
Rice, E., Petering, R., Rhoades, H., Winetrobe, H., Goldbach, J., Plant, A., … Kordic, T. (2015). Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among middle-school
students. American Journal of Public Health, 105(3), e66–e72.
Ruleman, A. B. (2012). Social media at the university: A demographic comparison. New Library World, 113(7/8), 316–332.
Ruzgar, N. S. (2005). A research on the purpose of internet usage and learning via internet. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 4(4), 27–32.
Sadaf, A., Newby, T. J., & Ertmer, P. A. (2012). Exploring pre-service teachers’ beliefs about using Web 2.0 technologies in K-12 classroom. Computers & Education, 59
(3), 937–945.
Sarwar, B., Zulfiqar, S., Aziz, S., & Ejaz Chandia, K. (2019). Usage of social media tools for collaborative learning: The effect on learning success with the moderating
role of cyberbullying. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(1), 246–279.
Scott, S., & Palincsar, A. (2013). Sociocultural theory. Education. com.
Seifert, T. (2016). Involvement, collaboration and engagement: Social networks through a pedagogical lens. Journal of Learning Design, 9(2), 31–45.
Shneiderman, B. (2019). Creativity and collaboration: Revisiting cybernetic serendipity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(6), 1837–1843.
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4), 376–385.
Stearns, E., Moller, S., Blau, J., & Potochnick, S. (2007). Staying back and dropping out: The relationship between grade retention and school dropout. Sociology of
Education, 80(3), 210–240.
Tarantino, K., McDonough, J., & Hua, M. (2013). Effects of student engagement with social media on student learning: A review of literature. The Journal of Technology
in Student Affairs, 1(8), 1–8.
Thoms, B., & Eryilmaz, E. (2014). How media choice affects learner interactions in distance learning classes. Computers & Education, 75, 112–126.
Tierney, P., Farmer, S. M., & Graen, G. B. (1999). An examination of leadership and employee creativity: The relevance of traits and relationships. Personnel
Psychology, 52(3), 591–620.
Tong, C., Tak, W. I. W., & Wong, A. (2015). The impact of knowledge sharing on the relationship between organizational culture and job satisfaction: The perception
of information communication and technology (ICT) practitioners in Hong Kong. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 5(1), 19.
Wierenga, B., Althuizen, N., & Chen, B. (2017). Managing the supply and demand of creativity. RSM Discovery-Management Knowledge, 31(3), 17–19.
Yu, T.-K., Lu, L.-C., & Liu, T.-F. (2010). Exploring factors that influence knowledge sharing behavior via weblogs. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(1), 32–41.
Zhang, X., & Bartol, K. M. (2010). Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: The influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and
creative process engagement. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 107–128.

12