Solution Manual for An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 4th Edition

Chapter 2: Mechanical Design Chapter 2: Mechanical Design

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Mechanical Engineering 4th Edition
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2: Mechanical Design Chapter 2: Mechanical Design

P2.1: Give three examples of engineered products that must be circular in shape and
explain why. Any ball is not allowed as an answer!

Examples include:
⋅ DVD’s
⋅ CD’s
⋅ manhole covers
⋅ railroad advance warning signs
⋅ wheel (for flat roads)
⋅ axles
⋅ bullet cross-section (balanced for stable flight)
⋅ European speed limit sign
⋅ any shape with minimized arc length/surface area for given area/volume
⋅ optimized pressure vessel cross sections
⋅ US coin
⋅ lens (part of circle)
⋅ optimal nozzle/diffuser (no edge effects)
⋅ optimal capillary tube
⋅ optimal suction cup
⋅ traffic circle
⋅ thrown pot (on potting wheel)

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Chapter 2: Mechanical Design Chapter 2: Mechanical Design

P2.2: Give three examples of engineered products that must be triangular in shape and
explain why.

Examples include:
⋅ yield signs
⋅ the triangle instrument
⋅ billiards rack
⋅ knife blade (cross-section)
⋅ supports for finishing wood (pyramids or cones, must come to a point)
⋅ splitting wedge
⋅ handicap ramp viewed from side (to meet code)
⋅ three equally spaced instances per rotation cam
⋅ 30°-60°-90° or 45°-45°-90° drafting triangle
⋅ one of six identical pieces that can be assembled into a hexagon
⋅ chisel point

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the war he was engaged on the Atlantic coast until his appointment in 1852
to the superintendency of the Military Academy. In 1855 he was made
Lieutenant Colonel of the Second Cavalry, and was transferred to the Texas
border. While on leave of absence in Washington in 1859, he was placed in
charge of the troops which quelled the raid at Harper’s Ferry. In March,
1861, he was made colonel, but when he learned of Virginia’s secession he
resigned and accepted an appointment in the insurrectionary forces of his
native State. Repairing to Richmond he was made commander-in-chief of
the forces of Virginia, with the title of Major General. Soon after, by an act
of the Confederate Congress, he was made third in rank of the entire rebel
forces, Samuel Cooper and A. S. Johnston being his superiors. Because of
his inactivity before Rosecrans he was transferred in December to North
and South Carolina, where he remained until March, 1862, when he
returned to accept the position of commander-in-chief of all the Confederate
forces. In June he defeated McClellan and began his northward march,
routing the forces of Pope and invading the State of Maryland. The bloody
battle of Antietam was claimed as a victory by both sides, but Lee thought
best immediately to retire into Virginia. Until his next invasion and defeat at
Gettysburg in July, 1863, he remained on the defensive. His subsequent
retreat, his generalship in the battle of the Wilderness and other
engagements following it disclosed great tact and prudence. The ability
which he displayed in the defense of Richmond excites the admiration of
every impartial reader of history, and does great credit to his military
genius. This genius was more than matched at last by that of General Grant,
sustained by the greater resources of the North, and he was compelled to
surrender his sword at Appomattox Court House. Subsequently he became
President of Washington and Lee College, located at Lexington, Va., where
he died Oct. 12, 1870.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.

K , Iowa.
It is said that the companions of Christopher Columbus were
greatly alarmed when the variations of the compass was first
remarked. Please explain why the needle of a compass points
 north, and also give the amount of its variation for different
places.
C. E. L .
Answer.—Why the magnetic needle points northward is not positively
determined. There are several theories but none of them explain all the
phenomena of the needle. That which perplexes scientists most is that in
every place the needle is subject to variations. By observations at Paris it
was found that in 1681 the magnetic needle varied 2 deg. 30 min. to the
west, in 1865 18 deg. 44 min. to the west. At London between 1580 and
1692 the needle varied from 10 deg. 15 min. E. to 6 deg. W. In Dakota
Territory the average variation is 12 deg. 30 min. east, in Minnesota 11 deg.
east, while in Montana it is 20 deg. east. S. V. Clevenger, United States
Deputy Surveyor, says in a work on government surveys: “The needle does
not point due north, except in a few localities, and at no place does it
continue to point with a given angular distance from the north, for any
stated length of time. It changes secularly, annually, diurnally, and hourly,
and is further subject to fluctuations reducible to no method of tabulation.
In the vicinity of iron in any shape, or magnetic sands, the needle is
deflected toward the material attracting it. This perturbation is known as
local attraction. The author has known the needle to vary 5 deg. in a
distance of one mile, and 1 deg. 30 min. during two hours when stationed at
one place.” The variation in the magnetic needle of Columbus’ compass
was probably caused by some local attraction of which he knew nothing.

DISCOURAGEMENTS TO ANTARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

P , Ind.
Why is the north pole the object of more research than the
south pole?
S .
Answer.—Soon after the discovery of America European navigators
began to search the arctic zone for a passage to Asiatic countries which
would be less dangerous and circuitous than that usually traveled. Although
the object of polar expeditions has changed somewhat, yet one of the
reasons which actuated them influences the explorers of the present time.
The nearness of this pole has rendered it of greater interest than its southern
counterpart. Expeditions are fitted out more easily for the shorter voyage.
Relief can be procured with less delay. Other reasons are that from the
closer neighborhood of the continents, and from the action of the Gulf
Stream on the one side and the Japan current on the other, and from the fact
that the earth is in perihelion during the winter season of the Northern
hemisphere, and in aphelion during the winter of the Southern hemisphere,
the Arctic Sea is more free from ice, which in the Antarctic region is an
impregnable barrier in the way of discovery.

WAGES IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA.

O , Iowa.
Give a comparison of the wages of the United States with
those of England.
O. P. L.
Answer.—The following is a comparison of the wages paid per week in
Chicago and Great Britain to various artisans:
Chicago. Great Britain.
$8.00 to $6.50 to
Bakers
$12.00 $6.60
Blacksmiths 9.00 to 12.00 7.04 to 8.12
Bookbinders 9.00 to 20.00 6.50 to 7.83
Bricklayers 6.00 to 10.50 7.58 to 9.63
Cabinetmakers 7.00 to 15.00 7.70 to 8.48
Carpenters 7.50 to 12.00 7.33 to 8.25
Farm laborers 3.40 to 4.25
Laborers, porters,
5.50 to 9.00 4.50 to 5.00
etc
Painters 6.00 to 12.00 7.25 to 8.16
Plasterers 9.00 to 15.00 7.68 to 10.13
Plumbers 12.00 to 20.00 7.13 to 8.46
Printers 12.00 to 18.00 7.52 to 7.75
 Shoemakers 9.00 to 18.00 7.35
Tailors 6.00 to 18.00 5.00 to 7.30
Tinsmiths 9.00 to 12.00 6.00 to 7.30

THE BANKERS’ CLEARING HOUSE, LONDON.

D , Iowa.
Tell us something of the purpose of the great Clearing House
of London, and the amount of business done through it.
J. B .
Answer.—The Bankers’ Clearing House, London, is the medium through
which bankers collect the checks and bills in their hands against other
banks. Instead of presenting these checks and bills at each bank to which
they are addressed, and receiving cash and notes in payment, clearing
bankers settle the whole amount delivered during the day at this
establishment in Postoffice Court, Lombard street, by receiving or paying
the difference in the totals for or against them by a single check on the Bank
of England. Every bank in London and the country is represented by
clearing bankers, and as their agents send through the Clearing House all
drafts payable in the city and in the country, the amount passing through
this establishment every year is enormous. The total amount for the year
ending April 30, 1882, was £6,382,654,000, or nearly $32,000,000,000. The
total clearings of the Bankers’ Clearing House, Chicago, in the year ending
Dec. 31, 1882, amounted to $2,366,526,185. This represented only the
transactions of banks doing business in Chicago. It is estimated that the new
rule as to settlement applied during the past year has reduced the total
clearings nearly 25 per cent below what they would have been under the old
rule. London is the center of exchange for the world, and the volume of its
bank clearings must necessarily be enormously greater than that of any
other city. The totals of bills, checks, and drafts passed through the London
Clearing House, between 1869 and 1881 inclusive, foot up
£68,010,643,000, or over three hundred and forty billion dollars. The rise
and fall in trade not only in England, but in large degree the world over is
mirrored in the annual records of these clearings for the period mentioned.
Whereas in 1869 the total clearings were but 3,626,396,000 pounds sterling,
they increased each year until 1873, when they amounted to
£6,070,948,000. Then, in consequence of the widespread commercial
depression the total trade transactions fell off, and the London bank
clearings fell to £5,936,772,000 in 1874, £5,685,793,000 in 1875, and
£4,963,480,000 in 1876, the lowest point touched. Not until 1880 did the
clearings rise to nearly six billions again. In 1881, for the first time, did they
reach and pass the total in 1873, indicating general business prosperity
throughout the world.

CHICAGO AND MILWAUKEE COMPARED.

S A , W. T.
How does Milwaukee compare with Chicago in the amount of
grain handled in one year?
W . H. R .
Answer.—The following are the statistics of receipts and shipments at
Milwaukee for 1882:
Receipts, bu. Shipments, bu.
Wheat 7,816,471 Wheat 1,788,479
Oats 2,581,808 Oats 1,600,916
Barley 4,653,192 Barley 2,927,273
Rye 491,006 Rye 440,369
Corn 2,037,680 Corn 1,454,144
Flour (brls) 3,340,854 Flour, (brls) 4,248,050
Total in bu 32,613,994 Total in bu 27,327,405
The statistics of Chicago during the same period are:
Receipts, bu. Shipments, bu.
Wheat 22,326,680 Wheat 19,905,319
Oats 26,975,137 Oats 23,975,177
Barley 2,066,636 Barley 4,130,069
Rye 2,052,214 Rye 1,928,874
Corn 49,224,522 Corn 49,264,167
Flour (brls) 4,378,864 Flour (brls) 3,995,532
 Total in bu 122,350,074 Total in bu 117,182,590

AMERICAN AND ENGLISH SHIP-BUILDING.

V W , Ohio.
How does American ship-building compare with the ship-
building of Great Britain?
J. W. N .
Answer.—During the year 1880 there were constructed in the United
States for ocean traffic 412 sailing vessels, having a tonnage of 53,610, and
166 steam vessels, having a tonnage of 40,617. In addition to this, for the
service of the lakes and rivers, were constructed forty-eight sailing vessels,
with a tonnage of 5,447 and 182 steamers, with a tonnage of 38,237. In the
same period Great Britain constructed 353 sailing vessels, with a tonnage of
57,534, and 474 steamers, with a tonnage of 346,361. The total number of
American vessels plying the ocean was, at that time, 17,932, with a tonnage
of 2,803,923, while Great Britain boasted of 25,185 vessels and a tonnage
of 6,574,513. Including the shipping upon the inland lakes and rivers, the
total shipping of the United States was 21,547 vessels, having a tonnage of
3,577,816. The reason for this enormous difference between the two
countries is due partly to the greater cost of labor and material in the United
States; partly to many more ways of employing capital profitably in the
United States than there are in other countries; partly to the subsidies paid
by the British Government to encourage the establishment and maintenance
of British ocean lines of transportation; partly to the vastness of the British
Empire and the exemption of British vessels and British goods carried in
their vessels from heavy port dues and duties in trading to British ports; and
partly from the American law forbidding the granting of the American flag
to vessels built in other countries, even when owned by American citizens,
and forbidding the restoration of our flag to American-built vessels after
they have once gone under other colors, whatever the cause. American-built
vessels compare in all other respects, except cost, favorably with the same
classes of British vessels, and in many particulars American builders have
done much to improve all classes of sea-going craft.
 CELEBRATED PAINTINGS.
R , Mo.
What and where are some of the most celebrated paintings?
AR .
Answer.—By general agreement among art critics, Michael Angelo and
Raphael stand at the head of the line of master painters. Conspicuous
among the great paintings of the former are “The Last Judgment,” “The
Conversion of St. Paul,” and “The Crucifixion of St. Peter;” and among
those of the latter, “The Dispute Concerning the Sacrament,” the “Madonna
di Foligno,” and the “Madonna del Pesce, or Virgin of the Fish.” The “Last
Judgment” is a large fresco painting, sixty feet high by thirty feet wide,
occupying the wall opposite the entrance of the Sistine Chapel, in the
Vatican Palace at Rome. Over 300 figures are represented in “the most
violent attitudes and most admired disorder.” “The Conversion of St. Paul”
is another large fresco painting in the Vatican. “The Crucifixion of Peter,”
also in the Vatican, is one of the last from the hands of Angelo. “The
Dispute Concerning the Sacrament” is a fresco representing, above, a
convocation of the saints around the Almighty, the Savior, and the Virgin,
enveloped in heavenly glory, while beneath the ceremony of the
consecration of the sacrament is depicted. This is found in the Camera della
Segnatura of the Vatican, Rome. “The Madonna di Foligno,” in the Vatican
gallery, derives its name from the city of Foligno, which is represented in
the back-ground. The “Madonna del Pesce,” now in the gallery at Madrid,
Spain, represents the Virgin and Child enthroned, with St. Jerome on one
side and on the other an archangel with the young Tobit, who carries a fish,
from which circumstance the name is derived. “The Madonna di San Sisto”
is considered by many critics the best of Raphael’s works. It is located in
the gallery of Dresden, Germany, and represents the Madonna standing
upon the clouds surrounded with glory, holding in her arms the eternal Son.
Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara kneel at the sides. It was originally painted
on wood, but has been transferred to canvas. The painting of “The Last
Supper,” by Leonardo da Vinci, is recognized as one of the masterpieces. It
was originally painted by order of the Duke of Milan on the walls of the
refectory in the Dominican Convent of the Madonna delle Grazie. The
picture is now in a state of decay, but several very fine copies have been
made; one of them, at the Royal Academy, London, is considered almost, if
not quite, as good as the original. Rubens’ paintings of the “Descent from
the Cross” and “Elevation of the Cross,” at Antwerp, rank high as
masterpieces. The “Adoration of the Trinity,” by Albert Durer, at Vienna,
and his two pictures containing life-size figures of Peter and John, Mark
and Paul, presented to the Council of Nuremberg, Germany, are also very
famous. All of the above and many others, the productions of painters
barely less noted, are classed as works of the great masters; and artists and
amateurs are constantly going on pilgrimages to the temples and art
galleries which are so favored as to enshrine them.

THE SCOTTISH POET, WM. KNOX.

H , Kan.
Please give a short biographical sketch of William Knox.
L R .
Answer.—William Knox, a Scottish poet, familiar to the readers of
“Scott’s Diary,” was born at Roxburgh in 1789. Very little has been
recorded concerning his life, which terminated at the comparatively early
age of 36. He was very industrious, and in addition to his published
volumes contributed to the Literary Gazette and to various other magazines.
In 1818 he published a collection of poems under the title of “The Lonely
Heath,” and in the succeeding year wrote “Mariomne,” “A Visit to Dublin,”
“Songs of Israel,” and “The Harp of Zion.”

THE PLANETS IN FEBRUARY.

W , Ill.
In or near what constellations are the planets at present?
C. A. H.
Answer.—During the month of February, 1883, Mercury will be a
morning star after the 10th, and will be found in Capricornus until near the
end of the month, when it will enter Aquarius. Venus will also be a morning
star while in Sagittarius. Mars can be observed near the sun in Capricornus;
Jupiter nearly stationary between Taurus and Gemini, and Saturn nearly
stationary between Aries and Taurus.

JOHN PHŒNIX.
A , Ill.
Will you please give a short sketch of “John Phœnix,” the
humorous California writer of twenty years ago.
C. S .
Answer.—This noted humorist was an officer in the regular army. His
real name was George Henry Derby. He was born in Massachusetts; was
appointed to the military academy from that State, and graduated a second
lieutenant of ordnance in 1846; same year was transferred to the
Topographical Engineer Corps, a branch of the army since abolished.
Lieutenant Derby was brevetted for gallantry at Cerro Gordo, Mexico,
being wounded in the action. He was the author, over the nom de plume of
John Phœnix, of “Phœnixiana” (’56), and the “Squibob Papers.” Many of
his most popular productions were written while he was on the staff of the
commanding general of the Military Department of the Pacific, engaged on
the improvement of the harbor of San Diego, Cal., which accounts for his
being referred to as a Californian writer. Captain Derby died May 15, 1861,
in New York City, aged only 38.

ORIGIN OF THE WHIG PARTY.

D , Ill.
Why is J. Quincy Adams classed with the Whig Presidents
when the Whig party was not organized until 1836.
E. S. C .
Answer.—The National Republicans, to whom J. Quincy Adams
belonged, dropped that name and took the name of Whigs in 1832. Adams,
who was one of the Whig leaders from the first, is usually classed as the
first of the Whig Presidents, because the National policy he represented and
maintained when President was substantially the policy advocated by the
Whigs of 1832. In 1834 there was a State convention held in New York
City, which gave organized form to the Whig party in that State, and this
organization became National in 1836, when Wm. H. Harrison was first
nominated by the Whigs for the Presidency. A still higher degree of
organization was effected at the first delegate National convention of the
Whig party, held in Harrisburg, Pa., Dec. 4, 1839, when Harrison was
nominated for the great campaign of 1840, in which he was elected.

EARLY AMERICAN COINAGE.

D M , Iowa.
Name the earliest American coins.
E. W .
Answer.—The earliest coinage that can be called American, in the sense
of Anglo-American, was ordered by the original Virginia Company, only
five years after the founding of Jamestown. The coin were minted at
Somers Islands, now known as the Bermudas. For a long while the standard
currency of Virginia was tobacco, as in many of the early settlements of the
Northwest it was beaver skins, and other pelts reckoned as worth such a
fraction of a beaver skin or so many beaver skins. The accounts of the fur
traders and pioneers in their dealings with the Indians were kept in beaver
skins instead of coin until some years after the opening of this century, and
in some parts of the Dominion of Canada they are still kept so. In 1645 the
Assembly of the Virginia Colony, after a preamble reciting that, “It had
maturely weighed and considered how advantageous a quoine would be to
this colony, and the great wants and miseries which do daily happen unto it
by the sole dependency upon tobacco,” provided for the issue of copper
coins of the denominations of twopence, threepence, sixpence, and
ninepence; but this law was never carried into effect, so the first colonial
coinage of this country was that struck off by Massachusetts under the order
of the General Court of that colony, passed May 27, 1652, creating a “mint
howse” at Boston, and providing for the mintage of “12 pence, 6 pence, and
3 pence pieces, which shall be for forme flatt, and stamped on the one side
with N. E., and on the other side with XIId., VId., and IIId., according to
the value of each peece.” In 1662, from this same mint appeared the famous
“pine tree shillings,” which were two-penny pieces. This mint was
maintained for thirty-four years. In the reign of William and Mary copper
coins were struck in England for New England and Carolina. Lord
Baltimore had silver shillings, sixpences, and fourpences made in England
to supply the demands of his province of Maryland. Vermont and
Connecticut established mints in 1785 for the issue of copper coin. New
Jersey followed a year later. But Congress had the establishment of a mint
for the confederated States under advisement, and in this same year agreed
upon a plan submitted by Thomas Jefferson, and the act went into operation
on a small scale in 1787. After the adoption of the Constitution of the
United States in 1789 all the State mints were closed, as the Constitution
specifically places the sole power of coining money in the Federal
Government.

DIFFERENCE OF TIME.
C , Ill.
What is the difference of time between Chicago and the
principal cities of the world?
E. A. J .
Answer.—The difference in time between Chicago and Washington is 42
minutes. Keeping this in mind, the reader can easily determine the
difference of time between Chicago and other cities named in the following
table, which shows the difference of time between Washington City and
some of the chief cities of the globe, as calculated at the United States
Naval Observatory, Washington:

Time Table.
At 12 o’clock noon, Saturday, at Washington it is—
12:12 p. m. Saturday at New York, U. S.
12:24 p. m. Saturday at Boston, U. S.
4:31 p. m. Saturday at Lisbon, Portugal
4:55 p. m. Saturday at Edinburgh, Scotland.
5:07 p. m. Saturday at London, England.
5:17 p. m. Saturday at Paris, France.
5:58 p. m. Saturday at Rome, Italy.
6:02 p. m. Saturday at Berlin, Prussia.
6:14 p. m. Saturday at Vienna, Austria.
6:22 p. m. Saturday at Cape Town, Africa.
7:04 p. m. Saturday at Constantinople.
11:01 p. m. Saturday at Calcutta, India.
12:54 a. m. Sunday at Pekin, China.
2:48 a. m. Sunday at Melbourne, Australia.
4:51 a. m. Sunday at Auckland, New Zealand.
8:58 a. m. Saturday at San Francisco, U. S.
9:40 a. m. Saturday at Salt Lake, U. S.
11:08 a. m. Saturday at New Orleans, U. S.
11:18 a. m. Saturday at Chicago, U. S.
12 noon Saturday at Lima, Peru.

VALUE OF RARE AMERICAN COINS.

D M , Iowa.
Is it true that coin collectors sometimes pay as high as $12 for
a single American silver dollar? If so, why?
E. W .
Answer.—It is true that United States silver dollars of certain issues
command very high premiums. The silver dollar of 1794, on which the
image of Liberty has flowing hair, is quoted at $12.50; the “flying eagle
dollars” of 1838 and 1839 are quoted at $15 each; so are the dollars of 1851
and 1852 with “Liberty seated;” so is that of 1858, with the same figure;
while the excessively rare silver dollars of 1804 are quoted at $200 each.
The half-dollar of 1796, with a filleted head and fifteen stars, commands
$15; and that of the next year, with sixteen stars, commands $16. The value
depends entirely on the rarity of these coins, since while the dollar of 1804
is quoted at $200, the “spread-eagle dollar” of 1803 is worth but $1.25. The
fifteen and sixteen-star dollars belong to the period when it was the law that
an additional stripe should be added to the United States flag whenever a
new State was admitted. In the mintage they undertook to add a star for
each State, but the flag was restored to the established rule of thirteen
stripes, and the Goddess of Liberty on the dollars was relieved of the
burden of carrying a star for each new State.

THE VISIBLE ZONES OF THE SUN.

B , Ill.
Which zone of the sun is presented to our view, the polar or
equatorial?
G. W. P .
Answer.—The sun’s equator is almost coincident with the plane of the
ecliptic, the inclination being only about seven degrees, in consequence of
which the equatorial zone of the sun is continually presented to the view of
terrestrial observers, and they may see every part of the sun’s surface in the
course of each year.

BUTTERINE.
G , Ill.
What are the ingredients used in the manufacture of
butterine?
AS .
Answer.—This substitute for butter is made from tallow or lard, as the
chief component, with cocoanut, olive, and palm oils to give it the
necessary flavor and consistency; salt and a little annatto for coloring. If
this recipe were always followed and the compound called by its right name
it would not be objectionable; but manufacturers do not hesitate to add
other ingredients that are unwholesome and injurious, and palm the stuff off
for butter.

FINENESS OF UNITED STATES COIN.

M , Ill.
 What are the proportions of pure metal in the coins of the
United States?
R .
Answer.—The gold coins are nine-tenths fine; the silver coins, nine-
tenths fine; the copper-nickel coins, such as the 5-cent piece and 3-cent
piece, are one-fourth nickel and three-fourths copper; the bronze coins are
95 per cent copper and 5 per cent tin and zinc. The alloy in the gold coins is
silver and copper; in the silver coins, copper.

NATIONAL DESCENT OF THE PRESIDENTS.

H , Iowa.
Please give the parentage of each of the Presidents of the
United States.
W. W .
Answer.—The parents of Washington and Adams were of English origin;
those of Jefferson, Welsh; those of Madison, Monroe, and J. Q. Adams,
English; those of Jackson, Scotch-Irish; of Van Buren, Dutch; of Harrison
and Tyler, English; of Polk, Scotch-Irish; of Taylor, Fillmore, and Pierce,
English; of Buchanan, Irish; of Lincoln, English; of Johnson, probably
English; of Grant, English; of Hayes, Scotch; of Garfield, English, though
his mother was of Huguenot descent; of Arthur, Irish. It seems hardly worth
while to give the names of parents on both sides, as few of our readers care
particularly for the names of grandfathers and grandmothers of great men
unless such ancestors were something more than ordinary.

THE ORDER OF DUMAS’ WORKS.

C , Ill.
It is said that the novels written by Alexander Dumas should
be read in a particular order, each one being a continuation, as it
were, or in some respects a sequel, to those preceding it. Is this
so, and if so, in what order should they be read?
 I .
Answer.—Each of the following works is in one sense complete in itself,
yet they also constitute several series, so related that the reader better take
them up in the following order: The “Three Guardsmen” series—“The
Three Guardsmen,” “Twenty Years After,” “Bragelone,” “The Iron Mask,”
“Louise Lavaliere;” the “Memoirs of a Physician” series—“The Memoirs of
a Physician,” “The Queen’s Necklace,” “Six Years Later, or The Taking of
the Bastile,” “The Countess De Charnay,” “Andre de Travernay,” “The
Chevalier.”

BUCHANAN’S CABINET.
C , Kan.
Who were Buchanan’s Cabinet officers?
W S .
Answer.—The Secretaries of State during the administration of James
Buchanan were Lewis Cass and Jeremiah S. Black; Secretaries of the
Treasury, Howell Cobb, Philip F. Thomas, and John A. Dix; Secretaries of
War, John B. Floyd and Joseph Holt; Secretary of the Navy, Isaac Toucey;
Secretary of the Interior, Jacob Thompson: Postmasters General, Aaron V.
Brown, Joseph Holt, and Horatio King; Attorneys General, Jeremiah S.
Black and Edwin M. Stanton.

GOVERNOR COLES, OF ILLINOIS.

A , N. Y.
Please give a brief sketch of Colonel Coles.
M H .
Answer.—Edward Coles, an early Governor of Illinois, was born in
Albemarle County, Va., the home of Jefferson, in December, 1786. He in his
youth became prominent in our country’s politics, and in 1810 was
appointed private secretary of President Madison. He served as Minister to
Russia in 1817, and, returning the following year, liberated his slaves. From
1823 to 1826 he was Governor of Illinois, which position he filled with
considerable executive ability. His death occurred in Philadelphia, July 7,
1868.

WHY WATER FREEZES SOFT.

S , D. T.
What is the reason hard water becomes soft by freezing?
M S .
Answer.—By freezing the mineral substances are precipitated and the
water becomes soft, in the same manner as by boiling. For like reason filthy
water will produce comparatively clear ice.

HIGHEST RANK IN U. S. ARMY.

P , Ill.
What is the order of rank of generals in the United States
Army? What changes have been made in the rank of the highest
army officers since the war of the Revolution?
AS .
Answer.—The highest army officer in the active service of the United
States is General; the next inferior, Lieutenant General; then Major General,
and finally Brigadier General. Until George Washington was made
Lieutenant General, in July, 1798, the highest office was Major General.
After his death, in 1797, the title of the chief army officer continued to be
Major General until 1864, when Grant was appointed Lieutenant General.
In July, 1866, the office of General was created.

THE FATAL HOMERIAN RIDDLE.

O , Cal.
What was the answer Homer gave to the fisherman who gave
him a riddle to solve?
 J S .
Answer.—The story is that one day Homer, meeting a number of
fishermen, asked them: “Fishermen, sprung of Arcadia, have we aught?”
And they answered: “What we caught we left behind. What we caught not
we bear with us.” Homer could not explain it. He then remembered that the
oracle had said “beware of riddles.” In despair he wrote his own epitaph
and died within three days. This story comes from a lost work of Aristotle,
so it is said, but it is decidedly fishy, and is classed with the numerous other
fictions regarding the blind poet.

TABLE FOR MEASURING AN ACRE.

W , Iowa.
Please give an easy rule for measuring an acre when the
length of one side is known.
AS .
Answer.—To measure an acre in rectangular form is a simple question in
arithmetic. One has only to divide the total number of square yards in an
acre, 4,840, by the number of yards in the known side or breadth to find the
unknown side in yards. By this process it appears that a rectangular strip of
ground—
5 yards wide by 968 yards long is 1 acre.
10 yards wide by 484 yards long is 1 acre.
20 yards wide by 242 yards long is 1 acre.
40 yards wide by 121 yards long is 1 acre.
80 yards wide by 60½ yards long is 1 acre.
70 yards wide by 69½ yards long is 1 acre.
60 yards wide by 80⅜ yards long is 1 acre.

NUMBER OF EURO-AMERICAN CABLES.

F , Ind.
How many submarine cables connect Europe with America?
 M C. C .
Answer.—There are three Anglo-American cables, with an aggregate
length of 6,450 miles; also, the old French cable, which is 3,329 miles long;
the direct United States cable from Ireland, 2,360 miles; the new French
cables, 3,461 miles, and the Brazilian cable, extending from Portugal to
Brazil.

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRIC LIGHT.

S , Mo.
Who first produced electric light?
J. C. A .
Answer.—It is uncertain when electric light was first produced by
artificial agencies. The first successful display occurred in 1810, when Sir
Humphrey Davy with a battery of 2,000 elements entertained the Royal
Institution by producing an electric light with an arc three inches long
between carbon points.

ALTITUDES OF WESTERN CITIES.

E , Neb.
What are the altitudes of Buffalo, Chicago, Des Moines, St.
Paul, Yankton, Omaha, and Fort Kearney?
M W R .
Answer.—The city of Buffalo, N. Y., is elevated above the sea level about
580 feet; Chicago about 690 feet. The average altitude of the State of Iowa
is about 1,000 feet, varying from 445 feet at the mouth of the Des Moines
River to 1,650 feet at Spirit Lake. The average elevation of Minnesota is
about 1,000 feet. The eastern part of Dakota is 1,000 feet above the sea
level, the central and northern parts are about 2,500 feet, while in the Black
Hills the mountains reach the height of 7,000 feet. Omaha is 1,046 feet
above the sea level, and Fort Kearney 1,247 feet.
 DESCENDANTS OF POCAHONTAS.
S , Ark.
Name some of the descendants of Pocahontas.
AR .
Answer.—Among them are the Randolphs and Bollands, of Virginia;
John Randolph, of Roanoke, the associate of Thomas Jefferson, Madison,
Monroe, John Adams, and other fathers of the Republic was the most
distinguished of these.

366 REVOLUTIONS IN A YEAR.

L , Ind.
How many rotations does the earth make in a year?
C. A. B.
Answer.—The earth makes 366 rotations in the 365 days composing the
year. This is a necessary condition of its making one complete revolution
around the sun in a year.

WHEN THE FOUR GOSPELS WERE WRITTEN.

E , Iowa.
When were the four gospels written?
J. A. H .
Answer.—The time when each of the gospels was written is not
positively known. Matthew and Luke are generally conceded to have been
written between A. D. 58 and A. D. 60. Mark was written after A. D. 62. It
is thought that John was written about A. D. 78; but Biblical critics are not
agreed on these matters.

A RAILROAD COMPROMISE.
L , N.Y.
 Is it true, as reported, that the Northern Pacific Railroad has
secured control of the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba
Railroad by the purchase of the latter’s stock?
W. T. R .
Answer.—No. The two roads recently came to an agreement not to
encroach on what they are pleased to call each other’s territory. They also
purchased of each other such branch lines as they had begun which seemed
to be at variance with this understanding as to territory.

ORIGIN OF THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT.

M , Ind.
Please give a brief history of the temperance movements in
this country.
S C. Z .
Answer.—The total abstinence societies of to-day are the outgrowth of
the old temperate or moderate drinking societies of England and America.
About 400 years ago an association was formed, the members of which
pledged themselves not to drink more than a specified quantity of alcoholic
liquors each day. A society somewhat similar was inaugurated in Germany
in 1600 called “The Order of Temperance,” whose members were pledged
never to become intoxicated and to that end never to imbibe more than
fourteen cups of wine per day. In America, also, there were moderate
drinkers’ organizations. In 1820 a society was formed in New Jersey, the
members of which agreed never to drink more than one-half pint of rum or
whisky per day. The first total abstinence movement of any importance in
this country began in Saratoga County, New York, prompted by the
Temperance Society of Moreau and Northumberland.
Forty-three persons signed an agreement not to drink “rum, gin, whisky,
wine, or any distilled spirits or compositions of the same, or any of them,
except by the advice of a physician, or in case of actual disease, also
excepting wine at public dinners, under penalty of 25 cents.” In 1813, The
Massachusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemperance was formed,
but owing to the laxity of its rules it was not very efficient. The American