De Moivre’s formula

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Some Basic Definitions
1. Unit Circle: The circle of radius 1 unit and center at the origin, is briefly called the unit circle with the
equation that .
2. General Circle: A general circle of radius and center , has the equation . Accordingly,
its interior (“open circular disk") is given by , its interior plus the circle itself (“closed
circular disk") by An open circular disk is given as : Let and then

3. Neighborhood: An open circular disk is also called a neighborhood of or, more

precisely, a .
4. Annulus: An open annulus (circular ring) is . This is the set of all whose
distance from is greater than but less than . Similarly, the closed annulus
includes the two circles.
5. Interior Point: A point is called an interior point of a set if we can find an such that
. We denote set of all interior points of by .

6. Open Set: A set is called open if every point of has a neighborhood consisting entirely of points that
belong to .

7. Connected Set: A set is called connected if any two of its points can be joined by a chain of finitely many
straight-line segments all of whose points belong to .

8. Domain: An open and connected set is called a domain. Thus an open disk and an open annulus are
domains. An open square with a diagonal removed is not a domain since this set is not connected.

9. Boundary point: A boundary point of a set is a point every neighborhood of which contains both points
that belong to and points that do not belong to . For example, the boundary points of an annulus are the
points on the two bounding circles. Clearly, if a set is open, then no boundary point belongs to ; if is
closed, then every boundary point belongs to . The set of all boundary points of a set S is called the boundary
of S .

10. Region: A region is a set consisting of a domain plus, perhaps, some or all of its boundary points.
• A function of the complex variable is a rule that assigns to each value in
a set one and only one complex value . We write

and call the image of under .

The set is called the domain of definition of and the set of all images
is called the range of .
Just as can be expressed by its real and imaginary parts, , we
write , where and are the real and imaginary parts of ,
respectively.
This gives us the representation
Since and depend on and , they can be considered to be real functions
of the real variables and ; that is, and
Example: Write in the form

Solution Using the binomial formula, we obtain

Exercise: Express 2 in the form

Example: Express in the polar coordinate form

Solution: We obtain
Limits and Continuity
Let be a complex function of the complex variable that is defined for all
values of in some neighborhood of , except perhaps at the point .
We say that has the limit as approaches , provided that the value
gets close to the value as gets close to ; and we write

Since the distance between the points and can be expressed by , we can
give a precise definition of limit:
For each positive number , there exists a
such that , whenever

In order that exists and equals , we require that approach the

same complex number along every possible curve.
Example: Compute the following limit if it exists:
Exercise: Show that the function is continuous on .