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The Piezoelectric Effect – a Descriptive Representation of an Essential Solid

Body Effect Using the Example of Alpha-Quartz

Conference Paper · October 2017

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 The Piezoelectric Effect – a Descriptive
Representation of an Essential Solid Body Effect
Using the Example of Alpha-Quartz

Rüdiger G. Ballas
Wilhelm Büchner University of Applied Sciences
D 64319 Pfungstadt, Germany
Email: ruediger.ballas@wb-fernstudium.de

Abstract—The piezoelectric effect, which was discovered for

the first time by the brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie, combines
electrical with mechanical quantities and vice versa. If piezoelec-
tric materials (e.g. quartz, turmaline) are subjected to electrical
signals along certain crystal orientations, deformations along
well-defined crystal orientations appear. Contrary, a mechanical
deformation results in a generation of polarization charges. The
aim of this paper is to convey a deeper understanding of this
essential solid body effect. A large number of ionic crystals show
the so-called direct and reciprocal piezoelectric effect. In this
paper, an illustrative representation of both effects is given by
the molecular structure of alpha-quartz, a stable modification
of the silicon dioxide the second most common mineral of the
earth’s crust. Both effects always involve an important physical
quantity, the so-called electrical polarization, which represents
an Euclidean vector being defined as the quotient of the total
dipole moment resulting from the deformation of the hexagonal
unit cell of alpha-quartz and the volume of the unit cell.

I. I NTRODUCTION Fig. 1. Alpha-quartz crystal (low-quartz) and corresponding crystal axes.

The common characteristic of all piezoelectric crystals is

the existence of one or more polar axes. In crystallography, II. M ACROSCOPIC G ENERATION OF P IEZOELECTRICITY
a polar axis is characterized by the fact that its front and
rear ends are not equivalent, i. e. a rotation around an axis Figure 2a shows a hexagonal prism, which can be assumed
perpendicular to the polar axis by an angle of 180◦ does not to be cut out from the quartz crystal parallel to the plane of the
match the original position of the respective crystal [1]. Figure polar axes X1 , X2 and X3 shown in Fig. 2. Now, a mechanical
1 illustrates this fact on the macroscopic scale by means of the pressure load is applied to the prism along its X1 -axis (see Fig.
typical crystal form of quartz, also called low-quartz or alpha- 2b).
quartz.
In its low-temperature modification occurring below 573 ◦C
(hence the term low-quartz), the quartz crystal belongs to
the trigonal crystal system, one of seven crystal systems in
crystallography serving for the three-dimensional classification
of crystals [2]. There are three polar axes, which are marked
with X1 , X2 and X3 . Each axis connects two opposing
edges of the hexagonal prism. However, the opposing edges
are not equivalent, which becomes obvious by the fact, that
for example the small surfaces marked with a and b are
present at the rear edge which is assigned to the axis X2 , but
these are missing at the opposite edge. The axis marked with
Z represents the so-called crystallographic main axis (often
referred to as the optical axis) and is non-polar. This is because Fig. 2. Generation of piezoelectricity: (a) unloaded hexagonal quartz prism;
after a 180◦ rotation around one of the X-axes, the quartz (b) occurrence of equal electric charges of opposite sign at the edges of the
crystal matches its original position [3]. quartz prism generated by a mechanical pressure load.
In case of an applied mechanical pressure load it can be obser-
ved, that electric charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign
occur at the ends of the respective polar axes, in other words,
piezoelectricity is generated. The mechanical pressure load
does not necessarily have to act directly along the polar axis
direction. An existing pressure load component acting along
the direction of the polar axis is already sufficient. In order
to be able to explain physically the piezoelectric phenomenon
occurring on the prism, it is necessary to discuss the structure
of alpha-quartz and the chemical bonding properties at the
molecular level.
ions a, b and c respectively turned by 60◦ with respect to the
polar axes is equivalent [8]. Thus, it appears that the position
of the silicon ions and the oxygen ions continues helically
in counterclockwise direction into the drawing plane. The
direction of rotation of the spiral corresponds to the direction
of optical rotation of the present crystal structure - thus, it is a
left-handed alpha-quartz crystal. The unit cell of alpha-quartz
according to Fig. 4 is electrically neutral towards the outside.
Each of the three silicon ions carries 4 positive and each of
the six oxygen ions carries 2 negative unit charges, therefore
all charges are saturated each other [1].

III. M OLECULAR S TRUCTURE OF A LPHA -Q UARTZ

Alpha-quartz represents the most important modification
of silicon dioxide (SiO2), the second most common mineral of
the earth’s crust. At the molecular level, alpha quartz consists
of a network of continuously connected [SiO4]4– tetrahedra
[4]. In silicates, including alpha-quartz, [SiO4]4– tetrahedra
are the most important structuring coordination polyhedra. As
illustrated in Fig. 3a, the silicon atom is surrounded by four
oxygen atoms. With regard to the Si–O bond and thus to
the bonding properties within the [SiO4]4– tetrahedron, neither Fig. 4. Unit cell of alpha-quartz with corresponding polar axes (the
a pure covalent bond (see Fig. 3b) nor a pure ionic bond crystallographic main axis Z points perpendicularly into the drawing plane)
[according to [8]].
is present (see Fig. 3c). The truth about the real bonding
properties is somewhere in between.
For reasons of simplicity, in a next step the oxygen ions located
below the anions a and b and the oxygen ion located above
the anion c are combined into a single oxygen ion – each
consisting of two O2– ions – with 4 unit charges. This results
in the simplified unit cell of alpha-quartz shown in Fig. 5. It
shows a regular hexagonal basic structure, where the negatively
charged O2– and the positively charged Si4+ ions are arranged
at its corners. The polar axes X1 , X2 and X3 represent 2-fold
axes of rotation, the crystallographic main axis Z, which points
Fig. 3. Structuring coordination polyhedron of alpha-quartz and its bonding perpendicularly into the drawing plane, represents a 3-fold axis
boundaries (valence electron pairs are indicated by dashes as usual): (a) of rotation. In crystallography, an axis is called an n-fold axis
[SiO4]4– tetrahedron; (b) pure covalent bond (atomic bond); (c) pure ionic of rotation, if a crystal lattice already results in a configuration
bond. which does not differ from the initial configuration of the
crystal lattice after a rotation around 360◦ /n. If the structure
By means of the electronegativities of silicon (χSi = 1,8) and cell as shown in Fig.5b is rotated for example around the polar
oxygen (χO = 3,5) – the electronegativity of a chemical ele- axis X1 , a configuration is obtained which is identical to the
ment is a measure of its ability to gain electrons in a molecule initial configuration when rotated by 180◦ . Thus, the rotation
– the difference of electronegativity results in ∆χ = 1,7. For by 180◦ is a symmetry operation and the 2-fold axis of rotation
such a value, a partial ionic character of 50 % can be assumed (360◦ /2 = 180◦ ) represents the symmetry element. If this
for the Si–O bond [5][6]. In the following, it is assumed that
there is a pure ionic bond within the [SiO4]4– tetrahedron.
This assumption allows for a very clear explanation of the
piezoelectric effect.
In a first approximation, the alpha-quartz-specific spatial
cross-linking of [SiO4]4– tetrahedra results in a hexagonal
unit cell, as shown in Fig. 4. The unit cell is composed of
three formula units SiO2. The assumption of ionic bonding
properties is associated with the fact that the silicon ion
(cation) occupies a smaller volume of space than the oxygen
ion (anion) [7]. By representing the different sizes of the
silicon and oxygen ions in Fig. 4, this fact is taken into
account. The crystallographic main axis Z is perpendicular to
the plane defined by the polar axes X1 , X2 and X3 and points
into the drawing plane. With respect to the drawing plane, Fig. 5. Simplified unit cell of alpha-quartz with corresponding polar axes:
the silicon ion 1 is located over the silicon ion 2 and this (a) Arrangement of the Si4+ and O2– ions in a regular hexagon; (b) 2 and
again over the silicon ion 3. The arrangement of the oxygen 3-fold axes of rotation as symmetry elements.

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