MPE 442 - Mechanical Vibrations (2023)

2022 / 2023 Academic Year, Second Semester
LECTURE NOTES
MPE 442: MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
By
Dr. Stephen Talai

(PhD. Mechanical Vibrations, University of Pretoria/Tshwane University of Technology
– South Africa; Msc. Energy Studies -Renewable Energy, Moi University - Kenya)
Email address: stevetalai@gmail.com

Cell No.: +254 726 317 569
Technology Block: Room T64
Moi University, School of Engineering
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering
© 2023
MPE 442 – MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS (3 units)
COURSE CONTENT
1. Fundamental of mechanical vibrations
2. Single degree of freedom systems: free and forced vibrations of damped systems.
Transmissibility and vibration isolation.
3. Multi-degree of freedom systems: two degrees of freedom systems of damped vibrations.
4. Torsional vibrations: two and three-rotor systems. Torsional vibrations of geared systems.
5. Transverse vibrations of concentrated loadings and uniformly loaded beams. Dunkerley's and
energy methods; Whirling of shafts.
REFERENCES
1. Mechanical Vibrations (5th Ed), 2011, S.S. Rao
2. Theory and Problems of Mechanical Vibrations, 1993, S.G. Kelly
3. Theory of Vibrations: An introduction, 1996, A.A. Shabana
Course Assessment
Description Marks
Continuous Assessment Test – 2 20 %
Practical 10 %
Exam 70 %
Total 100 %
ii
MPE 442: Mechanical Vibrations, Lecture Notes, By Dr. SM. Talai (Ph.D)
CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL VIBRATION
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642), professor of mathematics at the Universities of Pisa and Padua. His works on
the oscillations of a simple pendulum and the vibration of strings are of fundamental significance in the theory
of vibrations.
Galileo Galilei (1564 1642) is considered to be the founder of modern experimental science. In
fact, the seventeenth century is often considered the century of genius since the foundations of
modern philosophy and science were laid during that period. Galileo was inspired to study the
behavior of a simple pendulum by observing the pendulum movements of a lamp in a church in
Pisa.
One day, while feeling bored during a sermon, Galileo was staring at the ceiling of the church. A
swinging lamp caught his attention. He started measuring the period of the pendulum movements
of the lamp with his pulse and found to his amazement that the time period was independent of
the amplitude of swings. This led him to conduct more experiments on the simple pendulum. He
described the dependence of the frequency of vibration on the length of a simple pendulum,
along with the phenomenon of sympathetic vibrations (resonance).
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF VIBRATION

Most human activities involve vibration in one form or other. For example, we hear because our
eardrums vibrate and see because light waves undergo vibration. Breathing is associated with the
vibration of lungs and walking involves (periodic) oscillatory motion of legs and hands. Human
speech requires the oscillatory motion of larynges (and tongues). Early scholars in the field of
1
vibration concentrated their efforts on understanding the natural phenomena and developing
mathematical theories to describe the vibration of physical systems.
In recent times, many investigations have been motivated by the engineering applications of
vibration, such as the design of machines, foundations, structures, engines, turbines, and control
systems.
Most prime movers have vibrational problems due to the inherent unbalance in the engines. The
unbalance may be due to faulty design or poor manufacture. Imbalance in diesel engines, for
example, can cause ground waves sufficiently powerful to create a nuisance in urban areas. The
wheels of some locomotives can rise more than a centimeter off the track at high speeds due to
imbalance. In turbines, vibrations cause spectacular mechanical failures. Engineers have not yet
been able to prevent the failures that result from blade and disk vibrations in turbines. Naturally,
the structures designed to support heavy centrifugal machines, like motors and turbines, or
reciprocating machines, like steam and gas engines and reciprocating pumps, are also subjected
to vibration. In all these situations, the structure or machine component subjected to vibration
can fail because of material fatigue resulting from the cyclic variation of the induced stress.
Furthermore, the vibration causes more rapid wear of machine parts such as bearings and gears
and also creates excessive noise. In machines, vibration can loosen fasteners such as nuts. In
metal cutting processes, vibration can cause chatter, which leads to a poor surface finish.
Whenever the natural frequency of vibration of a machine or structure coincides with the
frequency of the external excitation, there occurs a phenomenon known as resonance, which
leads to excessive deflections and failure (Fig. 1).
2
Figure 1: Tacoma Narrows bridge during wind-induced vibration. The bridge opened on July 1,
1940, and collapsed on November 7, 1940.
Because of the devastating effects that vibrations can have on machines and structures, vibration
testing has become a standard procedure in the design and development of most engineering
systems (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: Vibration testing of the space shuttle Enterprise (Courtesy of NASA.)
In many engineering systems, a human being acts as an integral part of the system. The
transmission of vibration to human beings results in discomfort and loss of efficiency. The
vibration and noise generated by engines causes annoyance to people and, sometimes, damage to
property.
3
In spite of its detrimental effects, vibration can be utilized profitably in several consumer and
industrial applications. In fact, the applications of vibratory equipment have increased
considerably in recent years. For example, vibration is put to work in vibratory conveyors,
hoppers, sieves, compactors, washing machines, electric toothbrushes, dentist s drills, clocks, and
electric massaging units. Vibration is also used in testing of materials and vibratory finishing
processes. Vibration has been found to improve the efficiency of certain machining, casting,
forging, and welding processes. It is employed to simulate earthquakes for geological research
and also to conduct studies in the design of nuclear reactors.
1.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION
1.2.1 Vibration
Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or oscillation. The
swinging of a pendulum and the motion of a plucked string are typical examples of vibration.
The theory of vibration deals with the study of oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces
associated with them.
1.2.2 Elementary Parts of Vibrating Systems

A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing potential energy (spring or
elasticity), a means for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia), and a means by which energy is
gradually lost (damper).
The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic energy and of
kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately. If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated
in each cycle of vibration and must be replaced by an external source if a state of steady
vibration is to be maintained.
As an example, consider the vibration of the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 3. Let the bob of
mass m be released after being given an angular displacement 𝜃. At position 1 the velocity of the
bob and hence its kinetic energy is zero. But it has a potential energy of magnitude 𝑚𝑔𝑙(1 −
cos 𝜃) with respect to the datum position 2. Since the gravitational force 𝑚𝑔 induces a torque
𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃 about the point 𝑂, the bob starts swinging to the left from position 1. This gives the
bob certain angular acceleration in the clockwise direction, and by the time it reaches position 2,
4
all of its potential energy will be converted into kinetic energy. Hence the bob will not stop in
position 2 but will continue to swing to position 3. However, as it passes the mean position 2, a
counterclockwise torque due to gravity starts acting on the bob and causes the bob to decelerate.
The velocity of the bob reduces to zero at the left extreme position. By this time, all the kinetic
energy of the bob will be converted to potential energy. Again due to the gravity torque, the bob
continues to attain a counterclockwise velocity. Hence the bob starts swinging back with
progressively increasing velocity and passes the mean position again. This process keeps
repeating, and the pendulum will have oscillatory motion. However, in practice, the magnitude
of oscillation (𝜃) gradually decreases and the pendulum ultimately stops due to the resistance
(damping) offered by the surrounding medium (air). This means that some energy is dissipated in
each cycle of vibration due to damping by the air.
Figure 3: A simple pendulum
1.3 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

The minimum number of independent coordinates required to determine completely the positions
of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines the number of degrees of freedom (dof) of
the system.
1.3.1 Single-degree-of-freedom system

The simple pendulum shown in Fig. 3, as well as each of the systems shown in Fig. 4, represents
a single-degree-of-freedom system. For example, the motion of the simple pendulum (Fig. 3) can
be stated either in terms of the angle 𝜃 or in terms of the Cartesian coordinates x and y. However,
5
the choice of angle 𝜃 as the independent coordinate will be more convenient than the choice of x
or y.
Figure 4: Single-degree-of-freedom systems
For the slider shown in Fig. 4(a), either the angular coordinate 𝜃 or the co-ordinate 𝑥 can be used
to describe the motion. In Fig. 4(b), the linear coordinate 𝑥 can be used to specify the motion.
For the torsional system (long bar with a heavy disk at the end) shown in Fig. 4(c), the angular
coordinate 𝜃 can be used to describe the motion.
1.3.2 Two-degree-of-freedom (dof) systems

Some examples of two-and three-degree-of-freedom (dof) systems are shown in Figs. 5.
Figure 5: Two-degree-of-freedom systems.

Figure 5(a) shows a two-mass, two-spring system that is described by the two linear coordinates
𝑥1 and 𝑥2 . Figure 5(b) denotes a two-rotor system whose motion can be specified in terms of
𝜃1 and 𝜃2 . The motion of the system shown in Fig. 5(c) can be described completely either by 𝑋
and 𝜃 or by 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑋. In the latter case, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are constrained as 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑙 2 where 𝑙 is a
constant.
6
1.3.3 Three-degree-of-freedom (dof) systems
Figure 6: Three degree-of-freedom systems
For the systems shown in Figs. 6(a) and 6(c), the coordinates 𝑥𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3) and 𝜃𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3)
can be used, respectively, to describe the motion system shown in Fig. 6(b), 𝜃𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3)
specifies the positions of the masses 𝑚𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3). An alternate method of describing this
system is in terms of 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑦𝑖 but in this case the constraints 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 = 𝑙𝑖2 (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3) have to
be considered.
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF VIBRATION

Vibration can be classified in several ways. Some of the important classifications are as follows.
1.4.1 Free and Forced Vibration

Free Vibration: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the ensuing
vibration is known as free vibration. No external force acts on the system. The oscillation of a
simple pendulum is an example of free vibration.
Forced Vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force (often, a repeating type of force),
the resulting vibration is known as forced vibration. The oscillation that arises in machines such
7
as diesel engines is an example of forced vibration. If the frequency of the external force
coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system, a condition known as resonance
occurs, and the system undergoes dangerously large oscillations. Failures of such structures as
buildings, bridges, turbines, and airplane wings have been associated with the occurrence of
resonance.
1.4.2 Undamped and Damped Vibration

If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation, the vibration is
known as undamped vibration. If any energy is lost in this way, however, it is called damped
vibration. In many physical systems, the amount of damping is so small that it can be
disregarded for most engineering purposes. However, consideration of damping becomes
extremely important in analyzing vibratory systems near resonance.
1.4.3 Deterministic and Random Vibration

If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting on a vibratory system is
known at any given time, the excitation is called deterministic. The resulting vibration is known
as deterministic vibration.
In some cases, the excitation is nondeterministic or random; the value of the excitation at a given
time cannot be predicted. In these cases, a large collection of records of the excitation may
exhibit some statistical regularity. It is possible to estimate averages such as the mean and mean
square values of the excitation. Examples of random excitations are wind velocity, road
roughness, and ground motion during earthquakes. If the excitation is random, the resulting
vibration is called random vibration. In this case the vibratory response of the system is also
random; it can be described only in terms of statistical quantities. Figure 7 shows examples of
deterministic and random excitations.
Figure 7: Deterministic and random excitations
8
1.5 COMBINATION OF SPRINGS
In many practical applications, several linear springs are used in combination. These springs can
be combined into a single equivalent spring as indicated below.
Case 1: Springs in Parallel. To derive an expression for the equivalent spring constant of
springs connected in parallel, consider the two springs shown in Fig. 8(a). When a load W is
applied, the system undergoes a static deflection as shown in Fig. 8(b). Then the free-body
diagram, shown in Fig.8 (c), gives the equilibrium equation
𝑊 = 𝑘1 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝛿𝑠𝑡 … (1)
Figure 8: Springs in parallel
If 𝑘𝑒𝑞 denotes the equivalent spring constant of the combination of the two springs, then for the
same static deflection 𝛿𝑠𝑡 we have
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 … (2)
Equations (1) and (2) give
𝒌𝒆𝒒 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 … (3)
In general, if we have n springs with spring constants 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , … , 𝑘𝑛 in parallel, then the
equivalent spring constant 𝑘𝑒𝑞 can be obtained:
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 … (4)
Case 2: Springs in Series
Under the action of a load 𝑊, springs 1 and 2 undergo elongations 𝛿1 and 𝛿2 respectively, as
shown in Fig. 9(b).
9
Figure 9: springs in series
The total elongation (or static deflection) of the system, 𝛿𝑠𝑡 is given by
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 … (1)
Since both springs are subjected to the same force W, we have the equilibrium shown in Fig.
9(c):
𝑊 = 𝑘1 𝛿1 , 𝑊 = 𝑘2 𝛿2 … (2)
If 𝑘𝑒𝑞 denotes the equivalent spring constant, then for the same static deflection,
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 … (3)
Eqn. (2) and (3) give
𝑘1 𝛿1 = 𝑘2 𝛿2 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡

𝛿1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿2 =
𝑘1 𝑘2
Substituting these values of 𝛿1 and 𝛿2 into Eqn. (1)
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡

+ = 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑘1 𝑘2
Hence,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒌𝒆𝒒 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
In case of n springs in series, the generalized equation for equivalent spring constant is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+ … (4)
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
10
1.6 COMBINATION OF DAMPERS
Parallel dampers
𝑐𝑒𝑞 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2
Series dampers
1 1 1
= +
𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐1 𝑐2
1.7 HARMONIC MOTION

Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the case of a simple pendulum, or it may
display considerable irregularity, as in the case of ground motion during an earthquake. If the
motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic motion. The simplest type of
periodic motion is harmonic motion. The motion imparted to the mass m due to the Scotch yoke
mechanism shown in Fig. 10 is an example of simple harmonic motion.
FIGURE 10: Scotch yoke mechanism
11
In this system, a crank of radius A rotates about the point 𝑂. The other end of the crank, 𝑃, slides
in a slotted rod, which reciprocates in the vertical guide 𝑅. When the crank rotates at an angular
velocity 𝜔, the end point 𝑆 of the slotted link and hence the mass 𝑚 of the spring-mass system
are displaced from their middle positions by an amount 𝑥 (in time 𝑡) given by
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
This motion is shown by the sinusoidal curve in Fig. 10. The velocity of the mass 𝑚 at time 𝑡 is
given by
𝑑𝑥
= 𝜔𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
and the acceleration by
𝑑𝑥 2
= −𝜔2 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
It can be seen that the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement. Such a vibration,
with the acceleration proportional to the displacement and directed toward the
mean position, is known as simple harmonic motion. The motion given by
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
is another example of a simple harmonic motion.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ of magnitude 𝐴
Harmonic motion can be represented conveniently by means of a vector 𝑂𝑃
rotating at a constant angular velocity 𝜔. In Fig. 11, the projection of the tip of the vector 𝑋 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 on the vertical axis is given by
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
12
1
FIGURE 11: Harmonic motion as the projection of the end of a rotating vector
and its projection on the horizontal axis by

𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
1.8 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

The following definitions and terminology are useful in dealing with harmonic motion and other
periodic functions:
Cycle: The movement of a vibrating body from its undisturbed or equilibrium position to its
extreme position in one direction, then to the equilibrium position, then to its extreme position in
the other direction, and back to equilibrium position is called a cycle of vibration. One revolution
13
(i.e., angular displacement of 2𝜋 radians) of the pin 𝑃 in Fig. 10 or one revolution of the vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 in Fig. 11 constitutes a cycle.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium position is
called the amplitude of vibration. In Figs. 10 and 11 the amplitude of vibration is equal to 𝐴 .
Period of oscillation: The time taken to complete one cycle of motion is known as the period of
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in
oscillation or time period and is denoted by 𝜏. It is equal to the time required for the vector 𝑂𝑃
Fig. 11 to rotate through an angle of 2𝜋 and hence
2𝜋
𝜏=
𝜔
where 𝜔 is called the circular frequency.
Frequency of oscillation: The number of cycles per unit time is called the frequency of
oscillation or simply the frequency and is denoted by 𝑓. Thus
1 𝜔
𝑓= =
𝜏 2𝜋
Here 𝜔 is called the circular frequency to distinguish it from the linear frequency 𝑓 = 𝜔⁄2𝜋. The
variable 𝜔 denotes the angular velocity of the cyclic motion; 𝑓 is measured in cycles per second
(hertz) while 𝜔 is measured in radians per second.
Phase angle. Consider two vibratory motions denoted by

𝑥1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 … (𝑖)
𝑥2 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) … (𝑖𝑖)
The two harmonic motions given by Eqs. (i) and (ii) are called synchronous because they have
the same frequency or angular velocity 𝜔. Two synchronous oscillations need not have the same
amplitude, and they need not attain their maximum values at the same time. The motions given
by Eqs. (i) and (ii) can be represented graphically as shown in Fig. 12. In this figure, the second
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃1 leads the first one by an angle 𝜙, known as the phase angle. This means that the
maximum of the second vector would occur 𝜙 radians earlier than that of the first vector. Note
14
that instead of maxima, any other corresponding points can be taken for finding the phase angle.
In Eqs. (i) and (ii) or in Fig. 12 the two vectors are said to have a phase difference of 𝜙
Figure 12: Phase difference between two vectors.
Natural frequency: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the
frequency with which it oscillates without external forces is known as its natural frequency. As
will be seen later, a vibratory system having n degrees of freedom will have, in general, n distinct
natural frequencies of vibration.
15
2 CHAPTER 2
SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM OF DAMPED SYSTEMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The motion of a body is resisted by frictional forces. In vibrating systems, the effect of friction is
referred to as damping. The damping provided by fluid resistance is known as viscous damping.
In damped vibrations, the amplitude of the resulting vibration gradually diminishes. This is due
to the reason that certain amount of energy is always dissipated to overcome the frictional
resistance. The resistance to the motion of the body is provided partly by the medium in which
the vibration takes place and partly by the inertial friction, and in some cases partly by dash pot
or other external damping device.
2.2 FREE VIBRATION WITH VISCOUS DAMPING
1. Equation of motion
The viscous damping force 𝐹 is proportional to the velocity 𝑥̇ and can be expressed as
𝐹 = −𝑐𝑥̇
where
𝑑𝑥
𝑥̇ =
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑐 is the damping constant or coefficient of viscous damping and the negative sign
indicates that the damping force is opposite to the direction of velocity. A single-degree-of-
freedom system with a viscous damper is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Single-degree-of-freedom system with viscous damper
16
If 𝑥 is measured from the equilibrium position of the mass 𝑚, the application of Newton’s law
(𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎) yields the equation of motion:
𝑚𝑥̈ = −𝑐𝑥̇ − 𝑘𝑥
(Negative sign indicates that the force opposes the motion)
𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 … (1)

2. Solution
This is a differential equation of the second order. Assuming a solution of the form
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡
where 𝐶 and 𝑠 are constants to be determined. Inserting this function into Eq. (1) leads to the
characteristic equation
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 = 0 … (2)
∴ The roots of the equation are
−𝑐 ± √𝑐 2 − 4𝑚𝑘 𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑠1,2 = =− ± √( ) − … (3)
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
The most general solution of the differential equation (2) with its right hand side equal to zero
has only complementary function and it is given by
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡
𝑐 √ 𝑐 2 𝑘 𝑐 √ 𝑐 2 𝑘
{− + ( ) − }𝑡 {− − ( ) − }𝑡
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
= 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑒 … (4)
where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are two arbitrary constants which are to be determined from the initial
conditions of the motion of the mass.
2.2.1 Critical Damping Constant and the Damping Ratio

The critical damping 𝑐𝑐 is defined as the value of the damping constant 𝑐 for which the radical in
Eq. (3) becomes zero:
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑘
( ) − =0
2𝑚 𝑚
17
𝑘
𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑐 = 2𝑚√ = 2√𝑘𝑚 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 … (5)
𝑚
For any damped system, the damping ratio 𝜁 is defined as the ratio of the damping constant to
the critical damping constant:
𝑐
𝜁= … (6)
𝑐𝑐
Using Eqns. (5) and (6), we can write
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐𝑐
= × = 𝜁𝜔𝑛
2𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2𝑚
And hence
𝑠1,2 = (−𝜁 ± √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑛 … (7)
Thus the solution, Eqn. (4), can be written as

{−𝜁+√𝜁 2 −1 }𝜔𝑛 𝑡 {−𝜁−√𝜁 2 −1 }𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑒 … (8)
The nature of the roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 and hence the behavior of the solution, Eqn. (8), depends upon
the magnitude of damping. It can be seen that the case 𝜁 = 0 leads to the undamped vibrations.
Hence we assume that 𝜁 ≠ 0 and consider the following three cases.
Case 1: Underdamped systems (Roots are complex conjugate)

𝑐 𝑘
𝜁 < 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 < 𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑟 < √𝑚 . This is a most practical case of damping and it is known as
2𝑚
underdamping or small damping. For this condition (𝜁 2 − 1) is negative and the roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2
are expressed as
𝑠1 = (−𝜁 + 𝑖√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠2 = (−𝜁 − 𝑖√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑛
where 𝑖 is a Greek letter known as iota and its value is √−1, and the solution of Eqn. (8) can be
written in different forms:
{−𝜁+𝑖√1−𝜁 2 }𝜔𝑛 𝑡 {−𝜁−𝑖√1−𝜁 2 }𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑒
2 2
= 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 {𝐶1 𝑒 𝑖√1−𝜁 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
+ 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑖√1−𝜁 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
}
= 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 {(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) cos √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑖(𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ) sin √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡}
18
= 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 {𝐶1, cos √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2, sin √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡}
= 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin (√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜙0 )
= 𝑋𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos (√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜙) … (9)
where (𝐶1, , 𝐶2, ), (𝑋, 𝜙) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑋0 , 𝜙0 ) are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial
conditions.
For the initial conditions 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 0 , 𝐶1′ and 𝐶2′ can be found:
𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝐶1′ = 𝑥0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2′ =
√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛
and hence the solution becomes
𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 {𝑥0 cos √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡} … (10)
√1 − 𝜁2 𝜔𝑛
The constants (𝑋, 𝜙) and (𝑋0 , 𝜙0 ) can be expressed as
√𝑥02 𝜔𝑛2 + 𝑥̇ 02 + 2𝑥0 𝑥̇ 0 𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝑋 = 𝑋0 = √(𝐶1′ ) + (𝐶2′ ) =
√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛
𝐶, 𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2
𝜙0 = tan− ( 1, ) = tan− ( )
𝐶2 𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝐶2, 𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝜙 = tan ( , ) = tan− (
−
)
𝐶1 𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2
The motion described by Eqn. (10) is a damped harmonic motion of angular frequency
√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 but because of the factor 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 , the amplitude decreases exponentially with time,
as shown in Fig. 2.2. The quantity
𝜔𝑑 = √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 … (11)
is called the frequency of damped vibration. It can be seen that the frequency of damped
vibration 𝜔𝑑 is always less than the undamped natural frequency 𝜔𝑛 . The decrease in the
frequency of damped vibration with increasing amount of damping, given by Eqn. (11), is shown
graphically in Fig. 2.3. The underdamped case is very important in the study of mechanical
vibrations, as it is the only case that leads to an oscillatory motion.
19
Figure 2.2 Underdamped solution
Figure 2.3 Variation 𝜔𝑑 of with damping.
𝑐 𝑘
Case 2: Critically damped system (𝜁 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑟 = √𝑚). In this case the two roots
2𝑚
𝑠1 and 𝑠1 in Eqn. (7) are equal

𝑐𝑐
𝑠1 = 𝑠1 =
2𝑚
Because of the repeated roots, the solution of Eqn. (1) is given by
𝑥(𝑡) = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡
The application of the initial conditions 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 0 for this case gives
𝐶1 = 𝑥0
𝐶2 = 𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
20
And the solution becomes
𝑥(𝑡) = [𝑥0 + (𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 )𝑡]𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 … (11)

It can be seen that the motion represented by Eqn. (11) is non-periodic. Since 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 → 0 as 𝑡 →
∞ as the motion will eventually diminish to zero, as indicated in Fig. 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Comparison of motions with different types of damping
𝑐 𝑘
Case 3: Overdamped system(𝜁 > 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 > 𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑟 > √𝑚). In the case of over damping or
2𝑚
large damping, the mass moves slowly to the equilibrium position. As √𝜁 2 − 1 > 0, Eqn. (7)
shows that the roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are real but negative and are given by
𝑠1 = (−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑛 < 0
𝑠2 = (−𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑛 < 0
with 𝑠2 ≪ 𝑠1 . In this case, the solution, Eqn. (8), can be expressed as

2 −1 )𝜔 𝑡 2 −1 )𝜔 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 (−𝜁+√𝜁 𝑛
+ 𝐶2 𝑒 (−𝜁−√𝜁 𝑛
… (12)
For the initial conditions 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 0 ,the constants 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 can be
obtained:
𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 (𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1 + 𝑥̇ 0 )
𝐶1 =
2𝜔𝑛 √𝜁 2 − 1
21
−𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 (𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1 − 𝑥̇ 0 )
𝐶2 =
2𝜔𝑛 √𝜁 2 − 1
Equation (12) shows that the motion is aperiodic regardless of the initial conditions imposed on
the system. Since roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are both negative, the motion diminishes exponentially with
time, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Note: In actual practice, the over damped vibrations are avoided.
2.2.2 Logarithmic Decrement

The logarithmic decrement represents the rate at which the amplitude of a free-damped vibration
decreases. It is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes. Let
𝑡1 and 𝑡2 denote the times corresponding to two consecutive amplitudes displacements),
measured one cycle apart for an underdamped system, as in Fig. 2.2. Using Eq. (9), we can form
the ratio
𝑥1 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡1 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡1 − 𝜙0 )
= … (13)
𝑥2 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡2 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡2 − 𝜙0 )
But 𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + 𝜏𝑑 , where 𝜏𝑑 = 2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 is the period of the damped vibration. Hence cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡2 −
𝜙0 ) = cos(2𝜋 + 𝜔𝑑 𝑡1 − 𝜙0 ) = cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡1 − 𝜙0 ), and Eqn. 13 can be written as
𝑥1 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡1
= −𝜁𝜔 𝑡 (𝑡 +𝜏 ) … (14)
𝑥2 𝑒 𝑛 2 1 𝑑
The logarithmic decrement can be obtained from Eqn. (14):

𝑥1 2𝜋 2𝜋𝜁 2𝜋 𝑐
𝛿 = 𝐼𝑛 = 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜏𝑑 = 𝜁𝜔𝑛 = = ∙ … (15)
𝑥2 √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑑 2𝑚
The logarithmic decrement is dimensionless and is actually another form of the dimensionless
damping ratio 𝜁. Once 𝛿 is known, 𝜁 can be found by solving Eq. (15):
𝛿
𝜁= … (16)
√(2𝜋)2 + 𝛿 2
22
Worked Example 1
A vibrating system consists of a mass of 200 𝑘𝑔, a spring of stiffness 80 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 and a damper
with damping coefficient of 800 𝑁⁄𝑚⁄𝑠. Determine the frequency of vibration of the system.
Solution
Given: 𝑚 = 200 𝑘𝑔; 𝑘 = 80 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 = 80 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚 ; 𝑐 = 800 𝑁⁄𝑚⁄𝑠
Circular frequency of undamped vibrations,
𝑘 80 × 103
𝜔𝑛 = √ = √ = 20 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠
𝑚 200
Damping ratio
𝑐 800
𝜁= = = 0.1
2𝑚𝜔𝑛 2 × 200 × 20
and circular frequency of damped vibrations,

𝜔𝑑 = √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛
= (√1 − 0.12 ) × 20 = 19.8 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠
∴ Frequency of vibration of the system,

𝜔𝑑 19.9
𝑓𝑑 = = = 3.17 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋
Worked Example 2
An instrument vibrates with a frequency of 1 𝐻𝑧 when there is no damping. When the damping
is provided, the frequency of damped vibrations was observed to be 0.9 𝐻𝑧. Find:
1. the damping factor and
2. logarithmic decrement
Solution
Given: 𝑓𝑛 = 1 𝐻𝑧; 𝑓𝑑 = 0.9 𝐻𝑧
1. Damping factor
Let
𝑚 = Mass of the instrument in 𝑘𝑔,
𝑐 = Damping coefficient or damping force per unit velocity in 𝑁⁄𝑚⁄𝑠 and
𝑐𝑐 = Critical damping coefficient in 𝑁⁄𝑚⁄𝑠
23
Natural circular frequency of undamped vibrations,
and circular frequency of damped vibrations,
also, circular frequency of damped vibrations (𝜔𝑑 )

𝜔𝑑 = √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛
5.66 = √1 − 𝜁 2 × 6.284
∴ 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜁 = 0.434 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2. Logarithmic decrement
2𝜋𝜁 2𝜋 × 0.434
𝛿= = = 3.03 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
√1 − 𝜁 2 √1 − 0.4342
Worked Example 3
The measurements on a mechanical vibrating system show that it has a mass of 8 𝑘𝑔 and that the
springs can be combined to give an equivalent spring of stiffness 5.4 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚. If the vibrating
system has a disport attached which exerts a force of 40 𝑁 when the mass has a velocity of
1 𝑚⁄𝑠, find:
1. critical damping coefficient
2. damping factor
3. logarithmic decrement and
4. ratio of two consecutive amplitudes
Solution
Given: 𝑚 = 8 𝑘𝑔; 𝑘 = 5.4 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 = 5400 𝑁⁄𝑚
Since the force exerted by dashpot is 40 𝑁, and the mass has a velocity of 1 𝑚⁄𝑠, therefore
damping coefficient (actual)
𝑐 = 40 𝑁⁄𝑚⁄𝑠
1. Critical damping coefficient
Critical damping coefficient,
𝑘 5400
𝑐𝑐 = 2𝑚 ∙ 𝜔𝑛 = 2𝑚 × √ = 2 × 8 × √ = 416 𝑁⁄𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑚 8
24
2. Damping factor
Damping factor,
𝑐 40
𝜁= = = 0.096 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝑐𝑐 416
3. Logarithmic decrement
2𝜋𝜁 2𝜋 × 0.096
𝛿= = = 0.6 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
√1 − 𝜁 2 √1 − 0.0962
4. Ratio of two consecutive amplitudes
Let 𝑥𝑛 and 𝑥𝑛+1= Magnitude of two consecutive amplitudes,
From logarithmic decrement,
2.3 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF DAMPED SYSTEMS

A mechanical or structural system is said to undergo forced vibration whenever external energy
is supplied to the system during vibration. External energy can be supplied through either an
applied force or an imposed displacement excitation. The applied force or displacement
excitation may be harmonic, non-harmonic but periodic, non-periodic, or random in nature. The
response of a system to a harmonic excitation is called harmonic response.
2.3.1 Equation of Motion
Consider a spring mass system shown in Fig. 2.5.
Figure 2.5 A spring-mass-damper system
25
If a force 𝐹(𝑡) acts on a viscously damped spring-mass system as shown, the equation of motion
can be obtained using Newton s second law:
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑡) . . (1)
Since this equation is nonhomogeneous, its general solution 𝑥(𝑡) is given by the sum of the
homogeneous solution, 𝑥ℎ (𝑡) and the particular solution, 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡).
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥ℎ (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡)

The homogeneous solution, which is the solution of the homogeneous equation (free vibration)
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
This free vibration dies out with time under each of the three possible conditions of damping
(underdamping, critical damping, and overdamping) and under all possible initial conditions.
Thus the general solution of Eq. (1) eventually reduces to the particular solution which
represents the steady-state vibration. The steady-state motion is present as long as the forcing
function is present.
The variations of homogeneous, particular, and general solutions with time for a typical case are
shown in Fig. 2.2. It can be seen that 𝑥ℎ (𝑡) dies out and 𝑥(𝑡) becomes 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) after some time, 𝜏.
The part of the motion that dies out due to damping (the free-vibration part) is called transient.
The rate at which the transient motion decays depends on the values of the system parameters
𝑘, 𝑐 and 𝑚.
Fig. 2.6: Homogenous, particular, and general solutions of Eq. (3.1) for an underdamped case
26
2.3.2 Response of a Damped System Under Harmonic Force
If the forcing function is given by 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡, the equation of motion becomes
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 . . (1)
The particular solution of Eq. (1) is also expected to be harmonic; we assume it in the form
𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝑋 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (2)
where 𝑋 and 𝜙 are constants to be determined. X and 𝜙 denote the amplitude and phase angle of
the response, respectively. By substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), we arrive at
𝑋[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔2 ) cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) − 𝑐𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)] = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 (3)

Using the trigonometric relations
cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) = cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙
sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) = sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 − cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙
in Eq. (3) and equating the coefficients of cos 𝜔𝑡 and sin 𝜔𝑡 on both sides of the resulting
equation, we obtain
𝑋[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔2 ) cos 𝜙 + 𝑐𝜔 sin 𝜙] = 𝐹0 ,
𝑋[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔2 ) sin 𝜙 − 𝑐𝜔 cos 𝜙] = 0 … (4)
Solution of Eq. (4) gives
𝐹0
𝑋= 1⁄ … (5)
[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + 𝑐 2 𝜔 2 ] 2
and
𝑐𝜔
𝜙 = tan− ( ) … (6)
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2
Figure 2.7 (a) shows typical plots of the forcing function and (steady-state) response. The various
terms of Eq. (3) are shown vectorially in Fig. 2.7(b).
Fig. 2.7 Representation of forcing function and response
27
Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq. (5) by k and making the following
substitutions
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = √ = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑚
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝜁= = = ; = 2𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝑐𝑐 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 2√𝑚𝑘 𝑚
𝜔
𝑟= = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝜔𝑛
𝐹0
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹0 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑘
we obtain
𝑋 1 1
= 1⁄ = … (7)
𝛿𝑠𝑡 2 2 2 2 √(1 − 𝑟 2 )2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2
𝜔 𝜔
{[1 − (𝜔 ) ] + [2𝜁 𝜔 ] }
𝑛 𝑛
and
𝜔
2𝜁 𝜔 2𝜁𝑟
𝑛
𝜙 = tan−1 { 2} = tan−1 ( ) … (8)
𝜔 1 − 𝑟2
1 − (𝜔 )
𝑛
Total Response
The complete solution is given by
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥ℎ (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡)
Thus, for an underdamped system, we have
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜙0 ) + 𝑋 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (9)
𝜔𝑑 = √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛
For the initial conditions, 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 0 , Eq. (9) yields
𝑥0 = 𝑋0 cos 𝜙0 + 𝑋 cos 𝜙
𝑥̇ 0 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑋0 cos 𝜙0 + 𝜔𝑑 𝑋0 sin 𝜙0 + 𝜔𝑋 sin 𝜙 … (10)
28
The solution of Eq. (10) gives 𝑋0 and 𝜙0 as
1⁄
1 2
𝑋0 = [(𝑥0 − 𝑋 cos 𝜙)2 + 2 (𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 + 𝑥̇ 0 − 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑋 cos 𝜙 − 𝜔𝑋 sin 𝜙)] . . . (11𝑎)
𝜔𝑑
𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 + 𝑥̇ 0 − 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑋 cos 𝜙 − 𝜔𝑋 sin 𝜙

tan 𝜙0 = … (11𝑏)
𝜔𝑑 (𝑥0 − 𝑋 cos 𝜙)
Worked Example 1
Find the total response of a single-degree-of-freedom system with 𝑚 = 10 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐 = 20 𝑁 −
𝑠⁄𝑚, 𝑘 = 4000 𝑁⁄𝑚, 𝑥0 = 0.01 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̇ 0 = 0 under the following conditions:
a. An external force 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 acts on the system with 𝐹0 = 100 𝑁 and 𝜔 =
10 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠
b. Free vibration with 𝐹(𝑡) = 0
Solution
29
2.3.3 Response of a Damped System under the Harmonic Motion of the Base
Sometimes the base or support of a spring-mass-damper system undergoes harmonic motion, as
shown in Fig. 2.8(a). Let 𝑦(𝑡) denote the displacement of the base and 𝑥(𝑡) the displacement of
the mass from its static equilibrium position at time 𝑡. Then the net elongation of the spring is
𝑥 − 𝑦 and the relative velocity between the two ends of the damper is 𝑥̇ − 𝑦̇ . From the free-body
diagram shown in Fig. 2.8(b), we obtain the equation of motion:
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐(𝑥̇ − 𝑦̇ ) + 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 0 … (1)
30
Figure 2.8 Base excitation
If 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑌sin 𝜔𝑡, Eq. (1) becomes
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦̇ = 𝑘𝑌 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐𝜔𝑌 cos 𝜔𝑡

= 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼) … (2)
𝑐𝜔
where 𝐴 = 𝑌√𝑘 2 + (𝑐𝜔)2 and ∝= tan−1 [− ]. This shows that giving excitation to the base is
𝑘
equivalent to applying a harmonic force of magnitude A to the mass.

From Eqn. (2), the steady-state response of the mass, 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) can be expressed as
𝑌√𝑘 2 + (𝑐𝜔)2
𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) = 1⁄ sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 − 𝛼) … (3)
[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + (𝑐𝜔)2 ] 2
where
𝑐𝜔
𝜙1 = tan−1 ( )
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2
Using trigonometric identities, Eq. (3) can be rewritten in a more convenient form as
𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (4)
where 𝑋 and 𝜙 are given by
1⁄ 1⁄
𝑋 𝑘 2 + (𝑐𝜔)2 2 1 + (2𝜁𝑟)2 2
=[ ] =[ ] … (5𝑎)
𝑌 (𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + (𝑐𝜔)2 (1 − 𝑟 2 )2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2
and
𝑚𝑐𝜔3
𝜙 = tan−1 [ ]
𝑘(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 ) + (𝜔𝑐)2
−1
2𝜁𝑟 3
= tan [ ] … (5𝑏)
1 + (4𝜁 2 − 1)𝑟 2
31
𝑋
phase angle 𝑦(𝑡), , is called the displacement transmissibility.
𝑌
𝑋
The variations of = 𝑇𝑑 and 𝜙 given by Eq. (5a) and (5b) are shown in Figs. 2.9(a) and (b),
𝑌
respectively, for different values of 𝑟 and 𝜁.
Figure 2.9 Variation of 𝑇𝑑 and 𝜙 with 𝑟

2.3.4 Force Transmitted
In Fig. 2.8, a force, 𝐹, is transmitted to the base or support due to the reactions from the spring
and the dashpot. This force can be determined as
𝐹 = 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑦) + 𝑐(𝑥̇ − 𝑦̇ ) = −𝑚𝑥̈ … (6)
From Eq. (4), Eq. (6) can be written as
𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) = 𝐹𝑇 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (7)
where 𝐹𝑇 is the amplitude or maximum value of the force transmitted to the base given by
1⁄
𝐹𝑇 2
1 + (2𝜁𝑟)2 2
=𝑟 [ ] … (8)
𝑘𝑌 (1 − 𝑟 2 )2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2
𝐹
The ratio ( 𝑇⁄𝑘𝑌) is known as the force transmissibility. Note that the transmitted force is in
phase with the motion of the mass 𝑥(𝑡). The variation of the force transmitted to the base with
the frequency ratio 𝑟 is shown in Fig. 2.10 for different values of 𝜁.
32
Figure 2.10 Force transmissibility
2.3.5 Relative Motion
If 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 denotes the motion of the mass relative to the base, the equation of motion, Eq. (1),
can be rewritten as
𝑚𝑧̈ + 𝑐𝑧̇ + 𝑘𝑧 = −𝑚𝑦̈ = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑌 sin 𝜔𝑡 … (9)
The steady-state solution of Eq. (9) is given by
𝑚𝜔2 𝑌 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 )
𝑧(𝑡) = 1⁄ = 𝑍 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 ) … (10)
[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + (𝑐𝜔)2 ] 2
where 𝑍, the amplitude of 𝑧(𝑡), can be expressed as

𝑚𝜔2 𝑌 𝑟2
𝑍= =𝑌 … (11)
√(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + (𝑐𝜔)2 √(1 − 𝑟 2 )2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2
and 𝜙1 by
𝑐𝜔 2𝜁𝑟
𝜙1 = tan−1 ( 2
) = tan−1 ( )
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 1 − 𝑟2
Worked Example
Figure 2.11 shows a simple model of a motor vehicle that can vibrate in the vertical direction
while traveling over a rough road. The vehicle has a mass of 1 200 𝑘𝑔. The suspension system
has a spring constant of 400 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 and a damping ratio 𝜁 = 0.5. If the vehicle speed is 20 𝑘𝑚/
33
ℎ𝑟, determine the displacement amplitude of the vehicle. The road surface varies sinusoidally
with amplitude of 𝑌 = 0.05 𝑚 and a wavelength of 6 𝑚.
Figure 2.11 Vehicle moving over a rough road.

Solution
The frequency 𝜔 of the base excitation can be found by dividing the vehicle speed 𝑣 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 by
the length of one cycle of road roughness:
For 𝑣 = 20 𝑘𝑚⁄ℎ𝑟 , 𝜔 = 5.81778 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠. The natural frequency of the vehicle is given by
and hence the frequency ratio r is
The amplitude ratio can be found from Eq. (5a):
34
Thus the displacement amplitude of the vehicle is given by
This indicates that a 5 𝑐𝑚 bump in the road is transmitted as a 5.5 𝑐𝑚 bump to the chassis and
the passengers of the car. Thus in the present case the passengers feel an amplified motion.
Worked Example
A heavy machine, weighing 3 000 𝑁, is supported on a resilient foundation. The static deflection
of the foundation due to the weight of the machine is found to be 7.5 𝑐𝑚. It is observed that the
machine vibrates with amplitude of 1 𝑐𝑚 when the base of the foundation is subjected to
harmonic oscillation at the undamped natural frequency of the system with amplitude
of 0.25 cm. Find
i. the damping constant of the foundation,
ii. the dynamic force amplitude on the base, and
iii. the amplitude of the displacement of the machine relative to the base.
Solution
i. The stiffness of the foundation can be found from its static deflection:
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 3000
𝑘= = = 40 000 𝑁⁄𝑚
𝛿𝑠𝑡 0.075
At resonance (𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 1), Eq. (5a) gives
The solution of Eq. (E.1) gives 𝜁 = 0.1291. The damping constant is given by
ii. The dynamic force amplitude on the base at 𝑟 = 1 can be found from Eq. (8):
iii. The amplitude of the relative displacement of the machine at can be obtained from Eq. (11):
35
It can be noticed that 𝑋 = 0.01 𝑚, 𝑌 = 0.0025 𝑚 and 𝑍 = 0.00968 𝑚; therefore, 𝑍 ≠ 𝑋 − 𝑌.
This is due to the phase differences between 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧.
2.4 FORCED VIBRATION WITH COULOMB DAMPING
For a single-degree-of-freedom system with Coulomb or dry-friction damping, subjected to a
harmonic force 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑡 as in Fig. 2.12, the equation of motion is given by
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜇𝑁 = 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑡
where the sign of the friction force (𝜇𝑁 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔) is positive (negative) when the mass moves
from left to right (right to left).
Figure 2.12 Single-degree-of-freedom system with Coulomb damping
Equivalent viscous-damping ratio is obtained by equating the energy dissipated due to dry
friction to the energy dissipated by an equivalent viscous damper during a full cycle of motion. If
the amplitude of motion is denoted as 𝑋, the energy dissipated by the friction force 𝜇𝑁 in a
quarter cycles is 𝜇𝑁𝑋. Hence in a full cycle, the energy dissipated by dry friction damping is
given by
∆𝑊 = 4𝜇𝑁𝑋 … (1)
36
If the equivalent viscous-damping constant is denoted as the energy dissipated during a full cycle
will be
∆𝑊 = 𝜋𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝜔𝑋 2 … (2)
By equating Eqs. (1) and (2), we obtain
4𝜇𝑁
𝑐𝑒𝑞 =
𝜋𝜔𝑋
Thus the steady-state response is given by
𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (3)

where the amplitude 𝑋 is given by
𝐹0
𝑋= 1⁄
2 2
[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + (𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝜔) ]
𝐹0
= 𝑘 … (4)
1⁄
2 2
𝜔2 𝜔 2
[(1 − ) + (2𝜁𝑒𝑞 𝜔 ) ]
𝜔𝑛2 𝑛
With
𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐𝑒𝑞 4𝜇𝑁 2𝜇𝑁
𝜁𝑒𝑞 = = = = … (5)
𝑐𝑐 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 𝜋𝜔𝑋 𝜋𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑛 𝑋
Substitution of Eq. (5) into Eq. (4) gives
𝐹0
𝑋= 𝑘 … (5)
1⁄
2 2 2
𝜔2 4𝜇𝑁
[(1 − ) +( ) ]
𝜔𝑛2 𝜋𝑘𝑋
The solution of this equation gives the amplitude X as

1⁄
4𝜇𝑁 2 2
1 − (
𝐹0 𝜋𝐹0 )
𝑋= 2 … (6)
𝑘 𝜔2
(1 − 2 )
[ 𝜔𝑛 ]
The phase angle 𝜙 appearing in Eq. (3) is given by
37
𝜔 4𝜇𝑁
𝑐 𝜔 2𝜁𝑒𝑞 𝜔
] = tan [ 𝜋𝑘𝑋 2 ]
−1 𝑒𝑞 −1 𝑛 −1
𝜙 = tan ( ) = tan [ … (7)
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 𝜔2 𝜔
1− 2 1− 2
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
Substituting Eq. (6) into Eq. (7) for X, we obtain
4𝜇𝑁
𝜋𝐹0
𝜙 = tan−1 1⁄ … (8)
2 2
4𝜇𝑁
[ {1 − ( 𝜋𝐹0 ) } ]
Worked Example
A spring-mass system, having a mass of 10 𝑘𝑔 and a spring of stiffness of 4000 𝑁/𝑚, vibrates
on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of friction is 0.12. When subjected to a harmonic force
of frequency 2 𝐻𝑧, the mass is found to vibrate with an amplitude of 40 𝑚𝑚. Find the amplitude
of the harmonic force applied to the mass.
Solution
The vertical force (weight) of the mass is 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 = 10 × 9.81 = 98.1 𝑁. The natural
frequency is
and the frequency ratio is
The amplitude of vibration 𝑋 is given by Eq. (6):
38
The solution of this equation gives 𝐹0 = 97.9874 𝑁
2.5 VIBRATION ISOLATION

Vibration isolation is a procedure by which the undesirable effects of vibration are reduced.
Basically, it involves the insertion of a resilient member (or isolator) between the vibrating mass
(or equipment or payload) and the source of vibration so that a reduction in the dynamic response
of the system is achieved under specified conditions of vibration excitation.
Figure 2.13 (a) Undamped spring mount; (b) damped spring mount; (c) pneumatic rubber mount
2.5.1 Vibration Isolation System with Rigid Foundation
Reduction of the Force Transmitted to Foundation
When a machine is bolted directly to a rigid foundation or floor, the foundation will be subjected
to a harmonic load due to the unbalance in the machine in addition to the static load due to the
weight of the machine. Hence an elastic or resilient member is placed between the machine and
the rigid foundation to reduce the force transmitted to the foundation.
The system can then be idealized as a single-degree-of-freedom system, as shown in Fig. 2.13(a).
The resilient member is assumed to have both elasticity and damping and is modeled as a spring
k and a dashpot c, as shown in Fig. 2.13(b).
39
Figure 2.13 Machine and resilient member on rigid foundation.
It is assumed that the operation of the machine gives rise to a harmonically varying force (𝑡) =
𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 .
The equation of motion of the machine (of mass m) is given by
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 … (1)
Since the transient solution dies out after some time, only the steady-state solution will be left.
The steady-state solution of Eq. (1) is given by
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (2)

where
𝐹0
𝑋= 1⁄ … (3𝑎)
[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑐 2 ] 2
and
𝜔𝑐
𝜙 = tan−1 ( ) … (3𝑏)
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2
The force transmitted to the foundation through the spring and the dashpot, 𝐹𝑡 (𝑡) is given by
𝐹𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑐𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑋 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) − 𝑐𝜔𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (4)
The magnitude of the total transmitted force (𝐹𝑇 ) is given by
1⁄
𝐹𝑇 = [(𝑘𝑥)2 + (𝑐𝑥̇ )2 ] 2 = 𝑋 √𝑘 2 + 𝜔 2 𝑐 2
𝐹0 √(𝑘 2 + 𝜔 2 𝑐 2 )
= 1⁄ … (5)
[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑐 2 ] 2
The transmissibility or transmission ratio of the isolator (𝑇𝑓 ) is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of the force transmitted to that of the exciting force:
1⁄
𝐹𝑇 (𝑘 2 + 𝜔2 𝑐 2 ) 2
𝑇𝑓 = ={ }
𝐹0 (𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 )2 + 𝜔 2 𝑐 2
40
1⁄
1 + (2𝜁𝑟)2 2
={ } … (6)
[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2
𝜔
where 𝑟 = 𝜔 is the frequency ratio.
𝑛
For small values of damping ratio 𝜁 and for frequency ratio 𝑟 > 1, the force transmissibility,
given by Eq. (6), can be approximated as
𝐹𝑡 1 1 + 𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑓 = ≈ 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑟2 ≈ … (7)
𝐹 𝑟 −1 𝑇𝑓
2.5.2 Reduction of the Vibratory Motion of the Mass
In many applications, the isolation is required to reduce the motion of the mass (machine) under
the applied force. The displacement amplitude of the mass m due to the force 𝐹(𝑡), given by Eq.
(3a) can be expressed as
𝑋 𝑘𝑋 1
𝑇𝑑 = = = … (8)
𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝐹0 √(1 − 𝑟 2 )2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2
where 𝑋⁄𝛿 is called the displacement transmissibility or amplitude ratio and indicates the ratio
𝑠𝑡
𝐹0⁄
of the amplitude of the mass, 𝑋, to the static deflection under the constant force 𝐹0 , 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝑘.
Worked Example
An exhaust fan, rotating at 1000 𝑟𝑝𝑚, is to be supported by four springs, each having a stiffness
of 𝐾. If only 10 percent of the unbalanced force of the fan is to be transmitted to the base, what
should be the value of K? Assume the mass of the exhaust fan to be 40 𝑘𝑔.
Solution
Since the transmissibility has to be 0.1, we have, from Eq. (6),
where the forcing frequency is given by
and the natural frequency of the system by
41
By assuming the damping ratio to be 𝜁 = 0 we obtain from Eq. (E.1),
To avoid imaginary values, we need to consider the negative sign on the right-hand side of Eq.
(E.4). This leads to
331.1561
= 3.3166, 𝐾 = 9 969.6365 𝑁⁄𝑚
√𝐾
Worked Example
A 50 𝑘𝑔 mass is subjected to the harmonic force 𝐹(𝑡) = 1000 cos 120𝑡 𝑁. Design an
undamped isolator so that the force transmitted to the base does not exceed 5% of the applied
force. Also, find the displacement amplitude of the mass of the system with isolation.
Solution
By setting the value of force transmissibility as 0.05 and using 𝜁 = 0 Eq. (7) gives
Using the definition of 𝑟, along with the values of 𝑚 = 50 𝑘𝑔 and 𝜔 = 120 rad⁄s Eq. (E.1)
yields
or
The displacement amplitude of the mass of the system with isolation can be found from Eq. (8),
with 𝜁 = 0:
42
2.5.3 Isolation of systems with rotating unbalance
A common source of forced harmonic force is imbalance in rotating machines such as turbines,
centrifugal pumps, and turbo generators. Imbalance in a rotating machine implies that the axis of
rotation does not coincide with the center of mass of the whole system. A typical rotating system
with an unbalance is shown in Fig. 2.14.
Here the total mass of the system is assumed to be M and the unbalanced mass is considered as a
point mass m located at the center of mass of the system (which has an eccentricity of e from the
center of rotation) as shown in Fig. 2.14.
Figure 2.14 A system with rotating unbalance

If the unbalanced mass rotates at an angular velocity 𝜔 and the system is constrained to move in
the vertical direction, the equation of motion of the system is given by
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑚𝑒𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡 … (9)
where 𝐹0 = 𝑚𝑒𝜔2
Hence, the force transmissibility (𝐹𝑓 ) due to rotating unbalance is given by
𝐹𝑡 𝐹𝑡 𝐹𝑡
𝑇𝑓 = = 2
= … (10)
𝐹0 𝑚𝑒𝜔 𝑚𝑒𝑟 2 𝜔𝑛2
or
1⁄
𝐹𝑡 2
1 + (2𝜁𝑟)2 2
= 𝑟 { } … (11)
𝑚𝑒𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝑟 2 )2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2
43
Worked Example
A centrifugal pump, with a mass of 50 𝑘𝑔 and rotational speed of 3000 𝑟𝑝𝑚, is mounted in the
middle of a simply supported beam of length 100 𝑐𝑚, width 20 𝑐𝑚 and thickness 0.5 𝑐𝑚. The
damping ratio of the system (beam) can be assumed as 𝜁 = 0.05. The impeller (rotating part) of
the pump has a mass of 5 𝑘𝑔 with an eccentricity of 1 𝑚𝑚. If the maximum deflection of the
beam is is constrained to be less than the available rattle space of 3 𝑚𝑚. Determine whether the
support system of the pump is adequate.
Solution
The bending stiffness or spring constant of the simply supported beam is given by
where the moment of inertia of the beam cross section can be computed as
Using 𝐸 = 207 × 109 Pa, the spring constant of the beam can be found as
Using the density of steel as 7.85 gram⁄cm3 , the mass of the beam (𝑚𝑏 ) can be determined as
The total mass of the system (𝑀) is equal to the mass of the pump plus the effective mass of the
17
beam at its center (equal to 35 𝑚𝑏 ):
The natural frequency of the system is given by
300
The impeller (rotor) speed of 3000 𝑟𝑝𝑚 gives 𝜔 = 2𝜋 × = 314.16 rad⁄s, thus the
60
frequency ratio, 𝑟, becomes
44
The amplitude of the forcing function is
Using 𝜁 = 0.05, the steady-state amplitude of the pump can be found from Eq. (8), using 𝑚𝑒𝜔2
for 𝐹0 , as
The static deflection of the beam under the weight of the pump can be determined as
Thus the total deflection of the system is
This deflection is less than the rattle space of 3 𝑚𝑚. As such the support system of the pump is
adequate. In case the value of 𝛿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 exceeds the rattle space, we need to redesign (modify) the
support system. This can be achieved by changing the spring constant (dimensions) of the beam
and/or by introducing a damper.
45
3 CHAPTER 3
MULTI-DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS
3.1 EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR FORCED VIBRATION
Consider a viscously damped two-degree-of-freedom spring-mass system, shown in Fig. 3.1(a).
The motion of the system is completely described by the coordinates 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) which
define the positions of the masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 at any time 𝑡 from the respective equilibrium
positions. The external forces 𝑓1 (𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑡) act on the masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , respectively. The
free-body diagrams of the masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are shown in Fig. 3.1(b).
Figure 3.1 A two-degree-of-freedom spring-mass-damper system
The application of Newton s second law of motion to each of the masses gives the equations of
motion:
𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 + (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 )𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑐2 𝑥̇ 2 + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥1 − 𝑘2 𝑥2 = 𝑓1 3.1
𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 − 𝑐2 𝑥̇ 1 + (𝑐2 + 𝑐3 )𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑘2 𝑥1 + (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )𝑥2 = 𝑓2 3.2
It can be seen that Eq. (3.1) contains terms involving 𝑥2 (namely, 𝑐2 𝑥̇ 2 and −𝑘2 𝑥2 ), whereas
Eq. (3.2) contains terms involving 𝑥1 (namely, 𝑐2 𝑥̇ 1 and −𝑘2 𝑥1 ). Hence they represent a system
of two coupled second-order differential equations. We can therefore expect that the motion of
the mass 𝑚1 will influence the motion of the mass 𝑚2 and vice versa. Equations (3.1) and (3.2)
can be written in matrix form as
[𝑚] 𝑥̈ (𝑡) + [𝑐] 𝑥̇ (𝑡) + [𝑘]𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) (3.3)
46
where [𝑚], [𝑐], and [𝑘] are called the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices, respectively, and
are given by
and 𝑥 (𝑡) and 𝑓 (𝑡) are called the displacement and force vectors, respectively, and are given by
and
It can be seen that [𝑚], [𝑐] and [𝑘] are all 2 × 2 matrices whose elements are the known masses,
damping coefficients, and stiffnesses of the system, respectively. Further, these matrices can be
seen to be symmetric, so that
where the superscript 𝑇 denotes the transpose of the matrix.
Notice that the equations of motion (3.1) and (3.2) become uncoupled (independent of one
another) only when 𝑐2 = 𝑘2 = 0, which implies that the two masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are not
physically connected.
The solution of the equations of motion (3.1) and (3.2) for any arbitrary forces 𝑓1 (𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑡) is
difficult to obtain, mainly due to the coupling of the variables 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡). The solution of
Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) involves four constants of integration (two for each equation). Usually the
initial displacements and velocities of the two masses are specified as 𝑥1 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥1 (0), 𝑥̇ 1 (𝑡 =
0) = 𝑥̇ 1 (0), 𝑥2 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥2 (0), and 𝑥̇ 2 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 2 (0).
The following worked examples illustrate the computation of responses of two-degree-of-

freedom systems using Laplace transform:
47
Worked Example 1 (Free-Vibration Response of an undamped System)
Find the free-vibration response of the system shown in Fig. 3.1(a) using Laplace transform
approach for the following data: 𝑚1 = 2,𝑚2 = 4,𝑘1 = 8, 𝑘2 = 4, 𝑘3 = 0, 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3 = 0.
Assume the initial conditions as 𝑥1 (0) = 0, 𝑥2 (0) = 1 and 𝑥̇ 1 (0) = 𝑥̇ 2 (0) = 0.
Solution: For the given data, for free vibration with 𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 0, the equations of motion
of the system, Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2), take the form
By taking Laplace transform of Eqs. (E.1) and (E.2), we obtain
For the known initial conditions, 𝑥1 (0) = 0, 𝑥2 (0) = 1 and 𝑥̇ 1 (0) = 𝑥̇ 2 (0) = 0 Eqs. (E.3) and
(E.4) become
By introducing
the solution of Eqs. (E.5) and (E.6) for 𝑋1 (𝑠) and 𝑋2 (𝑠), based on Cramer s rule, can be
expressed as
48
As can be observed from Eqs. (E.10) and (E.11), the denominator is a quadratic in 𝑠 2 (true for all
undamped two-degree-of-freedom systems). Since the roots of the denominator, 𝑠 4 + 7𝑠 2 + 4 =
0 are given by
𝑋1 (𝑠) and 𝑋2 (𝑠) can be expressed in factored form as
Using partial fractions, 𝑋1 (𝑠) and 𝑋2 (𝑠) can be written as
To determine 𝑥1 (𝑡), we equate (E.15) and (E.13) to obtain (from the numerators)
or
By equating the corresponding terms on both sides of Eq. (E.17), we obtain
The solution of Eqns. (E.18) yields 𝐶1 = 0, 𝐶2 = 0.3481, 𝐶3 = 0, 𝐶4 = −0.3481 and hence

𝑋1 (𝑠) of Eq. (E.15) becomes
The inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (E.19) gives
To determine 𝑥2 (𝑡) we equate (E.16) and (E.14) to obtain (from the numerators)
49
or
By equating the corresponding terms on both sides of Eq. (E.21), we obtain
The solution of Eqs. (E.22) yields 𝐶5 = 0, 𝐶6 = 0.9352, 𝐶7 = 0, 𝐶8 = 0.0648 and hence 𝑋2 (𝑠)
of
Eq. (E.16) becomes
The inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (E.23) gives
The free-vibration response of the system, 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡), given by Eqs. (E.20) and (E.24), is
shown graphically in Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.2
50
Worked Example 2
Free-Vibration Response of a damped System
Find the free-vibration response of the system shown in Fig. 3.3(a) using Laplace transform
approach for the following data: 𝑚1 = 2, 𝑚2 = 4, 𝑘1 = 8, 𝑘2 = 4, 𝑘3 = 0, 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 2, 𝑐3 =
0. Assume the initial conditions as 𝑥1 (0) = 0, 𝑥2 (0) = 1 and 𝑥̇ 1 (0) = 𝑥̇ 2 (0) = 0.
Solution
For the given data, for free vibration with 𝑓1 (𝑡) = 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 0, the equations of motion of the
system, Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2), take the form
By taking Laplace transform of Eqs. (E.1) and (E.2), we obtain
By introducing
the solution of Eqs. (E.5) and (E.6) for 𝑋1 (𝑠) and 𝑋2 (𝑠) based on Cramer s rule, can be
expressed as
As can be observed from Eqs. (E.10) and (E.11), the denominator is not a quadratic in 𝑠 2 (true
for all damped two-degree-of-freedom systems). The roots of the denominator (characteristic
51
roots of the system), 𝑠 4 + 1.5𝑠 3 + 7𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4 = 0, can be found (for example, using
MATLAB), as
It can be seen that the roots are complex (true for all damped systems) instead of simply
imaginary values (true for undamped systems). In view of the characteristic roots given in Eq.
(E.12), 𝑋1 (𝑠) of Eq. (E.10) can be expressed as
where 𝑎 = 0.6567, 𝑏 = 2.3807, 𝑐 = 0.0933, 𝑑 = 0.8044 and 𝐶𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, 3, 4 are unknown

constants. By writing the right-hand-side expression in Eq. (E.13) as
and equating the numerator of Eq. (E.14) to the numerator in the middle expression of Eq.
(E.13), we obtain
By equating the coefficients of the corresponding terms on both sides of Eq. (E.15), we obtain
where the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 are defined in Eq. (E.12). The solution of Eqs. (E.16), for
example by MATLAB, gives 𝐶1 = −0.0945, 𝐶2 = −0.3713, 𝐶3 = 0.0196, 4=0.3713. Thus
𝑋1 (𝑠), in Eq. (E.13), becomes
52
By taking inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (E.17), we obtain
Similarly, based on the characteristic roots given in Eq. (E.12), 𝑋2 (𝑠) of Eq. (E.11) can be
expressed as
where 𝑎 = 0.6567, 𝑏 = 2.3807, 𝑐 = 0.0933, 𝑑 = 0.8044 and 𝐶𝑖 , 𝑖 = 5, 6, 7, 8, are unknown

constants. By writing the right-hand-side expression in Eq. (E.19) as
or
By equating the coefficients of the corresponding terms on both sides of Eq. (E.21), we obtain
where the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are defined in Eq. (E.12). The solution of Eqs. (E.22), by
MATLAB, gives 𝐶5 = −0.0418, 𝐶6 = 0.0970, 𝐶7 = 0.3077, 𝐶8 = 0.9030. Thus Eq. (E.19) can
be written as
53
By taking inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (E.23), we obtain
The free-vibration response of the system, 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) given by Eqs. (E.18) and (E.24), is
shown graphically in Fig. 3.2.
54
4 CHAPTER 4
TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS
4.1 TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS OF TWO ROTOR SYSTEMS
Consider a two rotor system as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1 Free torsional vibrations of a two rotor system
It consists of a shaft with two rotors at its ends. In this system, the torsional vibrations occurs
only when the two rotors 𝐴 and 𝐵 moves in opposite direction i.e. If 𝐴 moves in anticlockwise
direction then 𝐵 moves in clockwise direction at the same instant and vice versa. The two rotors
must have the same frequency.
From Fig. 4.1, the node lies at point N. This point can be safely assumed as a fixed end and the
shaft may be considered as two separate shafts 𝑁𝑃 and 𝑁𝑄 each fixed to one of its ends and
carrying rotors at the free ends.
Let,
𝑙 = Length of shaft
𝑙𝐴 = Length of part 𝑁𝑃 i.e. distance of node from rotor 𝐴
𝑙𝐵 = Length of part 𝑁𝑄 i.e. distance of node from rotor 𝐵
𝐼𝐴 = Mass moment of inertia of rotor 𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = Mass moment of inertia of rotor 𝐵
𝑑 = Diameter of shaft
𝐽 = Polar moment of inertia of shaft and
𝐶 = Modulus of rigidity for shaft material
Natural frequency of torsional vibration for rotor 𝐴,
55
1 𝐶∙𝐽
𝑓𝑛𝐴 = √ … (𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴
and natural frequency of torsional vibration for rotor 𝐵,
1 𝐶∙𝐽
𝑓𝑛𝐵 = √ … (𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵
Since 𝑓𝑛𝐴 = 𝑓𝑛𝐵 , therefore
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 𝐶∙𝐽
√ = √ 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵 … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵
𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵
𝑙𝐴 =
𝐼𝐴
Also,
𝑙 = 𝑙𝐴 + 𝑙𝐵 … (𝑖𝑣)
From equations (𝑖𝑖𝑖) and (𝑖𝑣), we may find the value of 𝑙𝐴 and 𝑙𝐵 and hence the position of node.
Substituting values of 𝑙𝐴 and 𝑙𝐵 in equation (𝑖) or (𝑖𝑖), the natural frequency of torsional
vibration for a two rotor system may be evaluated. The line 𝐿𝑁𝑀 in Fig. 4.1 is known as elastic
line for the shaft.
4.2 TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS OF THREE ROTOR SYSTEMS

Consider a three rotor system as shown in Fig. 4.2(a).
It consists of a shaft and three rotors 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶. The rotors 𝐴 and 𝐶 are attached to the ends of a
shaft, whereas the rotor 𝐵 is attached in between 𝐴 and 𝐶. The torsional vibrations may occur in
two ways; that is with either one node or two nodes. In each case, the two rotors rotate in one
direction and the third rotor rotates in opposite direction with the same frequency. Let the rotors
𝐴 and 𝐶 of the system, as shown in Fig. 4.2(a), rotate in same direction and the rotor B in
opposite direction. Let the nodal points or nodes of such a system lies at 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 as shown in
Fig. 4.2(b).
56
Fig. 4.2 Free torsional vibrations of a three rotor system
Let,
𝑙1 = Distance between rotors A and B
𝑙2 = Distance between rotors B and C
𝑙𝐴 = Distance between node 𝑁1 from rotor A
𝑙𝐶 = Distance between node 𝑁2 from rotor C
𝐼𝐴 =Mass moment of inertia of rotor A
𝐼𝐵 =Mass moment of inertia of rotor B
𝐼𝐶 =Mass moment of inertia of rotor C
𝑑 = Diameter of shaft
𝐽 = Polar moment of inertia of shaft and
𝐶 = Modulus of rigidity for shaft material
Natural frequency of torsional vibrations for rotor A,
1 𝐶∙𝐽
𝑓𝑛𝐴 = √ … (𝑖)
Natural frequency of torsional vibrations for rotor B,
57
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 1
𝑓𝑛𝐵 = √ ( + ) … (𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝐼𝐵 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝐴 𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐶
and natural frequency of torsional vibrations for rotor C,
1 𝐶∙𝐽
𝑓𝑛𝐶 = √ … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
Since 𝑓𝑛𝐴 = 𝑓𝑛𝐵 = 𝑓𝑛𝐶 , therefore equating equations (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 𝐶∙𝐽
√ = √ 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
𝑙𝐴 = … (𝑖𝑣)
𝐼𝐴
Now equating equations (𝑖𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 1 1 𝐶∙𝐽
√ ( + )= √
2𝜋 𝐼𝐵 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝐴 𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐶 2𝜋 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
𝐶∙𝐽 1 1 𝐶∙𝐽
( + )=
𝐼𝐵 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝐴 𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐶 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
1 1 1 1
( + )= … (𝑖𝑣)
𝐼𝐵 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝐴 𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐶 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
On substituting the value of 𝑙𝐴 from equation (𝑖𝑣) in the above expression, a quadratic equation
in 𝑙𝐶 is obtained. Therefore, there are two values of 𝑙𝐶 and corresponding two values of 𝑙𝐴 . One
value of 𝑙𝐴 and the corresponding value of 𝑙𝐶 gives the position of two nodes. The frequency
obtained by substituting the values of 𝑙𝐴 or 𝑙𝐶 in equation (𝑖) or (𝑖𝑖𝑖) is known as two node
frequency.
But in the other pair of values, one gives the position of single node and the order is beyond the
physical limits of the equation. In this case, the frequency obtained is known as fundamental
frequency or single node frequency.
58
It may be noted that
1. When the rotors 𝐴 and 𝐵 rotate in the same direction and the rotor 𝐶 in the opposite
direction, then the torsional vibrations occur with a single node, as shown in Fig. 4.3 (b).
In this case 𝑙𝐴 > 𝑙1 i.e. the node lies between the rotors 𝐵 and 𝐶, but it does not give the
actual value of the node.
2. When the rotors 𝐵 and 𝐶 rotate in the same direction and the rotor 𝐴 in opposite
direction, then the torsional vibrations also occur with a single node as shown in Fig.
4.3(c). In this case 𝑙𝐶 > 𝑙2 i.e. the node lies between the rotors 𝐴 and 𝐵, but it does not
give the actual value of the node.
3. When the amplitude of vibration for the rotor 𝐴(𝑎1 ) is known, then the amplitude of rotor 𝐵,
𝑙𝐴 − 𝑙1
𝑎2 = 𝑎1
𝑙𝐴
and amplitude of rotor 𝐶,
𝑙𝐶
𝑎3 = 𝑎
𝑙𝐶 − 𝑙2 2
As there are two values of 𝑙𝐴 and 𝑙𝐶 , therefore, there will be two values of amplitude for one
node and two node vibrations.
Fig. 4.3
59
4.3 TORSIONAL EQUIVALENT SHAFT
In above discussion, it is assumed that the shaft is of uniform diameter. But in actual practice, the
shaft may have variable diameter for different lengths. Such shaft may, theoretically, be replaced
by an equivalent shaft of uniform diameter.
Consider a shaft of varying diameters as shown in Fig. 4.4(a).
Fig. 4.4
Let this shaft be replaced by an equivalent shaft of uniform diameter 𝑑 and length 𝑙 as shown in
Fig. 4.4(b). These two shafts must have the same total angle of twist when equal opposing torque
𝑇 are applied at their opposite ends.
Let 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 and 𝑑3 = Diameters for the lengths 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 and 𝑙3 respectively.

𝜃1 , 𝜃2 and 𝜃3 = Angle of twist for the lengths 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 and 𝑙3 respectively.
𝜃 = Total angle of twist
𝐽1 , 𝐽2 and 𝐽3 = Polar moment of inertia for the shafts of diameters 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 and 𝑑3
respectively.
Since the total angle of twist of the shaft is equal to the sum of the angle of twists of different
lengths, therefore
𝜃 = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3
𝑇𝑙 𝑇𝑙1 𝑇𝑙2 𝑇𝑙3

= + +
𝐶𝐽 𝐶𝐽1 𝐶𝐽2 𝐶𝐽3
𝑙 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
= + +
𝐽 𝐽1 𝐽2 𝐽3
60
𝜋 4= 𝜋 4+ 𝜋 4+ 𝜋 4
32 𝑑 32 𝑑1 32 𝑑2 32 𝑑3
= + +
𝑑 4 𝑑14 𝑑24 𝑑34
In actual calculations, it is assumed that the diameter 𝑑 of the equivalent shaft is equal to one of
the diameter of the actual shaft.
Let us assume that 𝑑 = 𝑑1 .

4 = 4+ 4+ 4
𝑑1 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
𝑑1 4 𝑑1 4
∴ 𝑙 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 ( ) + 𝑙3 ( )
𝑑2 𝑑3
This expression gives the length 𝑙 of an equivalent shaft.
Worked Example 1
A steel shaft 1.5 𝑚 long is 95 𝑚𝑚 in diameter for the first 0.6 𝑚 of its length, 60 𝑚𝑚 in
diameter for next 0. 5 𝑚 of the length and 50 𝑚𝑚 in diameter for the remaining 0.4 𝑚 of its
length. The shaft carries two flywheels at two ends, the first having a mass of 900 𝑘𝑔 and
0.85 𝑚 radius of gyration located at the 95 𝑚𝑚 diameter end and the second having a mass of
700 𝑘𝑔 and 0.55 𝑚 radius of gyration located at the other end. Determine the location of the
node and the natural frequency of free torsional vibration of the system. The modulus of rigidity
of shaft material may be taken as 80 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
Solution
Given:
𝐿 = 1.5 𝑚; 𝑑1 = 0.095 𝑚; 𝑙1 = 0.6 𝑚; 𝑑2 = 0.06 𝑚; 𝑙2 = 0.5 𝑚; 𝑑3 = 0.05 𝑚; 𝑙3 = 0.4 𝑚;
𝑚𝐴 = 900 𝑘𝑔; 𝑘𝐴 = 0.85 𝑚; 𝑚𝐵 = 700 𝑘𝑔; 𝑘𝐵 = 0.55 𝑚; 𝐶 = 80 × 109 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
The shaft is shown in Fig. 4.5 (a).
Length of the equivalent shaft, assuming its diameter as 𝑑1 = 95 𝑚𝑚 as shown in Fig. 4.5(b)
The length of the equivalent
𝑑1 4 𝑑1 4
𝑙 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 ( ) + 𝑙3 ( )
𝑑2 𝑑3
61
0.095 4 0.095 4
= 0.6 + 0.5 ( ) + 0.4 ( ) = 0.6 + 3.14 + 5.21 = 8.95 𝑚
0.06 0.05
Location of the node
Suppose the node of the equivalent shaft lies at 𝑁 as shown in Fig. 4.5(c).
Fig. 4.5
Let
𝑙𝐴 = Distance of the node from flywheel 𝐴 and
𝑙𝐵 = Distance of the node from flywheel 𝐵
But we know that mass moment of inertia of flywheel A,
𝐼𝐴 = 𝑚𝐴 × 𝑘𝐴2 = 900 × 0.852 = 650 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
and mass moment of inertia of flywheel 𝐵,

𝐼𝐵 = 𝑚𝐵 × 𝑘𝐵2 = 700 × 0.552 = 212 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
But
𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵 𝑙𝐵 × 212
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝐴 = = = 0.326 𝑙𝐵
𝐼𝐴 650
62
Also,
𝑙𝐴 +𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙 = 8.95 𝑜𝑟 0.326𝑙𝐵 + 𝑙𝐵 = 8.95, 𝑙𝐵 = 6.75 𝑚
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝐴 = 8.95 − 6.75 = 2.2 𝑚
Hence the node lies at 2.2 𝑚 from flywheel A or 6.75 𝑚 from flywheel B on the equivalent shaft.
∴ Position of node on the original shaft from flywheel A
𝑑2 4 0.06 4
𝑙1 + (𝑙𝐴 − 𝑙1 ) ( ) = 0.6 + (2.2 − 0.6) ( ) = 0.855 𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑠
𝑑1 0.095
Natural frequency of free torsional vibrations

Polar moment of inertia of the equivalent shaft,
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑑1 = × 0.0954 = 8 × 10−6 𝑚4
32 32
Natural frequency of free torsional vibrations
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛𝐴 = 𝑓𝑛𝐵
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 80 × 109 × 8 × 10−6

= √ = √ = 3.37 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 2.2 × 650
Worked Example 2
A steel shaft 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 1.5 𝑚 long has flywheel at its ends 𝐴 and 𝐷. The mass of the flywheel 𝐴 is
600 𝑘𝑔 and has a radius of gyration of 0.6 𝑚. The mass of the flywheel 𝐷 is 800 𝑘𝑔 and has a
radius of gyration of 0.9 𝑚. The connecting shaft has a diameter of 50 𝑚𝑚 for the portion 𝐴𝐵
which is 0.4 𝑚 long; and has a diameter of 60 𝑚𝑚 for the portion 𝐵𝐶 which is 0.5 𝑚 long; and
has a diameter of 𝑑 𝑚𝑚 for the portion 𝐶𝐷 which is 0.6 m long. The modulus rigidity for the
shaft material is 80 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Determine:
1. the diameter ′𝑑′ of the portion 𝐶𝐷 so that the node of the torsional vibration of the system
will be at the centre of the length 𝐵𝐶, and
2. the natural frequency of the torsional vibrations
63
Solution
Given:
𝐿 = 1.5 𝑚; 𝑚𝐴 = 600 𝑘𝑔; 𝑘𝐴 = 0.6 𝑚; 𝑚𝐷 = 800 𝑘𝑔; 𝑘𝐷 = 0.9 𝑚; 𝑑1 = 0.05 𝑚; 𝑙1 = 0.4 𝑚;
𝑑2 = 0.06 𝑚; 𝑙2 = 0.5 𝑚; 𝑑3 = 𝑑; 𝑙3 = 0.6 𝑚; 𝐶 = 80 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
The actual shaft is shown in Fig. 24.10 (a). First, let us find the length of the equivalent shaft,
assuming its diameter as 𝑑1 = 50 𝑚𝑚, as shown in Fig. 4.6(b).
Fig. 4.6
We know that length of the equivalent shaft,
𝑑1 4 𝑑1 4 0.05 4 0.05 4
𝑙 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 ( ) + 𝑙3 ( ) = 0.4 + 0.5 ( ) + 0.6 ( )
𝑑2 𝑑3 0.06 𝑑
3.75 × 10−6 3.75 × 10−6

= 0.4 + 0.24 + = 0.64 + … (𝑖)
𝑑4 𝑑4
1. Diameter ‘𝑑’ of the shaft 𝐶𝐷
Suppose the node of the equivalent shaft lies at N as shown in Fig. 4.6 (c).
Let 𝑙𝐴 = Distance of the node from flywheel 𝐴, and
𝑙𝐷 = Distance of the node from flywheel 𝐷
64
We know that mass moment of inertia of flywheel A,
𝐼𝐴 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑘𝐴2 = 600 × 0.62 = 216 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
and mass moment of inertia of flywheel 𝐷,
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑚𝐷 𝑘𝐷2 = 800 × 0.92 = 648 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
But
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐷 ∙ 𝐼𝐷
or
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 𝑙𝐴 × 216 𝑙𝐴
𝑙𝐷 = = =
𝐼𝐷 648 3
Since the node lies in the centre of the length 𝐵𝐶 in an original system, therefore its equivalent
length from the rotor 𝐴,
𝑙2 𝑑1 4 0.5 0.05 4
𝑙𝐴 = 𝑙1 + ( ) = 0.4 + ( ) = 0.52 𝑚
2 𝑑2 2 0.06
𝑙𝐴 0.52
𝑙𝐷 = + = 0.173 𝑚
3 3
But
𝑙 = 𝑙𝐴 + 𝑙𝐷
or
3.75 × 10−6
0.64 + = 0.52 + 0.173 … [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖)]
𝑑4
3.75 × 10−6
= 0.52 + 0.173 − 0.64 = 0.053
𝑑4
3.75 × 106
𝑑4 = = 70.75 × 10−6
0.053
𝑑 = 0.0917 𝑚 = 91.7 𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2. Natural frequency of torsional vibrations

We know that polar moment of inertia of the equivalent shaft,
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑑1 = × 0.054 = 0.614 × 10−6 𝑚4
32 32
Natural frequency of torsional vibrations,
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛𝐴 = 𝑓𝑛𝐷
65
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 80 × 109 × 0.614 × 10−6
= √ = √ 𝐻𝑧 = 3.33 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 0.52 × 216
Worked Example 3
A single cylinder oil engine drives directly a centrifugal pump. The rotating mass of the engine,
flywheel and the pump with the shaft is equivalent to a three rotor system as shown in Fig. 4.7.
The moment of inertia of the rotors 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are 0.15, 0.3 and 0.09 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 . Find the natural
frequency of the torsional vibration. The modulus of rigidity for the shaft material
is 84 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 .
Fig. 4.7
Solution
𝐼𝐴 = 0.15 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 ; 𝐼𝐵 = 0.3 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 ; 𝐼𝐶 = 0.09 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 ; 𝑑 = 0.07𝑚; 𝑙1 = 1.5 𝑚; 𝑙2 =
1 𝑚; 𝐶 = 84 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2.
We know that
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
𝑙𝐶 𝐼𝐶 0.09
𝑙𝐴 = = 𝑙𝐶 × = 0.6𝑙𝐶
𝐼𝐴 0.15
Also
1 1 1 1
= ( + )
𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝐴 𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐶
1 1 1 1
= ( + )
𝑙𝐶 × 0.09 0.3 1.5 − 𝑙𝐴 1 − 𝑙𝐶
0.3 1 1
= + … (𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝐴 = 0.6𝑙𝐶 )
𝑙𝐶 × 0.09 1.5 − 0.6𝑙𝐶 1 − 𝑙𝐶
10 (1 − 𝑙𝐶 ) + (1.5 − 0.6𝑙𝐶 ) 2.5 − 1.6𝑙𝐶

= =
3𝑙𝐶 (1.5 − 0.6𝑙𝐶 )(1 − 𝑙𝐶 ) 1.5 − 2.1𝑙𝐶 + 0.6𝑙𝐶2
66
On cross-multiplying and re-arranging,
10.8𝑙𝐶2 − 28.5𝑙𝐶 + 15 = 0
28.5 ± √28.52 − (4 × 10.8 × 15) 28.5 ± 12.8

𝑙𝐶 = =
2 × 10.8 21.6
= 1.91 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.726 𝑚
and
𝑙𝐴 = 0.6𝑙𝐶 = 1.146 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.4356 𝑚
Fig. 4.8
Here we see that when 𝑙𝐶 = 1.91 𝑚, then 𝑙𝐴 = 1.146 𝑚. This gives the position of single node
for 𝑙𝐴 = 1.146 𝑚, as shown in Fig. 4.8(b).
The value of 𝑙𝐶 = 0.726 𝑚 and corresponding value of 𝑙𝐴 = 0.4356 𝑚 gives the position of two
nodes, as shown in Fig. 4.8(c)
67
We know that polar moment of inertia of the shaft,
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑑 = × 0.074 = 2.36 × 10−6 𝑚4
32 32
Natural frequency of torsional vibration for a single node system,
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 84 × 109 × 2.36 × 10−6

𝑓𝑛1 = √ = √ 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 1.146 × 0.15
= 170.9 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠. (𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝐴 = 1.146 𝑚)

Similarly, natural frequency of torsional vibraton for a two node system,
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 84 × 109 × 2.36 × 10−6

𝑓𝑛2 = √ = √ 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 0.4356 × 0.15

Worked Example 4
A 4-cylinder engine and flywheel coupled to a propeller are approximated for a 3-rotor system in
which the engine is equivalent to a rotor of moment of inertia 800 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 , the flywheel to a
second rotor of 320 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 and the propeller to a third rotor of 20 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 . The first and second
rotors being connected by 50 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 2 metre long shaft and the second and the third
rotors being connected by a 25 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 2 metre long shaft
Neglecting the inertia of the shaft and taking its modulus of rigidity as 80 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 , determine:
i. Natural frequencies of torsional oscillations
ii. The positions of the nodes
Solution
Given:
𝑙𝐴 = 800 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ; 𝐼𝐵 = 320 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ; 𝐼𝐶 = 20 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 ; 𝑑1 = 0.05 𝑚; 𝑙1 = 2 𝑚; 𝑑2 =
0.025 𝑚;
𝑙2 = 2 𝑚; 𝐶 = 80 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2.
1. Natural frequencies of torsional osclillaitions
First of all, replace the original system, as shown in Fig. 4.9(a), by an equivalent system as
shown in Fig. 4.9(b). It is assumed that the diameter of equivalent shaft is 𝑑1 = 0.05 𝑚.
We know that length of equivalent shaft,
𝑑1 4 0.05 4
𝑙 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 ( ) = 2 + 2 ( ) = 34 𝑚
𝑑2 0.025
68
Now, let us find the position of nodes for the equivalent system.
Let 𝑙𝐴 = Distance of node 𝑁1 from rotor 𝐴, and
𝑙𝐶 = Distance of node 𝑁2 from rotor 𝐶,
We know that
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶
𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶 𝑙𝐶 × 20
𝑙𝐴 = = = 0.025𝑙𝐶
𝐼𝐴 800
Also,
1 1 1 1
= ( + )
𝑙𝐶 ∙ 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝐴 𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐶
1 1 1 1
= ( + ) … (𝑙2 = 𝑙 − 𝑙1 )
𝑙𝐶 × 20 320 2 − 0.025𝑙𝐶 32 − 𝑙𝐶
320 1 1
= +
𝑙𝐶 × 20 2 − 0.025𝑙𝐶 32 − 𝑙𝐶
Fig. 4.9
69
16 32 − 𝑙𝐶 + 2 − 0.025𝑙𝐶 34 − 1.025𝑙𝐶
= =
𝑙𝐶 (2 − 0.025𝑙𝐶 )(32 − 𝑙𝐶 ) 64 − 2.8𝑙𝑐 + 0.025𝑙𝐶2
1.425𝑙𝐶2 − 78.8𝑙𝐶 + 1024 = 0
78.8 ± √78.82 + (4 × 1.425 × 1025) 78.8 ± 19.3

𝑙𝐶 = =
2 × 1.425 2.85
= 34.42 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 20.88 𝑚
and
𝑙𝐴 = 0.025𝑙𝑐 = 0.86 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.52 𝑚
We see that when 𝑙𝐶 = 34.42 𝑚, then 𝑙𝐴 = 0.86 𝑚. This gives the position of single node
for 𝑙𝐴 = 0.86. The value of 𝑙𝐶 = 20.88 𝑚 and corresponding value of 𝑙𝐴 = 0.52 𝑚 gives the
position of two nodes, as shown in Fig. 4.9(c)

𝜋 𝜋
𝐽= × 𝑑14 = × 0.054 = 0.614 × 10−6 𝑚4
32 32
Natural frequency of torsional vibrations for a single node system,
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 80 × 109 × 0.614 × 10−6

𝑓𝑛1 = √ = √ 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 0.86 × 800

Similarly, natural frequency of torsional vibrations for a two node systems,
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 80 × 109 × 0.614 × 10−6

𝑓𝑛2 = √ = √ 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 0.52 × 800
= 1.73 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠. . . (𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝐴 = 0.52 𝑚)

2. Position of the nodes
We have already calculated that for a two node system on an equivalent shaft, 𝑙𝐶 = 20.88 𝑚
from the propeller.
Corresponding value of 𝑙𝐶 in an original system from the propeller
70
𝑑2 4 𝑑2 4 0.025 4
𝑙𝐶 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑙𝐶 𝑒𝑞 × ( ) = 20.88 ( ) = 20.88 ( ) = 1.3 𝑚
𝑑1 𝑑1 0.05
Therefore one node occurs at a distance of 𝑙𝐴 = 0.52 𝑚 from the engine and the other node at a
distance of 𝑙𝐶 = 1.3 𝑚 from the propeller. Ans.
4.4 TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS OF A GEARED SYSTEM

Consider a geared system as shown in Fig. 4.10(a).
Fig. 4.10
It consists of a driving shaft 𝐶 which carries a rotor 𝐴. It drives a driven shaft 𝐷 which carries a
rotor 𝐵, through a pinion E and a gear wheel 𝐹. This system may be replaced by an equivalent
system of continuous shaft carrying a rotor A at one end and rotor 𝐵 at the other end, as shown in
Fig. 4.10(b).
It is assumed that
1. the gear teeth are rigid and are always in contact
2. there is no backlash in the gearing
3. the inertia of the shaft and gears is negligible
71
Let
𝑑1 and 𝑑2 = Diameter of the shafts 𝐶 and 𝐷
𝑙1 and 𝑙2 = Length of the shafts 𝐶 and 𝐷
𝑙𝐴 and 𝑙𝐵 = Mass moment of inertia of the rotors 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝜔𝐴 and 𝜔𝐵 = Angular speed of the rotors 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸 𝜔
𝐺 = Gear ratio = = 𝜔𝐴
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐹 𝐵
(Speed of E and F will be same as that of rotors A and B)
𝑑 = Diameter of the equivalent shaft

𝑙 = Length of the equivalent shaft
𝐼𝐵 = Mass moment of inertia of the equivalent rotor 𝐵
The following two conditions must be satisfied by an equivalent system

1. The kinetic energy of the equivalent system must be equal to the kinetic energy of
the original system
2. The strain energy of the equivalent system must be equal to the strain energy of
the original system.
In order to satisfy the condition (1) for a given load,

𝐾. 𝐸 of section 𝑙3 = 𝐾. 𝐸 of section 𝑙2
1 1
𝐼𝐵′ 𝜔𝐵2 = 𝐼𝐵 𝜔𝐵2 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝐵′ 𝜔𝐴2 = 𝐼𝐵 𝜔𝐵2 … (𝜔𝐵 = 𝜔𝐴 )
2 2
𝜔𝐵 2 𝐼𝐵 𝜔𝐴
𝐼𝐵′ = 𝐼𝐵 ( ) = 2 𝐺= … (𝑖)
𝜔𝐴 𝐺 𝜔𝐵
In order to satisfy the condition (2) for a given shaft diameter,
Strain energy of 𝑙3 = Strain energy of 𝑙2
1 1 𝑇3 𝜃2
𝑇3 𝜃3 = 𝑇2 𝜃2 𝑜𝑟 = … (𝑖𝑖)
2 2 𝑇2 𝜃3
where 𝑇2 = 𝑇3 = Torque on the sections 𝑙2 and 𝑙3 and
𝜃2 = 𝜃3 = Angular twist on sections 𝑙2 and 𝑙3
Assuming that the power transmitted in the sections 𝑙3 and 𝑙2 is same, therefore
72
𝑇3 𝜔𝐵 1
𝑇3 𝜔𝐴 = 𝑇2 𝜔𝐵 𝑜𝑟 = = … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑇2 𝜔𝐴 𝐺
Combining equations (ii) and (iii),
𝑇3 𝜃2 1
= = … (𝑖𝑣)
𝑇2 𝜃3 𝐺
We know that torsional stiffness,
𝑇 𝐶∙𝐽
𝑞= =
𝜃 𝑙
For section 𝑙3 ,
𝑇3 𝐶. 𝐽3
= … (𝑣)
𝜃3 𝑙3
For section 𝑙2 ,
𝑇2 𝐶. 𝐽2
= … (𝑣𝑖)
𝜃2 𝑙2
Dividing equation (𝑣) by equation (𝑣𝑖)
𝑇3 𝜃2 𝐽3 𝑙2 𝑇3 𝐽3 ∙ 𝜃3 ∙ 𝑙2
× = × 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇2 𝜃3 𝑙3 𝐽2 𝑇2 𝐽2 ∙ 𝜃2 ∙ 𝑙3
or
1 𝐽3 𝑙2
= ×𝐺× [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑣)]
𝐺 𝐽2 𝑙3
𝐽3 2
𝑙3 = 𝐺 𝑙2 … (𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝐽2
Assuming the diameter of the equivalent shaft as that of shaft 𝐶 i.e. 𝑑 = 𝑑1, therefore
𝜋 4 𝜋 4
𝐽3 = 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽2 = 𝑑
32 1 32 2
𝐽3 𝑑1 4
∴ =( )
𝐽2 𝑑2
Now the equation (𝑣𝑖𝑖) may be written as
2
𝑑1 4
𝑙3 = 𝐺 𝑙2 ( ) … (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑2
Thus the single shaft is equivalent to the original geared system, if the mass moment of inertia of
the rotor 𝐵 satisfies the equation (𝑖) and the additional length of the equivalent shaft 𝑙3 satisfies
the equation (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖).
73
Length of the equivalent shaft,
2
𝑑1 4
𝑙 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙3 = 𝑙1 + 𝐺 ∙ 𝑙2 ( ) … (𝑖𝑥)
𝑑2
Now, the natural frequency of the torsional vibration of geared system (which has been reduced
to two rotor system) may be determined as follows:
Let the node of the equivalent system lies at 𝑁 as shown in Fig. 4.10(c), then the natural
frequency of torsional vibration of rotor 𝐴,
1 𝐶∙𝐽
𝑓𝑛𝐴 = √
and natural frequency of the torsional vibration of rotor 𝐵,
1 𝐶∙𝐽
𝑓𝑛𝐵 = √
2𝜋 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵
we know that 𝑓𝑛𝐴 = 𝑓𝑛𝐵
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 𝐶∙𝐽
√ = √
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵 … (𝑥)
𝑙𝐴 + 𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙 … (𝑥𝑖)
From these two equations (𝑥) and (𝑖𝑥), the value of 𝑙𝐴 and 𝑙𝐵 may be obtained and hence the
natural frequency of the torsional vibration is evaluated.
Worked Example 1
A motor drives a centrifugal pump through gearing, the pump speed being one-third that of the
motor. The shaft from the motor to the pinion is 60 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 300 𝑚𝑚 long. The
moment of inertia of the motor is 400 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 . The impeller shaft is 100 𝑚𝑚 diameter and
600 𝑚𝑚 long. The moment of inertia of the impeller is 1500 𝑘𝑔- 𝑚2 . Neglecting inertia of the
gears and shaft, determine the frequency of torsional vibration of the system. The modulus of
rigidity of the shaft material is 80 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
74
Solution
Given: 𝐺 = 𝑁𝐴 ⁄𝑁𝐵 = 3; 𝑑1 = 0.06 𝑚; 𝑙1 = 0.3 𝑚; 𝐼𝐴 = 400 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ; 𝑑 2 = 0.1 𝑚; 𝑙2 =
0.6 𝑚;
𝐼𝐵 = 1500 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ; 𝐶 = 80 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
The original and the equivalent system, neglecting the inertia of the gears are shown in Fig.
4.11(a) and (b).
Mass moment of the equivalent rotor 𝐵,
𝐼𝐵 1500
𝐼𝐵 ′ = = 2 = 166.7 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
𝐺2 3
and additional length of the equivalent shaft,
𝑑1 4 0.06 4
𝑙3 = 𝐺 2 ∙ 𝑙2 ( ) = 32 × 0.6 × ( ) = 0.7 𝑚 = 700 𝑚𝑚
𝑑2 0.1
Total length of the equivalent shaft,
𝑙 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙3
𝑙 = 300 + 700 = 1000 𝑚𝑚
Let the node of the equivalent system lies at N, as shown in Fig. 4.11(c). We know that
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝐴 × 400 = (1 − 𝑙𝐴 )166.7 … (𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙 − 𝑙𝐴 )
𝑙𝐴 = 0.294 𝑚 = 294 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑑1 = × 0.064 = 1.27 × 10−6 𝑚4
32 32
Frequency of torsional vibration,
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 80 × 109 × 1.27 × 10−6

𝑓𝑛 = √ = √ 𝐻𝑧 = 4.7 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 0.294 × 400
75
Fig. 4.11
Worked Example 2
An electric motor is to drive a centrifuge, running at four times the motor speed through a spur
gear and pinion. The steel shaft from the motor to the gear wheel is 54 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 𝐿 metre
long; the shaft from the pinion to the centrifuge is 45 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 400 𝑚𝑚 long. The
masses and radii of gyration of motor and centrifuge are
respectively 37.5 𝑘𝑔, 100 𝑚𝑚; 30 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 140 𝑚𝑚. Neglecting the inertia effect of the gears,
find the value of 𝑳 if the gears are to be at the node for torsional oscillation of the system and
hence determine the frequency of torsional oscillation. Assume modulus of rigidity for material
of shaft as84 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
Solution
Given: 𝐺 = 𝑁𝐴 ⁄𝑁𝐵 = 1⁄4 = 0.25; 𝑑1 = 0.054 𝑚; 𝑙1 = 𝐿 𝑚; 𝑑2 = 0.045 𝑚; 𝑙2 = 0.4 𝑚;
𝑚𝐴 = 37.5 𝑚; 𝑘𝐴 = 0.1 𝑚; 𝑚𝐵 = 30 𝑘𝑔; 𝑘𝐵 = 0.14 𝑚; 𝐶 = 84 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
76
Value of L
Mass moment of inertia of the motor,
𝐼𝐴 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑘𝐴2 = 37.5 × 0.12 = 0.375 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
and mass moment of inertia of the centrifuge,
𝐼𝐵 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑘𝐵2 = 30 × 0.142 = 0.588 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
The original and the equivalent system, neglecting the inertia effect of the gears is shown in Fig.
4.12(a) and (b) respectively.
First of all, let us find the mass moment of inertia of the equivalent rotor B and the additional
length of the equivalent shaft, keeping the diameter of the equivalent shaft as 𝑑1 = 54 𝑚𝑚.
Mass moment of inertia of the equivalent rotor 𝐵,
𝐼𝐵 0.588
𝐼𝐵, = = = 9.4 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
𝐺 2 0.252
and additional length of equivalent shaft,
𝑑1 4 0.054 4
𝑙3 = 𝐺 2 ∙ 𝑙2 ( ) = 0.252 × 0.4 × ( ) = 0.0518 𝑚
𝑑2 0.045
Since the node 𝑁 for torsional oscillation of the system lies at the gears, as shown in Fig. 4.12(c),
therefore
𝑙𝐴 = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙3 = 0.0518 𝑚
But
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵′
𝐿 × 0.375 = 0.0518 × 9.4 = 0.487, 𝐿 = 1.3 𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑠
Frequency of torsional oscillations
Polar moment of inertia of the equivalent shaft,
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐽= 𝑑1 = × 0.0544 = 0.835 × 10−6 𝑚4
32 32
Frequency of torsional oscillations,
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 84 × 109 × 0.835 × 10−6

𝑓𝑛 = √ = √ = 60.4 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 1.3 × 0.375
77
Fig. 4.12
Worked Example 3
Determine the natural frequencies of torsional oscillation for the following system. The system is
a reciprocating I.C. engine coupled to a centrifugal pump through a pair of gears. The shaft from
flywheel of the engine to the gear wheel is of 60 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 950 𝑚𝑚 length. The shaft
from the pinion to the pump is of 40 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 300 𝑚𝑚 length. The engine speed is
1⁄4 𝑡ℎ of the pump speed.
Moment of inertia of the flywheel = 800 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
Moment of inertia of the gear wheel = 15 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
Moment of inertia of the pinion = 4 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
Moment of inertia of the pump = 17 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2
Modulus of rigidity for shaft material is 84 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
Solution
𝑑1 = 0.06 𝑚; 𝑙1 = 0.95 𝑚; 𝑑2 = 0.04 𝑚; 𝑙1 = 0.3 𝑚; 𝐺 = 1⁄4 = 0.25; 𝐼𝐴 = 800 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ;
𝐼𝐸 = 15 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ; 𝐼𝐹 = 4 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ; 𝐼𝐵 = 17 𝑘𝑔-𝑚2 ; 𝐶 = 84 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2
78
The original and the equivalent system are shown in Fig. 4.13 (a) and (b) respectively.
Fig. 4.13
First of all, let us find the mass moment of inertia of the equivalent gearing E, the equivalent
pump B and additional length of the equivalent shaft keeping its diameter as 𝑑1 = 60 𝑚𝑚
Mass moment of inertia of the equivalent gearing 𝐸,

𝐼𝐹 4
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 + 2
= 15 + = 79 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
𝐺 0.252
Mass moment of inertia of the equivalent pump 𝐵,
𝐼𝐵 17
𝐼𝐵 ′ = = = 272 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
𝐺 2 0.252
and additional length of the equivanent shaft,
2
𝑑1 4 2
0.06 4
𝑙3 = 𝐺 ∙ 𝑙2 ( ) = 0.25 × 0.3 × ( ) = 0.95 𝑚
𝑑2 0.04
The original is thus reduced to a three rotor system, as shown in Fig. 4.13(b). Let us find the
position of nodes for the equivalent system.
79
Let 𝑙𝐴 = Distance of node 𝑁1 from rotor 𝐴 and
𝑙𝐴 = Distance of node 𝑁2 from rotor 𝐵.

We know that
𝐼𝐵 272
𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝐴 = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ = 𝑙𝐵 ∙ = 0.34𝑙𝐵
𝐼𝐴 800
Also
1 1 1 1
= ( + )
𝑙𝐵 ∙ 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝐴 𝑙3 − 𝑙𝐵
1 1 1 1
= ( + )
𝑙𝐵 × 272 79 0.95 − 0.34𝑙𝐵 0.095 − 𝑙𝐵
79 (0.095 − 𝑙𝐵 ) + (0.95 − 0.34𝑙𝐵 )

=
𝑙𝐵 × 272 (0.95 − 0.34𝑙𝐵 )(0.095 − 𝑙𝐵 )
0.29 1.045 − 1.34𝑙𝐵

=
𝑙𝐵 0.09 − 0.98𝑙𝐵 + 0.34𝑙𝐵2
0.026 − 0.28𝑙𝐵 + 0.1𝑙𝐵2 = 1.045𝑙𝐵 − 1.34𝑙𝐵2
1.44𝑙𝐵2 − 1.325𝑙𝐵 + 0.026 = 0
1.325 ± √1.3252 − (4 × 1.44 × 0.026) 1.325 ± 1.267

𝑙𝐵 = =
2 × 1.44 2.88
∴ 𝑙𝐵 = 0.9 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.02 𝑚
and
𝑙𝐴 = 0.34𝑙𝐵 = 0.306 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.0068 𝑚
We see that when 𝑙𝐵 = 0.9 𝑚, then 𝑙𝐴 = 0.306 𝑚. This give the position of sigle node for 𝑙𝐴 =
0.306 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 306 𝑚𝑚. When 𝑙𝐵 = 0.02 𝑚, the correponding value of 𝑙𝐴 =
0.0068 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 6.8 𝑚𝑚. This gives the position of two nodes as shown in Fig. 4.13(c).

𝜋 𝜋
𝐽= × 𝑑14 = × 0.064 = 1.27 × 10−6 𝑚4
32 32
Natural frequency of torsional oscillations for a single node system,
80
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 84 × 109 × 1.27 × 10−6
𝑓𝑛1 = √ = √ = 3.32 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 0.306 × 800
… (𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝐴 = 0.306 𝑚)
Similarly, natural frequency of torsional oscillations for a two node system,
1 𝐶∙𝐽 1 84 × 109 × 1.27 × 10−6

𝑓𝑛2 = √ = √ = 22.3 𝐻𝑧 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2𝜋 𝑙𝐴 ∙ 𝐼𝐴 2𝜋 0.0068 × 800
… (𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝐴 = 0.0068 𝑚)
81
5 CHAPTER 5
TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS
5.1 NATURAL FREQUENCY OF FREE TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS FOR A SHAFT
SUBJECTED TO A NUMBER OF POINT LOADS
Consider a shaft 𝐴𝐵 of negligible mass loaded with point loads 𝑊1 , 𝑊2 , 𝑊3 and 𝑊4 etc. in
newtons, as shown in Fig. 5.1. Let 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 and 𝑚4 etc. be the corresponding masses in kg.
The natural frequency of such shaft may be found by the following methods:
1. Energy (or Rayleigh’s) Method
Let 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦4 etc. be total deflection under loads 𝑊1 , 𝑊2 , 𝑊3 and 𝑊4 etc. as shown in
Fig. 5.1
Fig. 5.1 Shaft carrying a number of point loads
The maximum potential energy is given by

1 1 1 1
𝑃𝐸 = × 𝑚1 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑦1 + × 𝑚2 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑦2 + × 𝑚3 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑦3 + × 𝑚4 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑦4
2 2 2 2
1
= ∑𝑚 ∙𝑔 ∙𝑦
2
and maximum kinetic energy
1 1 1 1
𝐾𝐸 = × 𝑚1 (𝜔 ∙ 𝑦1 )2 + × 𝑚2 (𝜔 ∙ 𝑦2 )2 + × 𝑚3 (𝜔 ∙ 𝑦3 )2 + × 𝑚4 (𝜔 ∙ 𝑦4 )2 + ⋯
2 2 2 2
1
= × 𝜔2 [𝑚1 𝑦12 + 𝑚2 𝑦22 + 𝑚3 𝑦32 + 𝑚4 𝑦42 + ⋯ ]
2
1
= × 𝜔2 ∑ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑦 2 … (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
2
Equating the maximum kinetic energy to the maximum potential energy,
1 1
= × 𝜔2 ∑ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑦 2 = ∑ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑦
2 2
82
∑𝑚 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑦 𝑔∑𝑚 ∙𝑦
∴ 𝜔2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜔=√
∑ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑦2 ∑ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑦2
𝜔 1 𝑔∑𝑚 ∙ 𝑦
∴ 𝑓𝑛 = = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 ∑ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑦 2
2. Dunkerley’s Method
The natural frequency of transverse vibration for a shaft carrying a number of point loads and
uniformly distributed load is obtained from Dunkley’s empirical formula. According to this
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯ +
(𝑓𝑛 )2 (𝑓𝑛1 )2 (𝑓𝑛2 )2 (𝑓𝑛3 )2 (𝑓𝑛𝑠 )2
where
𝑓𝑛 = Natural frequency of transverse vibration of the shaft carrying point
loads and uniformly distributed load.
𝑓𝑛1 , 𝑓𝑛2 , 𝑓𝑛3 , etc. = Natural frequency of transverse vibration of each point load.
𝑓𝑛𝑠 = Natural frequency of transverse vibration of the uniformly distributed
load (or due to the mass of the shaft).
Now, consider a shaft 𝐴𝐵 loaded as shown in Fig. 5.2
Fig. 5.2 Shaft carrying a number of point loads and uniformly distributed load
Let
𝛿1 , 𝛿2 , 𝛿3 , etc. = Static deflection due to the load 𝑊1 , 𝑊2 , 𝑊3 etc. When considered separately.
𝛿𝑆 = Static deflection due to the uniformly distributed load or due to the mass of the shaft.
We know that natural frequency of transverse vibration due to load 𝑊1 ,

0.4985
𝑓𝑛1 = 𝐻𝑧
√𝛿1
Similarly, natural frequency of transverse vibration due to load 𝑊2 ,
83
0.4985
√𝛿2
and, natural frequency of transverse vibration due to load 𝑊3 ,
0.4985
√𝛿3
Also, natural frequency of transverse vibration due to uniformly distributed load or weight of the
shaft,
0.5615
𝑓𝑛𝑠 = 𝐻𝑧
√𝛿2
Therefore, according to Dunkley’s empirical formula, the natural frequency of the whole system,
0.4985
𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑛 = 𝐻𝑧
√𝛿1 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿3 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑠
1.27
Notes:
1. When there is no uniformly distributed load or mass of the shaft is negligible, then, 𝛿𝑆 =
0.
2. The value of 𝛿1 , 𝛿2 , 𝛿3 etc. for a simply supported shaft may be obtained from the relation
where 𝛿 = Static deflection due to load 𝑊

𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = Distances for the load from the ends
𝐸= Young’s modulus for the material of the shaft
𝐼= Moment of inertia of the shaft, and
𝑙= Total length of the shaft
84
Worked Example 1
A shaft 50 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 3 metres long is simply supported at the ends and carries three
loads of 1000 𝑁, 1500 𝑁 and 750 𝑁 at 1 𝑚, 2 𝑚 and 2.5 𝑚 from the left support. The Young’s
modulus for shaft material is 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Find the frequency of transvers vibration.
Solution
𝑑 = 0.05 𝑚; 𝑙 = 3 𝑚; 𝑊1 = 1000 𝑁; 𝑊2 = 1500 𝑁; 𝑊3 = 750 𝑁; 𝐸 = 200 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2
The shaft carrying the loads is shown in Fig. 5.3
Moment of inertia of the shaft is given by,
and the static deflection due to a point load 𝑊,
Fig. 5.3
Static deflection due to a load of 1000 𝑁,
Similarly, static deflection due to a load of 1500 𝑁,
and static deflection due to a load of 750 𝑁,
85
Frequency of transverse vibration,
5.2 CRITICAL OR WHIRLING SPEED OF A SHAFT

In actual practice, a rotating shaft carries different mountings and accessories in the form of
gears, pulleys, etc. When the gears or pulleys are put on the shaft, the centre of gravity of the
pulley or gear does not coincide with the centre of the bearings or with the axis of the shaft,
when the shaft is stationary. This means that the centre of gravity of the pulley or gear is at a
certain distance from the axis of rotation. This correspondingly increases the value of centrifugal
force, which further increases the distance of centre of gravity from the axis of rotation. This
effect is cumulative and ultimately the shaft fails. The bending of shaft not only depends upon
the value of eccentricity (distance between centre of gravity of the pulley and the axis of
rotation) but also depends upon the speed at which the shaft rotates.
The speed, at which the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of the shaft from the axis of
rotation becomes infinite, is known as critical or whirling speed.
Fig. 5.4 Critical or whirling speed of a shaft
Consider a shaft of negligible mass carrying a rotor, as shown in Fig. 5.4(a). The point 𝑂 is on
the shaft axis and 𝐺 is the centre of gravity of the rotor. When the shaft is stationary, the centre
line of the bearing and the axis of the shaft coincide. Fig. 5.4(b) shows the shaft when rotating
about the axis of rotation at a uniform speed of 𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠⁄𝑠.
86
Let 𝑚= Mass of the rotor
𝑒= Initial distance of centre of gravity of the rotor from the centre line of the bearing or
shaft axis, when the shaft is stationary
𝑦 = Additional deflection of centre of gravity of the rotor when the shaft starts rotating at
𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠
𝑠 = Stiffness of the shaft i.e. the load required per unit deflection of the shaft
Since the shaft is rotating at 𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠, therefore centrifugal force acting radially outwards
through 𝐺 causing the shaft to deflect is given by
The shaft behalves like a spring. Therefore the force resisting the deflection 𝑦,
=𝑠∙𝑦
For the equilibrium position,
Circular frequency is given by,
A little consideration will show that when 𝜔 > 𝜔𝑛 , the value of 𝑦 will be negative and the shaft
deflects is the opposite direction as shown dotted in Fig. 5.4(b)
In order to have the value of 𝑦 always positive, both plus and minus signs are taken.
87
From above, when 𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝐶 , the value of 𝑦 becomes infinite. Therefore 𝜔𝐶 is the critical or
whirling speed.
∴ Critical or whirling speed,
If 𝑁𝑐 is the critical or whirling speed in 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑠., then
where 𝛿= Static deflection of the shaft in metres.
Hence the critical or whirling speed is the same as the natural frequency of transverse vibration
but its unit will be revolutions per second.
Notes:
1. When the centre of gravity of the rotor lies between the centre of line of the shaft and the
centre line of the bearing, 𝑒 is taken negative. On the other hand, if the centre of gravity
of the rotor does not lie between the centre line of the shaft and centre line of bearing the
value of 𝑒 is taken positive.
2. To determine the critical speed of a shaft which may be subjected to point loads,
uniformly distributed load or combination of both, find the frequency of transverse
vibration which is equal to critical speed of a shaft in 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑠. The Dunkerley’s method
may be used for calculating the frequency.
3. A shaft supported is short bearing (ball bearings) is assumed to be a simply supported
shaft while the shaft supported in long bearings (journal bearings) is assumed to have
both ends fixed.
Worked Example 1
Calculate the whirling speed of a shaft 20 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 0.6 𝑚 long carrying a mass of 1 𝑘𝑔
at its mid-point. The density of the shaft material is 40 𝑀𝑔⁄𝑚3 , and Young’s modulus
is 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Assume the shaft to be freely supported.
88
Solution
Given:𝑑 = 0.02 𝑚;𝑙 = 0.6 𝑚; 𝑚1 = 1 𝑘𝑔;𝜌 = 40 𝑀𝑔⁄𝑚3 = 40 × 106 𝑔⁄𝑚3 = 40 ×
103 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 ; 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁 ⁄𝑚2 = 200 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
The shaft shown in Fig. 5.5
Fig. 5.5
Moment of inertia of the shaft,
Since the density of shaft material is 40 × 103 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , therefore mass of the shaft per metre
length,
𝜋
𝑚𝑆 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (0.02)2 × 1 × 40 × 103 = 12.6 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
4
Static deflection due to 1 kg of mass at the centre,
and static deflection due to mass of the shaft,
∴ Frequency of transverse vibration,
Let, 𝑁𝑐 = Whirling speed of a shaft.

The whirling speed of a shaft in 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑠. is equal to the frequency of transverse vibration in 𝐻𝑧,
therefore
𝑁𝑐 = 43.3 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑠. = 43.3 × 60 = 2598 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚.
89
Worked Example 2
A shaft 1.5 𝑚 long supported in flexible bearings at the ends carries two wheels each of 50 𝑘𝑔
mass. One wheel is situated at the centre of the shaft and the other at a distance of 375 𝑚𝑚 from
the centre towards left. The shaft is hollow of external diameter 75 𝑚𝑚 and internal
diameter 40 𝑚𝑚. The density of the shaft material is 7700 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚2 and its modulus of elasticity
is 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Find the lowest whirling speed of the shaft, taking into account the mass of the
shaft.
Solution
𝑙 = 1.5 𝑚; 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 50 𝑘𝑔; 𝑑1 = 0.075 𝑚; 𝑑2 = 0.04 𝑚; 𝜌 = 7700 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 ; 𝐸 = 200 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2
The shaft is shown in Fig. 5.6
Fig. 5.6
Mass of the shaft per metre length, 𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Static deflection due to a load 𝑊
Static deflection due to a mass of 50 𝑘𝑔 at 𝐶,
90
Static deflection due to a mass of 50 𝑘𝑔 at 𝐷,
Static deflection due to uniformly distributed load or mass of the shaft,
Frequency of transverse vibration,
Since the whirling speed of shaft (𝑁𝑐 ) in 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑠. is equal to the frequency of transverse vibration
in 𝐻𝑧, therefore
𝑁𝑐 = 32.4 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑠. = 32.4 × 60 = 1 944 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚. 𝐴𝑛𝑠
Worked Example 3
A vertical steel shaft 15 𝑚𝑚 diameter is held in long bearings 1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 a part and carries at its
middle a disc of mas 15 𝑘𝑔. The eccentricity of the centre of gravity of the disc from the centre
of the rotor is 0.3 𝑚𝑚.
The modulus of elasticity for the shaft material is 200 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2 and the permissible stress
is 70 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 . Determine:
i. The critical speed of the shaft and
ii. Range of speed over which it is unsafe to run the shaft. Neglect the mass of the shaft.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 , 𝑊, 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑊𝑙 3 𝑊𝑙
𝛿= , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
192𝐸𝐼 8
[ 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 ]
Solution
𝑑 = 0.015 𝑚;𝑙 = 1 𝑚; 𝑚 = 15 𝑘𝑔; 𝑒 = 0.3 𝑚𝑚 = 0.3 × 10−3 𝑚; 𝐸 = 200 × 109 𝑁⁄𝑚2 ; 𝜎 =
70 × 106 𝑁⁄𝑚2 .
91
1. Critical speed of the shaft
Since the shaft is held long bearings, therefore it is assumed to be fixed at both ends. Hence, the
static deflection at the centre of shaft,
∴ Natural frequency of transverse vibrations,
Critical speed of the shaft,

𝑁𝑐 = 12.88 × 60 = 772.8 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚. 𝐴𝑛𝑠
2. Range of speed
Let 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 = Maximum and maximum speed respectively.
When the shaft starts rotating, the additional dynamic load (𝑊1 = 𝑚1 ∙ 𝑔) to which the shaft is
subjected may be obtained from the relation.
𝑀 𝜎 𝜎∙𝐼
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 =
𝐼 𝑦1 𝑦1
∴ Additional deflection due to load 𝑊1 = 𝑚1 𝑔
92
We know that,
Hence the range of speed is from 718 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚. to 843 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚. 𝐴𝑛𝑠
93

MPE 442 - Mechanical Vibrations (2023)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MPE 442 - Mechanical Vibrations (2023)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2022 / 2023 Academic Year, Second Semester

MPE 442: MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

Dr. Stephen Talai

Email address: stevetalai@gmail.com

Moi University, School of Engineering

Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF VIBRATION

Figure 2: Vibration testing of the space shuttle Enterprise (Courtesy of NASA.)

1.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION

1.2.2 Elementary Parts of Vibrating Systems

Figure 3: A simple pendulum

1.3 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

1.3.1 Single-degree-of-freedom system

Figure 4: Single-degree-of-freedom systems

1.3.2 Two-degree-of-freedom (dof) systems

Figure 5: Two-degree-of-freedom systems.

Figure 6: Three degree-of-freedom systems

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF VIBRATION

1.4.1 Free and Forced Vibration

1.4.2 Undamped and Damped Vibration

1.4.3 Deterministic and Random Vibration

Figure 7: Deterministic and random excitations

Figure 8: Springs in parallel

𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡

𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡

1.7 HARMONIC MOTION

FIGURE 10: Scotch yoke mechanism

and its projection on the horizontal axis by

1.8 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Phase angle. Consider two vibratory motions denoted by

Figure 12: Phase difference between two vectors.

Figure 2.1 Single-degree-of-freedom system with viscous damper

𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 … (1)

2.2.1 Critical Damping Constant and the Damping Ratio

𝑠1,2 = (−𝜁 ± √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑛 … (7)

Thus the solution, Eqn. (4), can be written as

Case 1: Underdamped systems (Roots are complex conjugate)

𝑠1 = (−𝜁 + 𝑖√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠2 = (−𝜁 − 𝑖√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑛

= 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 {(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) cos √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑖(𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ) sin √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡}

= 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin (√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜙0 )

= 𝑋𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos (√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜙) … (9)

Figure 2.3 Variation 𝜔𝑑 of with damping.

𝑠1 and 𝑠1 in Eqn. (7) are equal

𝑥(𝑡) = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡

𝑥(𝑡) = [𝑥0 + (𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 )𝑡]𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 … (11)

Figure 2.4 Comparison of motions with different types of damping

with 𝑠2 ≪ 𝑠1 . In this case, the solution, Eqn. (8), can be expressed as

2.2.2 Logarithmic Decrement

The logarithmic decrement can be obtained from Eqn. (14):

Circular frequency of undamped vibrations,

and circular frequency of damped vibrations,

= (√1 − 0.12 ) × 20 = 19.8 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠

∴ Frequency of vibration of the system,

and circular frequency of damped vibrations,

also, circular frequency of damped vibrations (𝜔𝑑 )

2.3 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF DAMPED SYSTEMS

Figure 2.5 A spring-mass-damper system

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥ℎ (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡)

𝑋[(𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔2 ) cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) − 𝑐𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)] = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑡 (3)

Fig. 2.7 Representation of forcing function and response

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜙0 ) + 𝑋 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … (9)

For the initial conditions, 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 0 , Eq. (9) yields

𝑥̇ 0 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑋0 cos 𝜙0 + 𝜔𝑑 𝑋0 sin 𝜙0 + 𝜔𝑋 sin 𝜙 … (10)