Research comes from the Middle French word Systematic, structured with specified steps; in Applied = finding a solution
ed = finding a solution for an immediate
rechercher, meaning “to seek out.”
-in common parlance refers to a search for
knowledge.
-a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”
-an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement
-It refers to the systematic method consisting of
enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and
reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.
Objectives:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out
the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it;
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group;
3. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else; and
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables.
A good research is:
accordance with the well defined set of rules problem facing a society
Logical, guided by the rules of logical reasoning and Fundamental = generalizations and with the
the logical process of induction and deduction formulation of a theory
⚫ Inductive reasoning (empiricist’s approach)- Quantitative vs Qualitative
starts from specific observations or sensory Quantitative = based on the measurement of
experiences and then develops a general quantity or amount
conclusion from them Qualitative = concerned with qualitative
Example: All the giraffes that I have seen have very phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
long necks. (repeated observations) Therefore, I involving quality or kind
conclude that all giraffes have long necks.
(conclusion) Conceptual vs Empirical
Conceptual = abstract ideas or theory
⚫ Deductive reasoning (rationalist’s approach)- Empirical = relies on experience or observation
begins with general statements (premises) and,
through logical argument, comes to a specific
conclusion. Research Philosophies:
Exampple: All living things will eventually die. (first
premise) This animal is a living thing. (second
premise) Therefore, this animal will eventually die.
(conclusion)
Empirical, verifiable by observation
Replicable, allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound
basis for decisions
Types:
Descriptive vs Analytical
Descriptive = surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds
Analytical = use facts or information already
available
Applied vs Fundamental

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Formulating the research problem
What are your interests? What field you would like to
specialize in?
Ask a question.
The scientific method starts when you ask a
question about something that you observe: How,
What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
And, in order for the scientific method to answer the
question it must be about something that you can
measure, preferably with a number.
2. Extensive literature survey
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of
it should be written down.
At this juncture you should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem:
journals, published or unpublished bibliographies,
conference proceedings, government reports, books,
etc.
3.Development of working hypotheses
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in
order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide you by
delimiting the area of research and to keep you on
the right track.
How do you go about developing working
hypotheses?
The answer is by using the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about
the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking
a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available,
concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the
studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves
original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to
secure greater insight into the practical aspects of
the problem.
4. Preparing the research design
Research design involves choosing the right
methodology, selecting the most appropriate data
collection methods, and devising a plan (framework)
for analyzing the data.
Terminologies in an experiment
Variable – factor in the experiment that is being
tested
Control variable – any variable that is held constant
in a research study (controls are used for
comparison); a variable that is not of interest to the
study's objectives, but is controlled because it could
influence the outcomes
Independent variable – factor that is changed
Dependent variable – factor that is measured or
observed
5. Determining sample design
You must decide the way of selecting a sample or
what is popularly known as the sample design.
A sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population.
Deliberate sampling
non-probability sampling; participants are selected
according to the needs of the study; applicants who
do not meet the profile are rejected
Example: You may be conducting a study on why
high school students choose community college
over university. You might canvas high school
students and your first question would be “Are you
planning to attend college?” People who answer
“No,” would be excluded from the study.
Simple random sampling
chance sampling or probability sampling; every item
in the population has an equal chance of inclusion
in the sample and each one of the possible samples,
in case of finite universe, has the same probability of
being selected.
Example: the names of 30 employees being chosen
out of a hat from a company of 300 employees
Systematic sampling
the selection process starts by picking some
random point in the list and then every nth element
is selected until the desired number is secured
Example: every 15th on the list; every 10th house on
this side of the street
Stratified sampling
Involves the division of a population into a smaller
sub-groups known as strata; strata are formed
based on members’ shared attributes or
characteristics, such as income or educational
attainment
-has numerous applications and benefits, such as
studying population demographics and life
expectancy
Quota sampling
a non-probability sampling method that relies on the
non-random selection of a predetermined number
or proportion of units
- recruit sample units from a strata until you reach
your quota
Cluster sampling and area sampling
Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather
than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
- Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling
and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one.
Multi-stage sampling
further development of the idea of area sampling
Example: select large primary sampling units such
as states, then districts, then towns and finally
certain families within towns
Sequential sampling
the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in
advance but is determined according to
mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses
- usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan
in the context of statistical quality control
6. Collecting the data
Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey. Data should be
collected based on appropriate and approved
procedures.
7. Analysis of data and hypothesis-testing
The analysis of data requires a number of closely
related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to
raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences.
After analyzing the data, you are in a position to test
the hypotheses. Do the facts support the
hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
8. Implications, Conclusions and
Recommendation
The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations.
Recommendation normally highlight a few potential
research questions derived at the end of the
research process and to foster new research
continuation based on findings.
9. Communicate results
Finally, you have to prepare the report of what has
been done.
Contents: preliminary pages, main text (introduction
and objectives, methodology, findings, discussion,
conclusion), and the end matter.
You can also communicate your work in scientific
conferences, journal articles, and even in social
media.
6 WAYS TO FIND A RESEARCH TOPIC
1. Flash of Brilliance model
You wake up one day with a new insight/idea. 🡪
rarely happens
2. The Apprentice model
Your adviser has a list of topics
🡪 You might not be interested.
3. The Phoenix model
The topic emerges from your work; re-implement in
a common framework
You may be working without a topic for a long time.
4. The Stapler model
You work on a number of small topics that turn into
a series of conference papers. You figure out
somehow how to tie it all together.
🡪 May be impossible to find the tie.
5. The Synthesis model
You read some paper from other related field and
look for places to apply insight from another field of
your own.
You can spend a career reading papers.
6. The Expanded Term Project model
You take a project course that gives you a new
perspective.
🡪 This can distract from your research if you can’t
find a related project
Factors to consider in selecting a research
problem
The topic should be important/ significant. Ensure
that your study adds to the existing body of
knowledge.
Consider the feasibility of the study
-How much time do you have?
-How difficult is it?
-Are data available?
-How much will it cost?
Make sure the topic is ETHICAL to study.
You should have a personal interest in the topic.
Make sure the research question is clear.
Literature Review
Purpose
Provide essential background knowledge.
Identify what has already been done.
Clarify what is already known.
Justify the research effort. Why is the study needed?
Identify prior research mistakes.
Provides study rationale.
Facilitates interpretation of the results.
Tips
Search from reliable secondary sources: scientific
articles, reviews, conference papers, government
publications, etc.
Avoid questionable sources like free online
encyclopedia, blogs, TV shows, and chat rooms
Know the right keywords to use
Be systematic and organized
It is generally best to start globally and then narrow
it down to the specific research question you have.
Tips on organizing
Locate the article
Scan it to determine relevance
Copy/Paste the article (if relevant)
Read the article
Code the article
Make notes on how it will be useful
Writing the literature review
Develop an outline
Determine how the identified sources fit into the
outline
Organize parts into a meaningful whole
Develop the reference list