Environment of Pakistan (Edited Notes Latest) Water Mark

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LOCATION OF PAKISTAN
LONGITUDINAL & LATITUDINAL POSITION, ITS
NEIGHBORS AND STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE
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Latitudes: 24° 35’ north and 37° 05’ / Longitudes: 61° east to 78° east
Area in square km: 881,913 stretching over 1600 km from north to south and
about 885 km from east to west (96.9% of land & 3.1% of water)
Coastline: 1050 km or 650 miles (250 kms in Sindh and 800 kms in Baluchistan)
Population: 212,742,631 (twenty one crores, twenty seven lac, forty two
thousand six hundred and thirty one)
Shared borders: India (east), China (north-east), Afghanistan (north-west) & Iran
(west)
Tajikistan (separated by a thin Wakhan corridor)
Highest point: K2 (8611m / 28,251f)
Lowest point: Arabian Sea (0m / 0.0 f)
Longest river: Indus River
Largest lake: Manchar Lake
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Strategic importance of Pakistan:

 Pakistan has a great potential to trade with China through the Karakoram
border via the Khunjerab Pass. Over the years both the countries have
been involved in trade of different commodities that include household
items, food stuff including rice, industrial products and also weapons and
artillery. CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor) is a landmark project to
further enhance the trade.
 Central Asian Republics provide a great opportunity to get access to the

valuable minerals like natural gas and petrol. There is a natural feasibility
of the Natural Gas Pipeline Project from the CAS countries and Iran to
India and South-East Asian countries after passing through Pakistan.
 The Durand Line provides opportunity to trade with Afghanistan. Both the
countries share historic traditional relations. Pakistan was a frontline
state during the Afghan War of 1979 and also the post 9/11 attacks on
Afghanistan.
 Pakistan and Iran have shared strategic importance ever since Iran
became the first country to recognize Pakistan as an independent state.
The border begins at the tripoint with Afghanistan at the Kuh-i-Malik Salih
Mountain. Pakistan has been a prominent recipient of Iranian oil and the
construction of RCD highway has made the access to Turkey easier. Both
the countries share a border via the Sistan province in Iran that connects
with Baluchistan.
 Arabian Sea provides a natural harbor and an important warm water port
that also serves as a refueling stop for ships.
 Jinnah terminal connects the West with Asia by air.
 Border links with India via Wagah-Attari in Punjab and Khokhrapar-

Munabao border crossing in Rajasthan for commutation and trade.
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A. Construction of the Pakistan-Iran pipeline will solve our energy crisis as more
gas-fired thermal power plants could be set up that will lead to
industrialization and economic prosperity.
B. We should not depend on natural resources of other countries to solve our

energy crisis. We can generate power from renewable resources (wind,
sunlight, water, waves etc.) to boost up our economy.
Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to
examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6]
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PAKISTAN: THE NATURAL

TOPOGRAPHY INCLUDING DRAINAGE
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Topography: is the study and description of the surface features of land

which includes both natural and artificial features.
Pakistan is divided into SIX main topographical features:
 The Northern Mountains & The North-

Western Mountains
 The Western Mountains
 The Baluchistan Plateau
 The Potwar Plateau
 The Indus Plains (Upper & Lower Indus

Plains)
 The Desert Areas (The South-Eastern &

South Western Deserts)
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https://youtu.be/elB6YPIX0GE
Climatic Influence:
The Himalayas play a very significant role in influencing the climate of India. By
virtue of their high altitude, length and direction, they effectively intercept the
summer monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and cause
precipitation in the form of rain or snow. They are also believed to play
an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the
Taklamakan and Gobi deserts. The mountain ranges also prevent western
winter disturbances from Iran from traveling further, resulting in snow in
Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India.
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The Northern & North-Western Mountains

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Tirich Mir (7708M) Nanga Parbat (8126M) K2 (8611M)
Relief features of the Northern Mountains:

 The Northern Mountain comprises several parallel ranges.
 Karakoram Mountains (both over 6000m high) are in the extreme North.
 In the north-west, lies the Hind Kush Mountains (over 5000 meters high).
 There are four main ranges on the north-east side.
 These are Siwalik Hills (600-1200 meters high), also called the sub-
Himalayas.
 The Pir Panjal Mountains (1800-4600 meters high) or the lesser
Himalayas.
 The Great Himalayas with a height of 4500 m. These ranges run in a north-
west to south-east direction.
 The main features are highly sharp-edged ridges, steep slopes, pyramidal
peaks, snow covered slopes and narrow deep valleys.
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 There are large glaciers in the Great Himalayas and the Karakoram
Mountains because of their height. River Indus flows between the Great
Himalayas and Karakoram and is joined by River Shyok and River Gilgit.
Characteristics of the winter climate of the Northern

Mountains:
 The Northern Mountains experience low temperatures.
 Due to the height, the altitude varies.
 Winters are long and cold, with temperatures below 5⁰C depending upon
the altitude.
 Valley bottoms which are located at about 2000 meters (6000 ft.) height,
have very cool winters.
 The mountain ranges at an altitude of 5000m are covered with permanent
snow.
 There is rainfall and snowfall in the winter season from the Western
Depressions.

How is altitude connected to the temperature &
climate?


Winter climate of the Northern Mountains & difficulties
associated with it:
 The winter season is not a period of activity for the people of the
Northern Mountains.
 Due to snowfall and low temperatures, people are forced to stay indoors
for long periods. Stockpiling for winter becomes necessary.
 Water supply also becomes limited due to freezing.
 Agricultural activity is suspended during winter because of low
temperature, which may often be close to freezing.
 Due to snowfall, roads may be closed for traffic, which hinders
communications. Air flights are delayed due to fog and mist.
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The Western Mountains

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Relief & Drainage of Western Mountains:

Waziristan Hills:
 Waziristan Hills 3513 m, located between the Kurram and the Gomal
Rivers.
 Rampart between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
 Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan are main valleys and towns.
 Main drainage: Kurram and Gomal Rivers. Small channels and streams.
Suleiman Range:
 West of River Indus. Suleman Range separates Punjab from Baluchistan.
 Takht-e-Suleman is the highest range.
 Gomal River at the West.
Kirthar Range:
 Separates Sindh from Baluchistan.
 Main drainage: Hub and Liyari rivers.
 Rugged landscape, mountainous region. Rich in minerals.
Economy:
 Economy not developed.
 Bare of vegetation.
 Canal irrigation not possible.
 Infrastructure is not developed.
 People deprived of basic necessities of life. Nomadism is common,
sheep and goat rearing is common.
 Population density less than 100 people per sq. km.
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Q-Q: In what ways are the Northern Mountains different from the Western ones?
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The Baluchistan Plateau

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Relief of the Mountains and Hills of Baluchistan:

 Average height 1000 m above sea level.
 Important ranges from South are Makran Coast Range, Central Makran
Range.
 From South West Chaghai, Raskoh and Siahan are parallel ranges.
 In Centre, lies the Central Brahvi Range.
 Near Quetta, peaks of Muslim Bagh and Ziarat are located.
 To the East of Quetta is Toba Kakar Range.
 These mountains are bare of vegetation, present a rugged landscape,
there are steep sided slopes and gorges between these mountains.
Piedmont Plains are at the foot of the mountains.
Drainage of the Basins of Baluchistan:

 In Northern Baluchistan, Zhob and Loralai Basins are present.
 Rivers in Baluchistan are mostly dry channels, they contain water during
the rain. They do not have any outlet to the sea. (Inland Drainage Basins)
 Temporary lakes are formed during rain called “Hamuns”- the largest of
these lakes is called “Hamun-e-Mushkel”.
 Near Makran Coast, there are Basins of River Dasht, Hab and Hingol.
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A. In order to develop Baluchistan’s economy we should promote farming here by

providing irrigation facilities through installation of tube wells and using surface
water.
B. Baluchistan requires infrastructure facilities, exploitation of minerals and the setting

up of small-scale industries for economic development.
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The Potwar Plateau
Potwar Plateau:
 The average height of Potwar Plateau is 300-600 m.
 It lies between River Indus and River Jhelum in northern Punjab.
 Small hills and barren rocks.
 Due to the action of running water (many small streams), the land is
dissected and eroded badly. That is termed as ‘Bad-land Topography’.
 River Soan is the only drainage which joins the River Indus.
 Ravines, gorges and gullies are common in the area.
Salt Range:
 Average height is 600-1000 m above sea level. It stretches in an East West
direction, south of the Potwar Plateau.
 The Salt Range is the collection of several parallel ranges which are folded
and faulted.
 Kallar Kahar and Khabeki Lakes are the only drainage.
 Limestone, sandstone, shale rocks are commonly found in the area.
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Economy:
Oil reserves, limestone, salt, coal, sandstone, clay and shale facilitate the
cement industry, oil refineries, chemical industry, and ceramics industry.
Important cities are Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Chakwal and Mianwali.
Q-Q Compare the topography & drainage of Baluchistan Plateau with Potwar.
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The Indus Plains

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Active flood plain:

 Active flood plain; a narrow strip of land along both sides of rivers.
 It is flat & rich in alluvium. Meanders, oxbow lakes, levees are found.
 Flooded every year. Its width is 3 to 5 km. In case of River Indus 25-40 km.
Old flood plain:

 It is next to the active flood plain, flat & flooded after every 6 to 7 years.
 It’s covered with old alluvium. Remains of meanders & oxbows are found.
Bluff or Scarp:
 It is 5-15 m high. It marks the limit of the old flood plain, also called
alluvial slope.
Bar up-land area:

 It is located in the middle of a doab. Old flood plains on both sides.
 It is also called alluvial terrace. It saves from floods. It is covered with old
alluvium.
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Upper Indus Plains

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 The Upper Indus Plain covers most of Punjab, with a slope of 30m to 75m
above sea level.
 River Indus and its four tributaries flow here.
 Active and old flood plain, bar up-land area present.
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Lower Indus Plains
Q-Q Elaborate the difference between the Upper & Lower Indus Plains.
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The Desert Areas
Characteristics & Economic activities of the summer

climate in Thar
 In the Thar Desert, the summer season is very hot and long.
 June is the hottest month, when the average temperature rises well over
35*C.
 Day temperature may rise to 50*C in the summer months.
 Nights are not so hot and diurnal range of temperature is high.
 Rainfall is very low i.e. below 125mm annually and mostly comes during
the summer. Monsoon months are July, August and September.
 In the Southern most area, the rainfall rises slightly to 250mm because of
proximity to the sea.
 In the desert, dust storms are a common feature during the summer
months.
 Because of high temperatures and very low rainfall, growing crops
becomes impossible.
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 The main activity of people is sheep, goat and cattle rearing. Camels are
also kept. People lead a nomadic life.
 Shortage of water is a big problem. Extensive heat causes high
evaporation. It also make working outdoors difficult.
 In the extreme southern part, the meager summer rainfall of about
250mm may support a poor crop of millet and pulses, but not on a regular
basis. Economic activity is only possible in better rainfall years.
Relief features of the South Eastern Deserts of Pakistan:

 The South Eastern deserts comprise of Cholistan, Nara and Thar.
 The Tharparkar Desert lies in the eastern part of the Sindh province.
 The region is covered with rolling sand plains and sand dunes which shift
their positions on account of strong winds.
 The sand dunes rise to a height of 20-26 meters and may be latitudinal or
longitudinal depending on the direction of winds.
 Wind is the most important agent that also causes weathering of rocks.
Q-Q Explain how the desert topographical features influence the lifestyle of the people.
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A. The Northern Mountains should be developed for tourism by providing

infrastructure facilities. This will generate employment for the local population.
Increase in GDP will promote economic growth of the country
B. The Northern Mountains are difficult to develop because of topographical

constraints and environmental damage. It is more economical to develop the
Indus Plain than the Northern Mountains
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CLIMATE OF PAKISTAN
TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, PRESSURE & WINDS
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Climatic Zones in Pakistan

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Factors Affecting Climate of Pakistan

Distance from the Sea:
The Sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than
inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from
the sea. The weather of Karachi is different from that of Lahore and Peshawar
as it is located near the sea. This is also known as the Continental Effect.
Direction of the winds:

Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to
inland areas. That is one of the reasons why Karachi enjoys Monsoon season, as
the winds from the Arabian Sea bring rain during the months of June and July.
Relief:
Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low
lying areas because the temperature on top of mountains is lower than the
temperature at sea level. That is why you often see snow on the top of
mountains all year round. The higher the place is above sea level the colder it
will be. This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is
less able to absorb and retain heat. This is the reason why the northern areas of
Pakistan have snow fall and difference in climate as compared to Baluchistan
and Sind.
Proximity to the Equator:

The proximity to the equator affects the climate of a place. The equator receives
the more sunlight than anywhere else on earth. This is due to its position in
relation to the sun. The equator is hotter because the sun has less area to heat.
It is cooler at the north and south poles as the sun has more area to heat up. It
is cooler as the heat is spread over a wider area.
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Cloud Cover:
It is an important aspect too as it reduces the amount of incoming solar
radiations in the daytime by reflecting it back to outer space, resulting in a drop
in day temperatures. At night it traps the outgoing heat. As a result,
temperature on a cloudy night does not drop as low as temperature on a clear
night.
Altitude:
There is a relationship between altitude, air density and temperature. The air is
densest at the sea level because that is where it absorbs most water vapor, dust
particles and solar radiation. Air is least dense at high altitude because less solar
radiation is absorbed at that level. With less air to absorb heat at higher
altitude, there is an average drop of 6.5 ° C in temperature for each 1000 meter
increase in altitude.
Human Influence:
The factors above affect the climate naturally. However, we cannot forget the
influence of humans on our climate. Trees are cut down to provide wood for
fires. Trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. A reduction in trees will
therefore have increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
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Types of Rainfall in Pakistan

Relief Rainfall: is also known as orographic rainfall. It occurs in the
Northern areas of Pakistan mainly Chitral, Gilgit etc. it rains on the Windward
side while the Leeward receives no rainfall and is also called Dry Rain-shadow
area
Relief rainfall
Stage 1.
Warm wet air is forced to rise over high land.
Stage 2.
As the air rises it cools and condenses. Clouds form and precipitation occurs.
Stage 3.
The drier air descends.
Stage 4.
As the air descends it warms meaning it can carry water moisture, so there is
little rain on this side of the mountain. This area is known as a rain shadow.
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Convectional Currents: When the land warms up, it heats the air
above it. This causes the air to expand and rise. As the air rises it cools and
condenses. If this process continues then rain will fall. Only the northern &
north-western areas like Peshawar & Rawalpindi receive it.
Convectional rainfall happens when convection of warm moist air happens.

When a surface of earth gets heated up makes evaporation more and the warm
moist air raises. As the air ascends it gets cooled and form convective clouds.
Once the clouds reaches its saturation, it precipitates rain.
Convective rainfall is common in tropics. It is characterized by rapidly changing

intensity and over a smaller area as the convective clouds are more vertical than
horizontal.
In tropics, convective rainfall results in hail storm whereas in mid-latitudes it

results in cold fronts, squall and warm fronts.
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Tropical Cyclones: They generally occur near the coasts and areas
adjoining that. Karachi, Thatta, Makran coast, Gwadar are examples of that.
Anatomy of a Cyclone
Tropical cyclones are compact, circular storms, generally some 320 km (200
miles) in diameter, whose winds swirl around a central region of low
atmospheric pressure. The winds are driven by this low-pressure core and by
the rotation of Earth, which deflects the path of the wind through a
phenomenon known as the Carioles force. As a result, tropical cyclones rotate in
a counterclockwise (or cyclonic) direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in a
clockwise (or anticyclonic) direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
Tropical cyclones are known by various names in different parts of the world. In
the North Atlantic Ocean and the eastern North Pacific they are
called hurricanes, and in the western North Pacific around
the Philippines, Japan, and China the storms are referred to as typhoons. In the
western South Pacific and Indian Ocean they are variously referred to as severe
tropical cyclones, tropical cyclones, or simply cyclones. All these different names
refer to the same type of storm.
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The Western Depressions: They are the cyclones which originate in

the Mediterranean Sea, travel across Afghanistan and Iran and reach the
western areas of Pakistan. After striking the north-western areas such as
Peshawar and northern Pakistan, the winds move towards western and south-
western parts. By the time they reach south-western Baluchistan they are
robbed of their moisture. These winds cause the rainfall in these areas from
December to March. Quetta, Chitral receive rain due to Western Depressions.
Why does Pakistan receive very less amount of western depression?
Pakistan receives a very less amount of rainfall from western depression

because the western depression are cyclones which originate in the
Mediterranean sea which is very far away from Pakistan as a matter of fact the
western depression's intensity is decreased as it passes through many countries
before reaching Pakistan. Due to this Pakistan receives a very little rainfall from
winter depressions
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The Monsoon Rainfall:

Summer monsoon winds are rain-bearing:
During the summer months, sunlight heats the surfaces of both lands and
oceans, but land temperatures rise more quickly due to a lower heat capacity.
As the land's surface becomes warmer, the air above it expands and an area
of low pressure develops. Meanwhile, the ocean remains at a lower
temperature than the land and so the air above it retains a higher pressure.
Since winds flow from areas of low to high pressure (due to the pressure
gradient force), this deficit in pressure over the continent causes winds to blow
in an ocean-to-land circulation (a sea breeze). As winds blow from the ocean to
the land, moist air is brought inland. This is why summer monsoons cause so
much rain. Monsoon season does not end as abruptly as it begins. While it takes
time for the land to heat up, it also takes time for that land to cool in the fall.
This makes monsoon season a time of rainfall that diminishes rather than stops.
A Monsoon's "Dry" phase occurs in winter:

In the colder months, winds reverse and blow in a land-to-ocean circulation. As
the land masses cool faster than the oceans, an excess in pressure builds over
the continents causing the air over land to have higher pressure than that over
the ocean. As a result, air over the land flows to the ocean.
Beneficial, but potentially deadly:

Billions of people around the globe depend on monsoon rains for their yearly
rainfall. In dry climates, monsoons are an important replenishment for life as
water is brought back into drought-stricken zones of the world. But the
monsoon cycle is a delicate balance. If rains start late, are too heavy, or not
heavy enough, they can spell disaster for people's livestock, crops, and lives.
If rains don't start when they're supposed to, it can lead to growing rainfall
deficits, poor ground, and an increased risk of drought which reduces crop yields
and produces famine. On the other hand, intense rainfall in these regions can
cause massive flooding and mudslides, destruction of crops, and kill hundreds of
people in floods.
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Monsoon is of TWO types:
Pakistan relies a lot on the South-West Monsoon rain as it helps in growing
crops and recharges the rivers.

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Monsoon rainfall distribution in Pakistan:

 July to September is the summer monsoon rains period over Pakistan. The
north-eastern part of Punjab extending into NWFP i.e. Murree-
Abbottabad and Sialkot region receive heaviest rainfall of over 500mm.
 Rain bearing winds rising over the hills cause good rainfall.
 The rainfall decreases towards the south-west from the northern hilly
region.
 The northern half of Punjab gets 250mm of rain, whereas the southern
half of Punjab, Upper Sindh and Southern Baluchistan get 125mm of rain,
because there are no hills to make the monsoon winds rise.
 Baluchistan is largely out of the track of the summer monsoon winds.
 The north-western part of Baluchistan is the driest region with only 25mm
of rainfall. The southern half of Sindh gets 125-250mm of rainfall because
of its proximity to the sea.
Another dry region is the extreme northern part of the country (Chitral and
Gilgit), having 125mm of rainfall because this region lies in the rain shadow of
the Himalayas.
How does the monsoon wind develop?

 During the summer season, a low pressure area develops over Northern
India and Pakistan, while a high pressure area prevails over the Indian
Ocean.
 South-West monsoon winds blow from the Indian Ocean towards
Pakistan.
 The Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon winds enter Bangladesh and
are deflected westwards by the Himalayas and are also attracted by the
low pressure over Pakistan, giving heavy rainfall over Bangladesh and
Gangetic Plain in India.
 These monsoon winds enter Pakistan on the south-eastern side.
 These winds cause rainfall in the Northern hilly region of Pakistan.
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Monsoon rainfall distribution in Pakistan:

 July to September is the summer monsoon rains period over Pakistan. The
north-eastern part of Punjab extending into NWFP i.e. Murree-
Abbottabad and Sialkot region receive heaviest rainfall of over 500mm.
 Rain bearing winds rising over the hills cause good rainfall.
 The rainfall decreases towards the south-west from the northern hilly
region.
 The northern half of Punjab gets 250mm of rain, whereas the southern
half of Punjab, Upper Sindh and Southern Baluchistan get 125mm of rain,
because there are no hills to make the monsoon winds rise.
 Baluchistan is largely out of the track of the summer monsoon winds.
 The north-western part of Baluchistan is the driest region with only 25mm
of rainfall. The southern half of Sindh gets 125-250mm of rainfall because
of its proximity to the sea.
 Another dry region is the extreme northern part of the country (Chitral
and Gilgit), having 125mm of rainfall because this region lies in the rain
shadow of the Himalayas.
Winter rainfall and wheat cultivation:

 Potwar Plateau is a region where barani wheat farming is practiced.
 Wheat is a winter crop sown in December and harvested in April.
 Potwar Plateau gets a light rainfall during December to March from the
western depression, which suits the wheat crop.
 The yield is rather low as compared with wheat growing in canal-irrigated
areas.
 The rainfall in March and April helps to swell the grain.
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Natural Calamities
Floods
A flood occurs when water inundates land that's normally dry, which can
happen in a multitude of water. Excessive rain, a ruptured dam or levee, rapid
melting of snow or ice, or even an unfortunately placed beaver dam can
overwhelm a river, spreading over the adjacent land, called a floodplain.
Coastal flooding occurs when a large storm or tsunami causes the sea to surge
inland. Most floods take hours or even days to develop, giving residents time
to prepare or evacuate. Others generate quickly and with little warning. So-
called flash floods can be extremely dangerous, instantly turning a babbling
brook or even a dry wash into rushing rapids that sweep everything in their
path downstream.
What causes floods?
 Global Warming causing the glaciers to melt at a rapid pace

 Heavy monsoon rainfall
 Deforestation
 Broken Dams
 Channels with steep slides
Storms
These are common in the northern and north-western areas of Pakistan. In the
summer (April to June) and the post-monsoon season (Sept-Oct), the
atmospheric pressure falls and convectional currents cause sporadic and
localized rainfall in the extreme north and the Safed Koh Mountains. In the
summer season, in southern plains and north-western parts of Baluchistan, due
to low pressure, dust storms and strong winds also hit the Upper Indus Plain.
Moreover, tropical cyclones from the Arabian Sea can also affect the coastal
areas of Sindh and Baluchistan.
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Causes of Thunderstorms:
 Moisture: Moisture required to form clouds and eventually rain.

 Front: Front like sea breeze or mountains that help in lifting the warm air
upwards.
 Rapidly rising warm air: Due to Sun’s heat, the temperature of place rises.
The rise in temperature warms the air and create strong winds which arise in
the upward direction.
Droughts
A drought or is a natural disaster of below-average precipitation in a given
region, resulting in prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether
atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or
years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. It can have a substantial
impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the
local economy.
Causes of Drought:
 Long dry spells

 Deforestation
 Wastage of water
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A. The Thar Desert is a water deficient area and it can be reclaimed by constructing
seasonal/flood canals from the Sukkur Barrage to increase the production of food.
B. The Thar Desert is rich in mineral resources such as coal and oil. It is more feasible to
invest in the setting up of coal-fired thermal power plants than to use the land for
farming.
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF
WATER RESOURCES
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Water is a renewable source that is one of the most important source for the
survival of mankind and also other creatures.
The Hydrological Cycle
The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of
the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form
clouds. Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface
as precipitation. Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may
occur:
1) Some of the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere
2) The water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater.
Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is
released back into the atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water
that remains on the earth's surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers
and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again.
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Why do we need water resources?

As a growing population we need ample amount of fresh water to counter the
needs. It is also very important for our agriculture.
Irrigation Systems
There are different types of irrigation systems that exist in the category of
conventional and modern systems.
Conventional Systems: They had been in use for centuries but have
become obsolete with the passage of time.
Shaduf: it is a device consisting of a long suspended pole weighted at one end

and having a bucket at the other end, used in the Near East and especially Egypt
for raising water, as for the irrigation of land. This type of system is now
obsolete in Pakistan as it cannot provide ample amount of water for agriculture.
Charsa: In Charsa animal power is used to pull water from the well. The
Charsa system is not used by many farmers now.
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Persian Wheel: The Persian wheel is a mechanical water lifting device

operated usually by draught animals like bullocks, buffaloes or camels. It is used
to lift water from water sources typically open wells
Q-Q What are the advantages & disadvantages of the Persian Wheel?
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The Karez System or Qanat: A qanat or karez is a gently sloping

underground channel to transport water from an aquifer or water well to
surface for irrigation and drinking, acting as an underground aqueduct. This is an
old system of water supply from a deep well with a series of vertical access
shafts. It is practiced in Baluchistan only.
Methods of practice of Karez

 On the foothills of the hills, snow-water is reserved in small aquifers. A
horizontal underground tunnel is dug from the foothill aquifer to the
village areas. Its length is sometimes 20km long.
 For regular maintenance purpose, vertical holes are dug every 15m or so
that connects underground tunnel with the field surface. Karez is a system
of this underground tunnel and these vertical holes.
 The regular maintenance of Karez is difficult. The tunnels need cleaning
every year or else sand from deserts will completely fill up the tunnel.
 Date palm trees are grown purposefully around the Karez that acts as an
umbrella minimizing the water loss through evapotranspiration.
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Tank irrigation: Tank irrigation is practiced by constructing mud banks

across streams to make a small reservoir which collect excess water during the
rainy season.
Inundation Canals: Inundation canals are more or less similar to the

permanent canals. The major difference is that, in the case of permanent canals,
permanent masonry or concrete works like weirs, barrage, head regulator, fall,
cross regulator, are constructed to regulate the supplies, but in case of
inundation canals all these works are not there.
Inundation canals are mostly used in deltaic and alluvial regions of the river, as
river course here is generally at a higher level and course is maintained between
dykes or embankments.
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Modern Systems: They are more common these days and are used
regularly by farmers these days for the agriculture and other use.
Perennial Canals: They are the canals that have water taken from dams or
barrages. They have water almost throughout the year.
Perennial canals are a great source of water for the farmers. The flow of water
can be controlled and it is independent of rainfall too. They also have lined and
unlined canals – lined canals can sustain more pressure from water as they are
built with cement while unlined are naturally built levees with loose
embankments. Punjab has many of these canals. These include Upper and
Lower Bari Doab, Lower and Upper Chenab Canal and Sidhnai.
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Tube wells: A tube well is a type of water well in which a long, 100–200
millimeters-wide, stainless steel tube or pipe is bored into an underground
aquifer. The lower end is fitted with a strainer, and a pump lifts water for
irrigation. The required depth of the well depends on the depth of the water
table.
Q-Q Why is tube well being used on a large scale by the farmers these days?
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Sprinkler or Spray Irrigation: Spray irrigation is a form of irrigation in

which pressurized water is sprayed over plants to provide them with water. This
type of irrigation is also sometimes called sprinkler irrigation, and it is very
widely used all over the world.
Advantages and disadvantages of Spray irrigation

Advantages: Water is sprayed according to needs and thus controlled. This
leads to lower wastage of water and hence the danger of waterlogging and
salinity is lesser.
Disadvantages: It has a high cost of machinery and requires electricity or fuel

to operate. This is the reason that subsistence farmers cannot afford it. At
times, water gets evaporated before it reaches the fields due to high
temperature.
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Dams & Barrages in Pakistan

A barrage is considered as a type of dam consisting of a series of large gates that
can be closed or opened to have a control on the amount of water passing
through it. These gates are primarily meant for controlling the flow of water and
to stabilize the flow of water for irrigation purposes. One key difference
between a dam and a barrage according to World Commission on Dams is that
while a barrage is built for diverting water, a dam is built for storing water in a
reservoir to raise the level of water considerably. A barrage is usually built
where the surface is flat across meandering rivers. It raises the water level only
by a few feet.
Barrages in Pakistan
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Major Dams in Pakistan
Siltation and its hazards:

When the rivers leave the foothills of the Himalayas, they carry a large quantity
of silt, as a result of deep erosion in the mountain areas. This is deposited in the
plains of Punjab and Sindh. Siltation is a menace that can destroy the purpose of
dams and barrages, i.e. irrigation and generation of hydro-electric power, by
filling the reservoir with silt. This results in flooding in the areas that can cause
destruction of infrastructure, loss of lives, animals and crops. The government
has started SCARP (Salinity Control and Reclamation Project) to overcome this
problem.
Management of Water Resources:

Pakistan needs a fair and just distribution of water amongst its provinces. To
overcome the issue a Water Accord was signed in 1991 to be carried out by IRSA
(Indus River System Authority)
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A. Small dams are more suitable for Pakistan’s economy than large ones because they
require low initial investment and the silting problem is easier to solve
B. Pakistan needs large dams such as the Kalabagh for projects including the generation
of electricity ad for flood control
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FORESTS
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What are Forests?

Forests are extensive, continuous areas of land dominated by trees. The desired
level of forests is 20-30% of the total area of a country. There are two types of
forests in Pakistan.
 Productive Forests: These are mainly natural forests. In these forests

the tree density is high and the forest canopy is closed. Such forests have
great commercial value and they are mainly used for extraction of timber
and other products.
 Protection Forests: These forests are mainly planted by people and are
usually linear. They include amenity planting along roads, parks and
along railway lines. They have little commercial value as they don’t
supply valuable species of food.
What factors determine the change in nature of forests?

 Altitude or height: the nature of forests keep changing with altitude.
 Aridity or dryness: the dryness in the area results in the change of the
type of forests. For e.g., the prevailing aridity over the Baluchistan
Plateau and the southern part of the Indus Plain is not favorable to
support plant growth and results in thorny bushes and scrub.
 Precipitation: the amount of moisture results in the change in forests.

Northern Mountains encourages the growth of coniferous (evergreen)
forests.
 Nutrients: in the Indus and Hub deltas the deposition of alluvium in the
salt water has encouraged the growth of mangrove vegetation.
 Edaphic factors: soil type also determines the type and density of
forests in different areas of Pakistan.
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Forests in Pakistan
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Alpine Forests:
 They have stunted growth due to low temperature and less sunlight
 Roots grow sideways on thin soil to absorb more nutrition and to have
better grip on the ground
 Normally upward branches to attain more sunlight
 It is used as fuel wood only
 It is found in Northern areas (Chitral, Dir, Kohistan)
 It is found at an altitude of 4000 meters or above just below the snowline

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Coniferous Forests:
 Evergreen forests survive in low temperature
 Sloping branches prevent snow accumulation
 Small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped leaves check excessive

transpiration
 They are found in Chitral, Swat, Upper Dir, Lower Dir, Malakand and other
areas in Baluchistan like Quetta & Kalat divisions
 It is an important source of timber for making furniture. It is also used for

environmental protection and also add to the scenic beauty of the area
 It is found at an altitude between 1000-4000 meters

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Subtropical Forests:
 Sub-tropical broad-leafed and tropical thorny species
 They are found on the hills and foothills of the Lower Himalayas, Suleiman
and Kirthar Ranges, Western Mountain (Peshawar, Waziristan, Kohat,
Mardan and above the Makran Coast Range
 They are used for watershed protection, supplying firewood and grazing
purposes
 It is found at an altitude of below 1000 meters

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Tropical Forests:
 They are of low height (6-10 meters) and used as firewood
 They have deep roots in search of water
 They are dominated by thorny hardwood and scanty vegetation due to

water shortage
 They are found in Punjab Plains, Southern & Western Baluchistan and
Sindh Plains

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Riverain or Bella Forests:
 Linear plantation along the banks of rivers
 Normally high-yielding commercial hardwood species
 They are found alongside River Indus and its tributaries
 They provide Shisham and Babul that are used in making of furniture and
agricultural implements

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Mangrove Forests:
 They have broad leaves with a leathery texture to minimize transpiration
 The roots are spread into sea-water and survive in salty water. The trees
grow around 6-8 meters at max but generally their height is 3 meters
 They are found in the coastal areas of Sindh & Baluchistan (Deltaic
regions)
 They supply fuel for firewood and for timber in some cases. They are also
a breeding ground for fish and shrimps. They also act as a barrier against
cyclones, tsunamis & earthquakes
 The fallen leaves provide nutrition for marine life

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Irrigated Forests:
 Economically important species are planted in large blocks of the same

species. Shisham, Babul and Eucalyptus are normally preferred
 An example is Changa Manga near Lahore, Wan Bachran in Thal area and
Chichawatni in Sahiwal district
 It is an important source of timber, firewood. When planted in linear form

they provide shade
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Farming Techniques
Terracing:
It helps us to make farming on the sloppy hills or Mountains where it is not too
easy to farm with the help of graduated terrace constructed on the slopes.
So, it is an important agricultural method which helps us to cultivate on those
sloppy region parts of the world as possible.
Mostly, in this technique of farming on the terrace, terraces are low, a smooth
ridge of earth built across the slope with a channel for runoff water just above
the ridge. Usually, terraces are created on a slight slope so that the water
grabbed in the canal or channel moves slowly approaching the terrace outlet.
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Contour Ploughing:
Contour farming is farming with row patterns that run nearly level around the
hill -- not up and down the hill. Contour strip-cropping is crop rotation and
contouring combined in equal-width strips of different crops. The crops are
planted parallel to the contours on the side of the hill.
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Deforestation – causes, effects & prevention

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land
available for other uses.
There are many factors that lead to deforestation in an area:
 Fuel wood
 To make more land available for housing and urbanization
 To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper, furniture and
homes
 To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items, such as the oil
from palm trees
 To create room for cattle ranching
How to prevent deforestation?

Concrete efforts are needed to prevent the hazards of deforestation. They could
be as follows:
Supply of irrigation: this will help the faster growth of trees in the affected
areas.
Reserving the land for fuel wood: this could lead to the preservation of
valuable species. In Pakistan, precious forest resources have been cut down just
to supply fuel wood for domestic use.
Creating awareness: Masses should be made aware of the hazards of

deforestation.
Supply of natural gas: this could lead to less cutting of trees as people won’t
cut tress to fight the harsh cold weather.
Selective cutting methods: restricting the logging companies of cutting down

the trees in selective areas only.
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A. There should be more irrigated plantations in the Indus Plain to provide

environmental protection and to generate employment
B. The limited land of the Indus Plain should be used for agriculture, settlements,
industries and commercial activities
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FISHING INDUSTRY
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Fishing Areas and Methods

Marine Fishing: It is the fishing done in the sea. Pakistan’s coastal line is 30%
of Sindh and 70% Baluchistan.
It is of two types:
 Subsistence Fishing: is when the fishing is done for self-use by the
fishermen. It requires small boats and conventional style of fishing.
 Commercial Fishing: is for the purpose of sale and trade. Large boats
embedded with modern technology (refrigeration, nets) are present.
Karachi and Gwadar are major centers of commercial fishing. Sindh coast
accounts for 68% of total marine catch.
Inland Fishing: is the fishing practiced in almost all the rivers and lakes while
fish farming is also practiced widely across the country.
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Problems of the Fishing Industry

The main problems the fishing industry is facing in Pakistan are:
Water Pollution:
Pollution on the Coast of Pakistan is mostly limited to the Karachi area. The
Karachi fish harbor is severely affected by a variety of pollutants. Spillage of the
oils from ships, domestic and industrial waste is causing great harm to our
fishing industry. Studies have shown that many chemicals - some of these
having carcinogenic qualities -, toxic materials and heavy metals have been
found in the marine life. These dangerous substances are also entering the food
chain of the people whose diet comprises seafood.
Over-Fishing:
Another problem associated with the fishing industry is that of over-fishing of
shrimps throughout the year, even in the breeding season.
Threat of Mangroves:
Mangroves act as a barrier and protect the coastlines from high and low tides.
The mangroves that are a breeding ground for fish and shrimps cannot thrive
well in polluted sea water.
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How has the Government tried to improve fishing

industry?
 The introduction of new fishing methods.
 The development of value-added products like canned or frozen fish to
keep them usable.
 An improved surveillance and weather information.
 The execution of Marine Fisheries Department that carries out projects
like “Monitoring of Deep sea Fishing Vessels’ and others to improve
fishing as an industry.
Q-Q: How can the making of fishery at Gwadar serve Pakistan?
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A. If we develop more fish farms in the Indus Plain by using canal water, it can
generate much more profit than growing crops. It will reduce the burden on crops
and livestock and will provide employment to the people.
B. The Indus Plain has been historically developed for crop cultivation due to alluvial
soils and other factors. Food crops meet the domestic food requirements while raw
cotton and cotton products are the major exports of Pakistan. It is essential to use
the Indus Plain for the crop cultivation.
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MINERAL & POWER

RESOURCES
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Mining Processes
Mining is a process of digging rocks and minerals from the earth. Minerals are
found at different depths. There are three methods of mining.
Open-cast Mining:
Open cast or open pit mining is a type of surface mining in which mineral
resources are removed from the earth through large holes or pits dug into the
surface. The mineral bearing rocks are stripped off by giant excavators and
power shovels, which then load the material into lorries and railway wagons to
be carried away.
Open-cast Mining
Underground Mining: is done through two methods:

Adit Mining: it is a horizontal or near-horizontal passage driven from the
earth’s surface into the side of a ridge or mountain for the purpose of working,
ventilating, or removing water from a mine. It is done in hilly districts where a
mineral seam is exposed on a hillside.
Shaft Mining: is a form of underground mining where shafts are pushed

vertically from top to bottom to excavate the ores and minerals. It is also called
shaft sinking. It is best suited for concentrated minerals such as iron, coal, etc.
which can be found at the depth of the earth's surface. It is found mostly all
over the world.
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Adit Mining
Shaft Mining
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Minerals in Pakistan: Pakistan is blessed with both metallic & non-

metallic minerals.
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Non-metallic minerals
Rock Salt: Pakistan has the world’s largest reservoir of rock salt found in
Khewra. The rocks are white or pink in color. The salt is overlain by gypsum and
clay.
Uses: it is used for cooking, preservation of food and fish, manufacture of soda
ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda, tanning and chemical industries.
Limestone: is a major sedimentary deposit and is the main raw material for
cement.
Uses: it is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder, glass, soap, paper,
paints and lime.
Gypsum: is found in grey, white and pink color. It is used in the making of
cement when the clinkers are made to give it hardness.
Uses: it is used in the manufacture of paints, fertilizers and pre-fabricated
construction boards. White gypsum is used for making of Plaster of Paris.
Clay: it is fine-grained mineral. In Pakistan the most important clays are China
Clay, Fire Clay and Fuller’s Earth.
 China Clay is mainly used in ceramic industry
 Fire Clay is used to make fire bricks, insulating bricks and pottery
 Fuller’s Earth is used to manufacture steel, oil drilling machine and oil
refining
Limestone Quarrying: it is a non-metallic mineral. When it outcrops on the

surface it is extracted by quarrying. It is an open excavation from which any
useful stone is extracted for building and engineering purposes. It is carried out
by different methods and equipment such as hand tools, explosives, power
saws, etc. according to the purpose for which the stone is extracted.
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The manufacture process of cement
How is cement used in different capacities?

 It is used in the construction industry, making of new houses, offices,
shops
 It is an important component to make roads, highways, motorways etc.
 It is used in the construction of canals, lined canals to prevent seepage
Metallic minerals
Pakistan has vast deposits of gold, copper, tin and manganese. Baluchistan is
rich in the deposits of these minerals. A start has been made by the Resources
Development Corporation. In addition to the Saindak Copper-Gold project, the
Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation is also operating three coal mines.
Moreover, there are deposits of antimony and gold in Punjgore and Kharan
district.
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A. The import metallic minerals is causing a heavy burden on Pakistan’s limited

foreign exchange resources. We need to set up only those industries which make
use of locally available minerals.
B. The import of metallic minerals is essential as they are used in those industries
which manufacture value-added products and generate more income for the
country if exported or used locally
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Effects of mining on the environment

Mining, though an important industry, has led to some adverse effects due to
the negligence shown by the concerned authorities. Some of them are:
 It leads to the emission of dust, suspended particle and gases which cause
air pollution.
 Release of harmful trace element e.g., CO, Pb, Cd etc. leads to the
contamination of surface water.
 Underground water is also contaminated due to seepage and infiltration
of leached drainage.
 Mining leads to the degradation of soil quality, fertility and makes it toxic.
 Natural vegetation get adversely effected due to leached trace element.
 The major consequences of mining is the deforestation which results in
loss of flora and fauna.
 It directly affect the ecosystem and its stability as many species are killed
due to toxicity of water and soil and loss of habitat.
 Mining results in wastage of land as it neither remain suitable for
industrial use nor for agricultural purposes.
 Mining directly results in the loss of landscape and beauty of surrounding.
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Non-renewable Energy Resources – Fossils

Coal: is the most widely used mineral around the world due to its vast
reservoirs and lesser in expenses. It is widely used in the cement, thermal
power plants and other industries. Thar (Sindh), Soar Range (Baluchistan),
Makarwal (KPK) are the areas laden with coal reserves in Pakistan.
Coal is found in layers and needs deep underground mining to be extracted.
Gasification of Coal: it is when the coal is heated in the presence of steam

and oxygen to produce coal gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide,
hydrogen and methane and is now turned into easily transportable coal gas or
liquid fuels. It is used directly as fuel or refined into cleaner-burning gas to make
it environment friendly. Coal-based vapor fuels are produced through this
process.
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Oil: is the most important fossil fuel today. It occurs in porous spaces of
sedimentary rocks and is derived mainly from the decomposition of marine
animal and vegetative matter over several million years. It is found in dome-
shaped anticlines under the seabed. The oil is trapped in the anticline with gas
above and water below. Hence the name oil trap.
How is oil drilled?

Modern oil prospecting is a technical job that requires modern scientific
equipment. Once the drilling site has been selected, a derrick or drilling rig is set
up. The derrick is a large steel structure that holds the drilling pipes and other
equipment.
Oil Refining:
Crude oil cannot be used in its raw state. It has to be processed and refined into
useful products such as petrol for cars, aeroplanes, heating oil, kerosene, diesel
oil for trucks and buses. Oil refineries are either located:
 In or near the oil fields such as Attock Oil Refinery on the Potwar Plateau
at Morga.
 At the port of import such as Pakistan Refinery and National Refinery.
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Major Oil refineries in Pakistan:

 Pakistan Refinery Limited
 Pak-Arab Refinery
 National Refinery
 Attock Refinery
 Byco Oil Pakistan
 Indus Oil Refinery Ltd (not yet operational)
 Khalifa Coastal Refinery (not yet operational)
 Trans Asia Refinery (not yet operational)
How is oil transported?

Transport at Sea: it is transported in special ships called ‘oil tankers’. It is
transported at Keamari and Korangi and sent up country by road tankers
Transport on Land: it is transported by pipeline, road tanker and rail tankers.

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Natural Gas: it is found in oil-bearing rocks above the oil. These rocks have
millions of tiny holes. They act like a tiny sponge and soak up the gas as is it
formed. Above the rock there is a layer of non-porous rocks that trap the gas
underground and stop it from leaking out to the surface. Natural gas is made up
of many gases especially methane, ethane, propane and butanes.
Main Gas fields in Pakistan:

 Sui
 Pirkoh
 Mari
 Meyal
 Dhurnal
LPG & CNG: When natural gas is cooled to a very low temperature it turns into
liquid which is called Liquefied Petroleum Gas. It can be moved easily in
cylinders to remote places and mountainous areas like Murree, Gilgit etc.
When methane is compressed and stored at high pressure it produces

Compressed Natural Gas. It is widely used in running vehicles these days.
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Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power, electricity generated by power plants that derive their heat
from fission in a nuclear reactor. Except for the reactor, which plays the role of a
boiler in a fossil-fuel power plant, a nuclear power plant is similar to a large
coal-fired power plant, with pumps, valves, steam generators, turbines, electric
generators, condensers, and associated equipment.
During fission, a neutron bombards a uranium

atom, releasing more neutrons and triggering a
chain reaction.
In nuclear power plants, neutrons collide with uranium atoms, splitting them.
This split releases neutrons from the uranium that in turn collide with other
atoms, causing a chain reaction. This chain reaction is controlled with "control
rods" that absorb neutrons.
Nuclear Power Plants in Pakistan:
 Karachi Nuclear Power Plant KANUPP commissioned in 1971

 Chashma Nuclear Power Plant commissioned in 1999
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The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) is working alongside the China
National Nuclear Corporation for further development.
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Hazards of Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear Power and generation of electricity

Nuclear power plants heat water to produce steam. The steam is used to spin
large turbines that generate electricity. Nuclear power plants use heat produced
during nuclear fission to heat water.
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Thermal Electricity
A thermal power station is a power station in which heat energy is converted to
electric power. In most of the places in the world the turbine is steam-driven.
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an
electrical generator.
Advantages:
1. Economical for low initial cost other than any generating plant.
2. Land required less than hydro power plant.
3. Since coal is main fuel and its cost is quite cheap than petrol/diesel so
generation cost is economical.
4. Maintenance is easier.
5. Thermal power plant can be installed in any location where
transportation and bulk of water are available.
Disadvantages:
1. The running cost for a thermal power station is comparatively high due to
fuel, maintenance etc.
2. Large amount of smoke causes air pollution. The thermal power station is
responsible for Global warming.
3. The heated water that comes from thermal power plant has an adverse
effect on the aquatic lives in the water and disturbs the ecology.
4. Overall efficiency of thermal power plant is low like less 30%.
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Renewable Energy Resources

With the ever-growing population and the dearth of fossils, there is a need to
rely on renewable sources of energy. Renewable energy resources offer cleaner
alternatives to fossil fuels. They are not completely problem-free, but they
produce much less pollution and fewer greenhouse gases, and by definition, will
not run out. Here are our main sources of renewable energy:
Solar Energy
The sun is our most powerful source of energy. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be
used for heating, lighting and cooling homes and other buildings, generating
electricity, water heating, and a variety of industrial processes. The technology
used to harvest the sun's energy is constantly evolving, including water-heating
rooftop pipes, photo-voltaic cells, and mirror arrays. Rooftop panels are not
intrusive, but large arrays on the ground can compete with wildlife habitat.
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Wind Power
Wind is the movement of air that occurs when warm air rises and cooler air
rushes in to replace it. The energy of the wind has been used for centuries to sail
ships and drive windmills that grind grain. Today, wind energy is captured by
wind turbines and used to generate electricity. Issues periodically arise about
where turbines are installed, as they can be problematic for migrating birds and
bats.
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Hydro-electric Power
Water flowing downstream is a powerful force. Water is a renewable resource,

constantly recharged by the global cycle of evaporation and precipitation. The
heat of the sun causes water in lakes and oceans to evaporate and form clouds.
The water then falls back to Earth as rain or snow and drains into rivers and
streams that flow back to the ocean. Flowing water can be used to power water
wheels that drive mechanical processes. And captured by turbines and
generators, like those housed at many dams around the world, the energy of
flowing water can be used to generate electricity. Tiny turbines can even be
used to power single homes.
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Biomass
Biomass has been an important source of energy ever since people first began
burning wood to cook food and warm themselves against the winter chill. Wood
is still the most common source of biomass energy, but other sources of
biomass energy include food crops, grasses and other plants, agricultural and
forestry waste and residue, organic components from municipal and industrial
wastes, even methane gas harvested from community landfills. Biomass can be
used to produce electricity and as fuel for transportation, or to manufacture
products that would otherwise require the use of non-renewable fossil fuels.
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Geo-thermal Power
The heat inside the Earth produces steam and hot water that can be used to
power generators and produce electricity, or for other applications such as
home heating and power generation for industry. Geothermal energy can be
drawn from deep underground reservoirs by drilling, or from other geothermal
reservoirs closer to the surface. This application is increasingly used to offset
heating and cooling costs in residential and commercial buildings.
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Tidal Power
The ocean provides several forms of renewable energy, and each one is driven
by different forces. Energy from ocean waves and tides can be harnessed to
generate electricity, and ocean thermal energy—from the heat stored in
seawater—can also be converted to electricity. Using current technologies, most
ocean energy is not cost-effective compared to other renewable energy sources,
but the ocean remains an important potential energy source for the future.
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A. In order to solve our energy crisis, we should set up more thermal power stations
that make use of locally available fossil fuels (coal, gas, oil) and biomass sources.
B. The energy crisis can only be solved on sustainable grounds, if we develop

alternative sources of energy
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AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
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Agriculture as an Industry
Agriculture is a primary industry concerned with obtaining raw material from
the ground for immediate consumption or for further processing. It is a
systematic process that contains inputs, processes and outputs
NATURAL INPUTS
 Land
 Soil
 Climate
 Water
HUMAN INPUTS
 Capital
 Machines
 Fertilizers
 Labor
 Knowledge
 Land Ownership
 Traditions
 Irrigation
 Pesticides
PROCESS ON FARMS
 Ploughing
 Sowing
 Irrigation
 Fertilizing
 Weeding
 Harvesting
 Threshing
 Milking
 Breeding
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Difference between Subsistence Farming, Cash Crop &

Livestock Farming
 SUBSISTENCE FARMING
 Farmers and family work (inherited knowledge)
 Production is used for their own consumption
 Old and traditional methods
 Small farms
 Draft power is used
 Seeds are not of good quality (desi varieties)
 Natural manure/ wooden plough
 Manual labor/ some unskilled labor
 Usually ground water is used
 CASH CROP FARMING

 Modern methods of farming
 Chemical fertilizer
 Machinery is used for ploughing, seeding, harvesting and threshing
 High yield variety of seeds
 Skilled labor
 Chemical fertilizers
 Insecticides and pesticides are used.
Cropping Seasons in Pakistan

RABI CROP – (WINTER CROPS)
 Sown in water between Oct-Nov.
 Harvesting in early summer April-May
 Wheat, barley, grams, oil seeds, pulses
KHARIF CROP: (SUMMER CROPS)

 Sown in summer (April-June)
 Harvested in winter (Oct-Nov)
 Rice, sugar cane, mullets, maize, cotton
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PAKISTAN – The Major Crops

Wheat:
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain which is a
worldwide staple food. It is a Rabi crop that is mainly grown in the canal
irrigated areas of Sindh and Punjab. Nawabshah in Sindh, Bahawalpur,
Bahawalnagar, Multan and Rahim Yar Khan in Punjab are major wheat growing
regions. Low grades of wheat and by-products of the flour-milling are used as
feed for the livestock. Maxi Pak is the most widely used variety in Pakistan.
Others are Lasani - 08, AARI - 11& Faisalabad – 08. It requires:
 Mild temperature 10 C – 20 C at time of growing
 25 C – 30 C for ripening (90 days to prepare)
 Moderate rainfall
 Flat and undulating land
 Well drained area
 Moderately stiff loamy or clayey soil
Cultivation of Wheat in Barani Lands: Barani areas are dependent upon rain for
agriculture as irrigation is not possible due to rugged landscape. The cultivation
depends upon the rainfall months (Dec-Mar). Potwar Plateau and some areas of
KPK are the barani lands in Pakistan.
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Rice:
Rice is an important grain crop that is grown as a Kharif Crop. Larkana in Sindh
and Gujranwala and Sialkot in Punjab are major rice growing regions. Moreover,
it can be grown in the northern hilly regions on the terraced fields. Basmati,
Kernel, IRRI and Super Rice are the varieties grown in Pakistan.
The process of cultivation: ample amount of water is needed to grow rice. Seeds
are initially sown into beds or nurseries. When the plant is about 9 inches high,
it is transplanted into the prepared (ploughed, weeded) fields already flooded
to a depth of 30-37 cm. the fields are kept inundated until the rice is ripe. The
water is then drained off and threshing starts. The rice is then taken to rice mills
for polishing & packing. The main by-products of rice are rice straw, rice
husk or hull, and rice bran. Rice straw is produced when harvesting paddy.
Straw comes from what is left on the plant after it is harvested and the grains
are threshed. Rice husks or hulls are generated during the first stage of rice
milling, when rough rice or paddy rice is husked. They are used for making
cardboard or covering roofs of houses after mixing it with mud and water.
Conditions required for growing rice:

 Sowing temperature 20 c – 30 c, harvesting 25 c – 30 c
 Heavy rainfall 1270mm – 2000mm. Also, Irrigation is used
 Level ground/ Loamy and clayey soil/intensive labor and machinery
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Cotton:
Cotton, “the king of fiber”, is the most widely used textile fiber in Pakistan. It is
a Kharif crop and is used for making clothes, furnishing fabrics, bed linen and
industrial fabrics. Southern Punjab areas like Bahawalpur, Multan and Khanewal
are famous for its production. Nawabshah, Sanghar and Naushehro Feroz are
major cotton-producing regions in Sindh. Pak upland (Desi) & Nayab 78, B-557
are varieties that are in demand in Pakistan.
Conditions required for growing Cotton:
 Ideal temperature 25 c – 30 c. (harvesting 25 c – 30 c)
 Rainfall about 1000 mm/Medium loamy soil/level land
Transportation:
 After picking cotton balls are loaded on to trucks and transported to the ginning mill
 Seeds are separated from the lint which is tied up in to bales and transported to
spinning mills. Seeds of cotton are sent to mills to extract oil / animal feed.
Hazards:
 Locusts & leaf curl virus attack
 Changes in temperature/ unexpected rainfall.
 Unskilled farmers not using treated seeds, insecticides and pesticides, fertilizers.
By-products:
Cotton seeds are valuable by-products. The seeds are delinted by a similar process to ginning.
Some linter is used to make candle wicks, string, cotton balls, cotton batting, paper, and
cellulose products such as rayon, plastics, photographic film, and cellophane.
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Sugar-cane:
Sugar-cane is an important Kharif crop from which sugar, brown sugar and Gur are
made. Badin, Naushehro Feroz in Sindh, Faisalabad in Punjab and Peshawar in KPK are
the major growing regions of sugar-cane. The stalks that are 30 cm high are planted in
April-May with a distance of 30 cm. It needs regular irrigation and reaches a height of
6-7 feet. After the crop is harvested it sends up new shoots called ratoons that are left
to grow. Bagasse and molasses are two major by-products left over during the
processing of sugar-cane. Bagasse is a fiber left over after the sugar-cane is crushed. It
is used to make paper, chipboard and animal feed. Molasses is the liquid left over
after the crystallization of sugar. It is a valuable raw material for the production of
citric acid, cattle feed, bakers’ yeast, synthetic rubber etc. It is also used as a fuel in
sugar factories. Boilers are used to produce steam for the generation of power to run
machinery in sugar mills. SPSG26, SPF338 & SPF234 are some major sugar-cane
varieties produced in Pakistan.
Conditions required for growing Sugar-cane:
 Required temperature 25c – 30c.
 Require plenty of rainfall.
 Can be grown in variety of soil- loamy and clayey with silt.
 Fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potash.
Process
 After the harvest it’s transported to sugar mills as any delay may result in loss of juice.
 In sugar mills sugar cane is scrubbed with chalk, to remove the smell and dirt.
 Then it is rolled in machines to extract the juice.
 https://www.wikihow.com/Plant-Sugar-Cane
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PAKISTAN – The Minor Crops

In addition to these crops, there are many other crops that are produced in Pakistan. They
are:
 Maize: it is a Kharif crop. It is a food grain as well as a raw material for edible oil
production. It is used in the manufacture of corn flour, custard powder and other
processed foods. It is also used as fodder for animals and poultry. Mansehra, Mardan
and Charsadda are the major growing regions. It requires high temperature (up to
35°C), moderate rainfall (between 50-500 mm) and porous soil.
 Pulses: they are rich in proteins and they are popular in the local diet. Pulses fix
nitrogen in the soil, thereby helping to fertilize the crop that follows. Sukkur, Leiyah,
Bannu, Khushab and Sialkot are the major regions.
 Millets: Jowar and Bajra are two millets produced. They are fodder for animals,
poultry and are also used as a food crop. They are coarser cereals when ground into
flour. Tharparkar, Kohat, Attock, Jhelum, Sargodha & Bahawalpur are some major
regions where they are grown. It is drought resistant that requires moderate to high
temperature of 30-35° C and can be grown on poor sandy soils.
 Oilseeds: oilseeds like sunflower, soya bean, rape seed, mustard, sesame produce
edible oil. Bahawalpur, Sanghar, Attock and Sialkot are some regions that produce
oilseeds.
 Tobacco: it is grown mainly in KPK in Mardan and Peshawar. It can be grown in a

variety of climatic conditions but its export varieties are grown on fertile soil with
irrigation.
 Fruit farming: fruits act as a subsistence food along with the major crops. They are
mainly dependent upon the climatic conditions. Dates are grown in the Karez fields of
Turbat, Makran and also in Khairpur. Bananas are widely grown in Hyderabad and
nearby areas and also south-east of Punjab. Oranges & mangoes are grown in upper
Sindh and south Punjab, mainly Multan. Almonds, apples, apricots and grapes are
grown in highland areas like Swat, Hunza and Gilgit.
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 LIVESTOCK FARMING
It is the rearing of animals (cattle/buffaloes/sheep/goats/chicken) for the
purpose of draught power as well as using milk, meat and hides. It can be
subsistence as well as commercial and is of three types:
Settled Nomadic Transhumance
 Nomadic Farming: it is mainly practiced in the desert areas of Sindh,

Punjab and Baluchistan. The nomads move from place to place along with
their animals in search of water and pasture. These nomads rear sheep,
goats and camels for the provision of food (milk, meat) and carry their
loads for long distances. If they find grazing ground or water source, they
settle down for weeks to allow their animals to get fodder and water.
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 Transhumance: it is the system of livestock farming in which the

animals are kept on pastures high up in the mountains in summer and
brought down to lower pastures in winter. In areas with severe winters at
lower levels, the animals are often kept in sheds.
 Settled Farming: Subsistence livestock farming is also practiced in the

villages of Punjab and Sindh. Cows and hens are kept for milk and eggs to
be consumed by the family. Excess milk is processed to make butter or
ghee, which are important components of their diet.
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Soil – Types & Importance
Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock.
Sandy soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has
very low nutrients and poor in holding water, which makes it hard for the
plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is very good for the drainage
system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of
rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz.
Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil
and is made up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand
and larger than clay. It is the smooth and quite fine quality of the soil that holds
water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by moving currents and it is
mainly found near the river, lake, and other water bodies. The slit soil is more
fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore it is also used
in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility.
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Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The particles
in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no
airspace. This soil has very good water storage qualities and making hard for
moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet, but
smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which do not
drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish.
Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such
that the beneficial properties from each is included. For instance, it has the
ability to retain moisture and nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for farming.
This soil is also referred to as an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of
all three types of soil materials being sandy, clay, and silt and it also happens to
have hummus. Apart from these, it also has higher calcium and pH levels
because of its inorganic origins.
Characteristics of sandy soil:

Sandy soil essentially consists of small particles formed by weathering rocks. It
is also very low nutrients and poor in holding water, which makes it one of the
poorest types of soil for agriculture.
Significant features of a silty soil:

Silt has much smaller particles compared to sand. It is also made up of rock and
other mineral particles. Furthermore, its fine quality holds water better than
sand. Due to the above-mentioned features, it is also beneficial for agriculture.
Characteristic of Clayey soil:

Clay contains the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil.
Particles are so densely packed that there is very little or no airspace.
Consequently, this property effectively retains water. However, it also becomes
hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it, thereby impeding the growth of
plants.
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Pesticides
A pesticide is any chemical which is used by man to control pests. The pests may
be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds, nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore,
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc., are all types of pesticides.
Fungicides are used to control fungal problems like molds, mildew, and rust.
Herbicides kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants, aka weeds.
Insecticides are used to control insects.
Fertilizers
The application of fertilizers (traditional or chemical) has increased the
output. Nitrogenous fertilizers are used extensively, about 75% of the total
fertilizers used as the soils are deficient in organic matters. Phosphate and
Potash based fertilizers constitute the remaining 25%.
High-yielding Varieties of Seeds (HYV’s)

The use of high-yielding varieties also increases output by 10-20% if fertilizer
is applied and sufficient water is supplied. They are extensively used on
commercial farms.
Land Reforms
It is the statutory division of agricultural land and its reallocation to landless
people. Its basic purpose was to break the hold of a few landowners, feudal
landlords to overcome their monopoly. They were introduced in 1959, 1972 &
1977.
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A. In order to have sustainable agriculture, organic farming techniques should be

used rather than using chemical fertilizers.
B. Pakistan should set up more fertilizer factories to increase agricultural production

to meet the needs of its growing population
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INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENT
SECONDARY & TERTIARY INDUSTRIES
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SECONDARY INDUSTRIES
Secondary industry is concerned with changing raw material from the primary
sector or secondary products, to form a semi-finished or finished product. It is
regarded as a system with inputs, processes and outputs. They could deal with
the light or heavy manufactured items.
Examples of light industries of the secondary sector

 Food manufacturing such as dog and cat food manufacturing, flour and
rice milling, and malt, breakfast cereal, chocolate and confectionery,
frozen food, dried and dehydrated food, ice cream and frozen dessert
manufacturing, etc.
 Beverage and tobacco product manufacturing such as soft drink and ice,
bottled water manufacturing, wineries, breweries, and distilleries.
 Textiles mils, textile product mills, apparel manufacturing, leather, and
allied product manufacturing.
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Heavy Industry refers to the production of large-scale goods with a large-scale

manufacturing process. In this type of industry, the use of capital is intensive. It
employs a lot of raw materials, facilities, and areas for production.
Examples of heavy industries of the secondary sector

Heavy industry is a term usually used to denominate the manufacture of large
projects such as ships, aircraft or heavy machinery. Some activities are:
 Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing such as petroleum
refineries, asphalt paving mixture, asphalt shingle, and coating materials
manufacturing.
 Chemical manufacturing such as petrochemical, industrial gas, synthetic
dye and pigment, and ethyl alcohol manufacturing. Also pesticide,
fertilizer, and other agricultural chemical manufacturing.
 Glass and glass products.
 Cement and concrete production.
 Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing, steel product
manufacturing, alumina, and aluminum production and processing.
 Agriculture, construction, mining, and industrial machinery
manufacturing.
 Transportation Equipment Manufacturing such as motor vehicle body and
trailer manufacturing, aerospace product and parts manufacturing,
and ship and boat Building.
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Where can the industries be located?

The 7 Location Factors
Raw Materials
Materials that are important to the business must be located near the source.
For e.g. wherever the ore is, the copper mining plant must be nearby.
Markets
A company that is close to the consumer population reduces costs as well as
ensures rapid delivery
Availability of Fresh Water and Power
Large factories need a good source of water for the manufacturing process. For
e.g. Steel factories need large amounts of water for the cooling process. Also,
Aluminum needs large amounts of electricity to be fabricated, and therefore
must be near a good source
Labor Supply
 Highly skilled workers are important (near universities and colleges)

 Availability and cost are important
 Low cost labor
Transportation
An efficient transportation service is vital to get the product to the consumer
(e.g. Rail, Water, and Road). Also, ships are cheaper and more efficient for bulk
industries.
Government
1) Direct - Government encourages investment by offering advantages
-Low taxes, cheap land
2) Indirect - improving infrastructure that will attract businesses
- e.g. a new fast highway for a business to be located
Circumstances
1) Less easy to measure than the other factors.
2) Depends on the entrepreneur or whoever puts the idea into practice
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Major Industries in Pakistan

Cotton Textile Industry
It is considered to be the largest industry in Pakistan due to the ample growth of
the raw cotton here. Karachi, Hyderabad and Faisalabad are the main centers of
the cotton textile industry.
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Factors affecting the location of textile industries

Karachi: Port city, sufficient labor, no extra transportation cost, humid weather
attracts cotton clothes, availability of power supply from Korangi Thermal
Power Station, Bin Qasim Thermal Power Station & KANUPP, efficient transport
system, entrepreneurs ready to invest.
Faisalabad: close to the cotton belt of Punjab, no shortage of labor, large local
market, favorable govt. policies & infrastructure
Hyderabad: located in the cotton producing areas of lower Sindh, large local
market in Sindh, machinery can be arranged by importing it to Karachi port.
Others: domestic market, favorable govt. policies
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Sugar Industry
It is one of the major industries in Pakistan due to the excessive consumption of
sugar in Pakistan. The increase in the growth of sugar-cane has also played an
important role in that. Sugar mills are located in Punjab, Sindh and KPK. The dry
and rugged terrain of Baluchistan doesn’t allow any mill to be built there.
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How is sugar made from sugar-cane?
Distribution of sugar mills in Pakistan

Sugar mills are widely distributed and located in the sugarcane growing areas. In
Pakistan there are three main sugarcane growing areas i.e.
 In KPK Peshawar – Mardan region
 Canal irrigated areas of Punjab. Faisalabad, Sheikhupura, Gujranwala,
Bahawalpur and Rahim Yar Khan
 In canal irrigated areas of Sindh near river Indus sugar mills are located in
the districts of Larkana, Nawabshah, Hyderabad, Thatta and Badin.
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At sugar mills, the milling season lasts only 160 days. What problems does this
cause and how might they be overcome?
Problems:
 Sugar mills run from November to March. These mills provide seasonal
employment.
 The problem is that the labor is unemployed for the rest of the year. Thus
skilled workers may be lost to other countries.
 It also means that machinery is not used to its full capacity. The
machinery also deteriorates through lack of use.
Solutions:
 Industries may be developed using the by-products and labor may be
employed there.
 Labor can work in the bagasse processing industry for making chip boards,
particle boards, paper etc.
 Labor can work in molasses processing chemical industries.
 Workers may be encouraged to work in cotton industries.
 Many workers are poor farmers who may return to their farms with an
extra income earned.
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Fertilizer Industry
Chemical fertilizers have considerably increased since the Green Revolution in
1960’s. Fertilizers have since been the backbone of Pakistan’s agricultural
growth.
Reasons of the fertilizer factories being situated in the area

 All the fertilizer factories lie very close to the main natural gas pipeline.
This is because natural gas is a raw material for the manufacture of
chemical fertilizers.
 Other raw material such as coal and gypsum, Nitrate, Potassium,
Phosphate are also available.
 Punjab is mainly an agricultural region. It has a greater demand for
fertilizers, therefore Punjab has many fertilizer factories.
 Land in Pakistan also lacks in organic matters and nutrients so chemical
fertilizers are needed.
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Raw materials used in Fertilizers

 Sulphur
 Phosphate
 Gypsum
 Natural gas since 1952
 Issuance of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) regasification licenses and the
establishment of new fertilizer plants by prominent organizations within
the country.
Types of Fertilizers in Pakistan

 Nitrogenous (the most commonly used)
 Phosphate
 Potassium
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Why has the fertilizer industry grown in recent years?

 Pakistan needs to grow more food on account of fast growth of
population.
 Wheat is the staple diet of the people of the country / increasing
population more demand.
 High yield varieties (HYVs) of seeds are being used in order to increase the
yield. These seeds require large doses of fertilizers.
 Natural fertilizers (cow-dung and compost) do not meet the demand.
 Due to successive years of farming continuous cropping soil loses its
fertility hence the need for chemical fertilizers.
 Raw material like Gypsum, potassium phosphate, nitrate is easily
available.
 Labor is easily available / Govt. support and encouragement.
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Cement Industry
They are located in Sindh, Punjab and KPK and is one of the up-and-coming
industries in Pakistan due to various reasons:
 Ever-growing population and the demand of housing schemes
 Availability of raw material (limestone and gypsum industry)
 Good domestic market with high demand from the construction industry
 Natural gas is used as a cheap fuel
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Steel Industry
It is a landmark industry that is the cornerstone towards the road to
industrialization. Initially it was considered to be useful in producing consumer
goods but with passage of time it has emphasized more towards industrial
development. Currently, steel is produced at:
 Pakistan Steel Mills located about 40 km east of Karachi on Gharo Creek
near Port Qasim (built with the assistance from USSR in 1973)
 The Heavy Mechanical Complex at Taxilla, built in 1979
Extracting iron from iron ore and steel production

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USES OF STEEL PRODUCTS:

PSM products are used as process materials by the engineering industry in
producing a variety of finished steel products. The following are some of these
uses:
COKE:
 Melting iron scrap
 Carbonization in sugar mills
 Producing calcium carbide and other chemicals
PIG IRON:
 Iron and steel castings
 Equipment components
 Ductile iron pipes and pipe fittings
BILLETS:
 Steel rails and reinforcement bars
 Twisted and ribbed bars
 Rods and wire rods
 Seamless pipes and gas cylinders
HOT ROLLED COILS/SHEETS:
 Storage tanks
 Seam welded pipes for gas, water and oil
 Ships and launches
 Fabricated structures and welded beams
 Wheel rims
COLD ROLLED COILS/SHEETS:
 Steel pipes
 Tin plates
 Steel furniture
 Oil and gas appliances
GALVANIZED COILS/SHEETS:
 Roofing, shuttering, paneling
 Buckets and tubs
 Air conditioners and water heaters
 Fresh water tanks, ducting and home appliances
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Q-Q Explain the factors that contributed to the making of Steel Mills in Karachi.
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Development of small scale industries

The government has taken the following steps to help the development of small
scale industries.
 Small scale Industries Development Corporation was established in 1965.
 In recent years SMEDA (Small and Medium Enterprise Development
Authority) has been set up.
 Industry Development Bank of Pakistan was opened to provide financial
assistance.
 Technical assistance is provided through establishment training centers
and polytechnic institutes for both males and females.
 Small industrial estates have been created in many large cities of Pakistan
where infrastructure is provided by the government.
 Handicrafts show rooms and display centers have been opened in large
cities and exhibitions are arranged.
 Carpets, surgical instruments, hosiery, garments, leather goods are
examples.
Types of Goods
Capital goods: Manufactured goods which are used to get further production
such as industrial machinery are called capital goods. Sugar mill machinery and
cotton mill machinery are capital goods.
Consumer goods: Manufactured goods, which fulfill daily needs of life or

articles of daily use are called Consumer goods. Cloth, small machinery,
cosmetics, electrical goods and appliances are examples of consumer goods.
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BASIS FOR
CONSUMER GOODS CAPITAL GOODS
COMPARISON
Meaning Goods that are used by the Goods that are deployed to
end user for consumption produce consumer goods
is called consumer goods. is called capital goods.
Marketing Business to Consumer Business to Business
Purpose Bought for personal Bought for making other

consumption. products.
Buyer Consumer Manufacturers
Demand High Comparatively less
Price By suppliers By companies

determination
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A. We need to set up more large-scale industries such as the Pakistan Steel Mills in
Karachi to provide raw material for engineering and construction industries.
B. We have limited economic resources to develop large-scale industries.

However, setting up more small-scale industries in rural and urban areas is
more feasible.
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Industrial Estates
An industrial estate is a place where necessary infrastructural facilities are made
available to entrepreneurs. Industrial parks, industrial zone, industrial area,
industrial townships are some of the other terms used to denote industrial
estates. Sindh Industrial Trading Estate (SITE) and Korangi Industrial Area are
major Industrial Estates in Karachi.
Special Industrial Zones (EPZA)

These are specially confined areas planned to support the manufacture and
trade of various export products. It can be developed even in those areas where
infrastructure facilities like water supply, electricity, telephone and metaled
roads are not available. The interested companies, entrepreneurs are
encouraged to develop such remote areas along with the government agencies
to provide public facilities. The investors are also allowed to develop their
residential, commercial and social facilities in the vicinity of the industrial zone.
The govt. in response offers incentives like tax exemptions, relaxation in import
of machinery and security.
 The Export Processing Zone is located in the Landhi area of Karachi.
 Karachi being a port, the main advantage is the ease in the import of
industrial raw material and export of finished goods.
 Every kind of infrastructure is available. Electric power, water supply and
natural gas is available.
 Proximity to Port Qasim is a big advantage.
 Labor of every kind is available in Karachi.
 It has road and railway connections.
 Access to airport.
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What are Formal & Informal Organizations?

BASIS FOR FORMAL INFORMAL
COMPARISON ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION
Meaning An organization type in An organization formed

which the job of each within the formal
member is clearly defined, organization as a network
whose authority, of interpersonal
responsibility and relationship, when people
accountability are fixed is interact with each other, is
formal organization. known as informal
communication.
Creation Deliberately by top Spontaneously by

management. members.
Purpose To fulfill, the ultimate To satisfy their social and

objective of the psychological needs.
organization.
Nature Stable, it continues for a Not stable

long time.
Control Rules and Regulations Norms, values and beliefs

mechanism
Focus on Work performance Interpersonal relationship
Authority Members are bound by All members are equal.

hierarchical structure.
Size Large Small

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Cottage Industries & Types

A cottage industry is a small-scale, decentralized manufacturing business often
operated out of a home rather than a purpose-built facility.
Cottage industries are defined by the amount of investment required to start, as
well as the number of people employed. They often focus on the production of
labor-intensive goods but face a significant disadvantage when competing with
factory-based manufacturers that mass-produce goods.
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Problems of the Small-scale and Cottage Industries

 Limited profits don’t allow extra capital for the expansion of industrial
units
 Economies of scale are not available so production cost is higher
 Lack of standardization to meet quality of foreign markets
 Outdated machinery and poor production methods
 Lack of electricity in rural areas and frequent power break-downs
 The craftsmen learn the skills from their ancestors and lack technical
advice
Ways of controlling Industrial Pollution

 Source control is by careful selection of raw material, proper maintenance
of machinery, adoption of newer technologies and know- how, setting up
efficiently functioning waste treatment facilities etc.
 This is a very important factor considering the environment around the
factory
 Wastes must be treated before disposal.
 Need to plant and grow more trees as these act as buffers and natural
purifiers for the environment
 Government agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency must
be allowed to take stringent action against defaulters and corporations
that flout the rules laid down by such agencies.
 Environmental impact assessment should be carried out regularly which
intends to identify and evaluate the potential and harmful impacts of the
industries on natural ecosystem.
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Tertiary Industry
It is an industry which does not produce raw materials or manufacture products
but offers a service such as banking, retailing, accountancy, sports, showbiz, call
centers and tourism. In some cases it is dependent upon the primary and
secondary industry; extraction of oil - oil refinery - petrol pumps. The main
aim is to provide services to the end users.
Tourism
It is one of the most fruitful of industries in the tertiary sector. Pakistan is

blessed to have some beautiful places that are a source of attraction for the
tourists from all over the world. Tourism is of different types like recreational,
environmental, religious, historical, cultural, adventure & religious.
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Why is tourism an important industry?

Tourism is considered an asset for any country in terms of economic growth.
 Tourism can stimulate GDP growth of the country. Travel and tourism
currently contribute 7.4 % to the GDP of Pakistan.
 Tourism increases international trade and commerce.
 Infrastructure development like roads, railways, airports, water & energy
supply and medical services takes place to encourage tourism.
 Low income economies are largely supported with the arrival of
international tourists.
 Tourism is one of the largest sources to generate employment
opportunities.
 Due to its wider supply chain, tourism promotes inclusive growth as it has
the potential to reach and benefit a larger proportion of the population.
 Rural communities are strengthened by the tourism that alleviates
poverty.
 Handicrafts of artisans have opened up to global market with tourism.
Problems faced by Tourist Industry

 Lack of transportation and communication
 Lack of trained tourism manpower
 Lack of good quality hotels
 Ineffective security measures
 Not much importance given by the government as an industry
 Lack of funds to improve the infrastructure
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A. Pakistan should spend more on building roads in remote, sparsely populated, but
tourist relevant areas in order to attract visitors to them.
B. To reduce expenditure on developing facilities for tourists elsewhere in Pakistan,

they should be encouraged to stay in the cities where there are historical and
cultural attractions.
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TRADE
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What is trade?
It is the exchange of goods from the producer to consumer. It is the basis of any
country’s economic growth.
Benefits of trade:
 Greater Variety of Goods Available for Consumption
 Efficient Allocation and Better Utilization of Resources
 Promotes Efficiency in Production & Employment
 Consumption at Cheaper Cost
 Reduces Trade Fluctuations
 Utilization of Surplus Produce
 Fosters Peace and Goodwill
Exports and Imports

Exports are the goods and services produced in one country and purchased by
residents of another country. It doesn't matter what the good or service is or
how it is sent. If it is produced domestically and sold to someone in a foreign
country, it is an export.
The other component is imports. They are the goods and services bought by a
country's residents that are produced in a foreign country. Combined, they
make up a country's trade balance. When the country exports more than it
imports, it has a trade surplus. When it imports more than it exports, it has
a trade deficit.
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What is Balance of Payments (BOP)?

It is the difference in the amount earned through exports and imports.
Reasons of Negative Balance of Payments & ways of correction

 Import of capital goods (machinery) & consumer goods (food items)
 Import of luxury items (cars, mobiles, computers)
 Export of small variety & lack of quality control
 Rise in oil price
 International restrictions
It can however be corrected by:

 Increasing exports and restricting imports
 Curtailing imports related to the tertiary sector
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Balance of Trade vs Balance of Payments

Balance of Trade is the difference between the value of exports & imports of
goods only during a given period of time, but Balance of Payments also includes
the service sector (tertiary industries) in the above definition.
Pakistan – Exports & Imports

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Gross Domestic Product & Gross National Product

GDP or Gross Domestic Product: is calculated either by measuring all
income earned within a country, or by measuring all expenditures within the
country, which should approximately be the same.
GNP or Gross National Product: uses GDP, but adds income from foreign
sources, less income paid to foreign citizens and entities.
Pakistan’s trading routes & its strategic importance

Pakistan is located at a prime location in South East Asia that makes it a viable
option for other countries for trade.
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Dry Ports
Some inland cities, which are far from the seaports, have established dry ports I
order to promote foreign trade. The cities which act as dry ports help to speed
up export and import procedures e.g. by giving clearance by the custom
authorities, by checking processes etc.
How does a Dry Port work?

Export material  Checking  Clearance from custom authorities  Storage 
Transportation  Seaport  Export destination
Distribution of Dry Ports

 In Sindh they are located in Hyderabad and Larkana.
 In Punjab they are located in Lahore, Multan, Faisalabad, Sialkot and
Rawalpindi.
 In KPK, it is located in Peshawar.
 In Baluchistan, it is located in Quetta.
Requirements of Dry Ports:

 Highly efficient rail transport with a container service to carry bulk cargo
 Efficient managerial staff
 Huge storage sheds and open areas
 Refrigeration facilities for perishable goods (fruits & vegetables)
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Trade Barriers
Trade barriers are government policies which place restrictions on international
trade. Trade barriers can either make trade more difficult and expensive (tariff
barriers) or prevent trade completely (e.g. trade embargo)
Examples of Trade Barriers:
 Tariff Barriers: These are taxes on certain imports. They raise the price of
goods making imports less competitive
 Non-Tariff Barriers: These involve rules and regulations which make trade
more difficult. For example, if foreign companies have to adhere to complex
manufacturing laws it can be difficult to trade
 Quotas: A limit placed on the number of imports
 Voluntary Export Restraint (VER): Similar to quotas, this is where

countries agree to limit the number of imports. This was used by US for
imports of Japanese cars
 Subsidies: A domestic subsidy from government can give the local firm a
competitive advantage
 Embargo: A complete ban on imports from a certain country. E.g. US

embargo with Cuba
Advantages: It gives rise to greater self-sufficiency and reduces foreign

dependency. It also protects the local industries and create employment. There
is a greater exploitation of local resources that increases the domestic demand.
Also, the Balance of Payments is improved.
Disadvantages: By limiting the imports there is a limited range of goods to

choose from. This may lead to complacency as the local industries would know
there is hardly any competition. Moreover, even those goods which the country
produces inefficiently and at high cost would need to be produced.
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Trading Blocs
A regional trading bloc is a group of countries within a geographical region that
protect themselves from imports from non-members. Trading blocs are a form
of economic integration, and increasingly shape the pattern of world trade.
Pakistan is a member of the following trading blocs:
 South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
 Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), formerly called RCD
 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
These organizations have not been very effective due to political disputes
between the member countries. Some other major trading blocs are:
 European Union (EU)
 Trans-Pacific Trading Partnership (TPP)
 Trans-Atlantic Trading and Investment Partnership (TTIP)
Pakistan can benefit a lot if she trades with the EU.
 It will give her access to an expanded market of 28 countries
 It will pave the way to export-oriented industries
 More investment by local and foreign investors, more employment
 EU countries have few trade barriers
 EU countries are politically and economically stable
In recent times, trade between Pakistan & EU has been disrupted due to:
 Terrorism and declining law and order situation
 Environmental concerns and child labor issues
 The produce of Pakistan lacks standardization due to lack of quality
control
 Failure to adopt a continuous policy due to frequent change in the govt.
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A. Pakistan should focus on expanding trade with China than EU countries
B. Pakistan has had stable relations with some countries in Europe since 1947 and
should continue to do so now that these countries are in the European Union.
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TRANSPORT AND
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
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Importance of an efficient transport system

The development of a transport system provides a sound base for the socio-
economic growth of a country. With a growing population and expansion in
agriculture and industry, the demand for efficient transport has increased over
the years.
Pakistan Railways
It extends to 11,899 kms stretching from Karachi to Peshawar. In the highland
areas in the north, railway tracks are non-existent.
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Types of Railway Tracks
Advantages of Railway Transport

 They are dependable and better organized with cheaper rates
 They are suitable for bulky goods and can travel faster on long distances
 The capacity is sufficient to mobilize the goods
 It is safer than other modes of transport and is least affected by turbulent
weather
Disadvantages of Railway transport

 It requires a huge investment for the tracks to be built and maintain
 Lack of flexibility as the routes and timings can’t be changed
 Lack of door-to-door service
 It is unsuitable and uneconomical for short distance and small traffic of
goods
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Road Network
It is the most popular means of transport. Pakistan has developed a dense
network of Highways and Motorways to cater the need of its growing
population.
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Principal Roads of Pakistan

Highways & Roads
 The N5 – The National Highway – Grand Trunk Road: it stretches for 1260
kms from Karachi, through Lahore and Peshawar to Turkham which is the
town on the Pak-Afghan border. It changes its name at Lahore.
 The National Highway: it is the name of N5 from Karachi to Lahore.
 The Grand Trunk Road: the N5 from Lahore to Peshawar is G.T. Road.
 The Indus Highway: from Karachi to Hyderabad it is called the Super

Highway. From here on, it leads to Dadu, Larkana, Shikarpur, and DG.
Khan.
 The RCD Highway: it connects Karachi with Quetta on its way to Iran &
Turkey.
 Route 50: connects Lahore with Quetta via the Derajats & Suleiman
Range.
 Route 65: connects Sukkur with Quetta via Shikarpur, Sibi & Bolan Pass.
 Karakoram Highway: connects Pakistan and China.

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The Pakistan Motorway

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The Motorway is divided under the following major sections:

 M1: connects Islamabad with Peshawar (155 kms long).
 M2: connects Islamabad with Lahore (339 kms long).
 M3: connects Rawalpindi with Faisalabad, also called Pindi Bhattian. (78
kms long).
 M4: it will connect Faisalabad with Multan. Once completed, it will
connect M2 with M5.
 M5: under construction, it will connect Multan with Sukkur.
 M6: a proposed motorway, it will connect Sukkur with Hyderabad.
 M7: a proposed motorway, it will connect Dadu with Hub
 M8: connects Sukkur with Larkana and ends at Gwadar.
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Air Transport
Air transport is most effective for low volume and high value goods (mostly
perishable) that need to be moved quickly.
The major airports in Pakistan are as follows:

 Karachi
 Lahore
 Islamabad
 Peshawar
 Quetta
 Gwadar
 Faisalabad
 Multan
 Sialkot
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Water Transport
Waterways are important for handling high bulk goods which do not need quick
movement.
The inland waterways along rivers are not developed but seaports handle most
of the international trade. At present, the country has three major seaports;
Keamari, Port Qasim and Gwadar.
Importance of Pakistan’s seaports

All of the seaports mentioned above are deep-water ports that can manage a
large workload and receive tankers, containers, bulk and general cargo ships.
They are warm water ports and are operational in all seasons which provides
great opportunities for trade. The construction of Gwadar Seaport has allowed
Pakistan to trade with Middle East and distant countries in Africa.
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Telecommunications
Telecommunication devices include radios, televisions, telephones, facsimile
(fax) machines and computers. These devices provide rapid, long distance
communication, convert sound and images into signals which are then
transmitted along wires or radio waves in worldwide systems. The internet has
taken world by storm and has led to the world being a global village.
The major institutions responsible for telecommunication in Pakistan:

 Pakistan Telecommunication Limited (PTCL)
 Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA)
 National Telecommunication Corporation (NTC)
 Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC)
 Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV)
 Pakistan Post Office (PPO)
Problems/disadvantages of developing telecommunications in

Pakistan
 Faults/breakdowns, load shedding & loss of power supplies.
 Loss of employment as computer technology is more efficient.
 Easy access to some websites may harm local culture and values.
 Cyber-attacks can retrieve country’s sensitive data.
 Computers are capital intensive that aren’t affordable for all.
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A. If Pakistan is to develop economically, it is essential to have a network of

Motorways in all agricultural and industrial regions.
B. Compared to Punjab and Sindh, KPK and Baluchistan have a far less dense road
network, which is creating problem in the development of these areas.
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POPULATION &
EMPLOYMENT
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Population Growth
It is directly related to birth rates, death rates and migration. Birth and death
rates are measured by the average number of births and deaths per thousand
people. The rate of natural increase is the difference between the birth and
death rates.
What is Natural Increase?

It is the increase in population of an area due to the difference between the
birth and death rate.
Birth Rate – Death Rate = Rate of Natural Increase
Reasons for High Population Growth

 Lack of women empowerment
 Illiteracy among the masses in Pakistan
 Imbalance between birth and death rates
 Lack of family planning
 Strong religious beliefs that focus on expanding the family
 Technological advancement in fertility training
 Increase of immigration and Afghan refugees
Population Distribution and Density

The distribution of population refers to the spread of people in an area. It
generally changes as time passes. The density of population is the number of
people per unit area. The density is obtained by dividing the total population of
an area.
The pattern of distribution and density are mainly affected by physical factors
such as relief, climate, soil, water supply, natural vegetation, existence of
natural routes and mineral resources.
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The Demographic Transition Model

Demographic transition is characterized by the decline in mortality followed by
the decline in fertility, and it is the difference between the two that defines the
natural increase in a population.
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A. The overpopulation problem in Pakistan should be solved by strict implementation

of family planning programmes.
B. We need to develop human resources rather than controlling population growth.
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Population Structures - Pyramids
There are generally three types of population pyramids created from age-sex
distributions--expansive, constrictive and stationary.
EXPANSIVE population pyramids show larger numbers or percentages of the

population in the younger age groups. These types of pyramids are usually
found in populations with very large fertility rates and lower than average life
expectancies. The age-sex distributions of many Third World countries would
probably display expansive population pyramids.
CONSTRICTIVE population pyramids display lower numbers or percentages of

younger people. The age-sex distributions of the United States fall into this type
of pyramid.
STATIONARY or near-stationary population pyramids display somewhat equal

numbers or percentages for almost all age groups. Of course, smaller figures are
still to be expected at the oldest age groups. The age-sex distributions of some
European countries, especially Scandinavian ones, will tend to fall into this
category.
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(i) What information is displayed in the population pyramid in 1990? [2]
The above pyramid shows an expansive type. It shows the percentage in certain age groups with
both genders’ distribution in different age groups. It has a wider base that shows the percentage
of males more than females (10.3 to 9.6)
(ii) Identify TWO ways in which Pakistan’s population structure has changed from 1990-2016? [2]
The base is getting narrower that shows the pyramid is moving from expansive to a constrictive
one. Also, the percentage of independent population is getting more. There are more elderly aged
people
(iii) Give one possible reason for each change identified in (ii) [2]
It is due to decrease in birth rate having small sized families. Women marry late. Also literacy rate
has increased. Longer life expectancy is due to better medical facilities which lowers the death
rate, it is because of improved living standards and nutritious diet.
(iv) What do you mean by ‘dependent & independent population’? [2]
The age groups between 0-14 & 60+ that don’t earn for themselves are known as dependent
population. They need to be supported by the age group ranging from 19 to 59 who earns and
make them live.
(v) How does the growth in the percentage of independent population in pyramid of 2016 affect
Pakistan? Discuss one positive and negative aspect each. [2]
It allows Pakistan to have more earning population which means more revenue is generated in
terms of taxes. It also shows that there is an aspect of teenage workers that may lead to the
breach of child labor laws. This may hinder Pakistan’s relations with EU and other trade
organizations.
(vi) Discuss the pattern of both the pyramids mentioned above. [3+3]
(1990) – the pyramid is an expansive or normal one that shows high percentage of population at
the base (10.3 and 9.6 for males & females respectively). There is a relatively lesser percentage of
independent population that creates an economic burden on them and results in a difference
between the population/resources distribution. Overall the number of males are more than
females. It ends at 0.7% for males and 0.4% for females.
(2016) – it’s a constrictive pyramid that shows lesser percentage of young population in both
males and females till the age group 20-24 (11.5% males & 10.7% females). The base too shows
more males 10.8% males than 10.4% females. There is a gradual increase in female population by
the age group 60-64 and ends that way with 0.8% of males and 1% females.
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What makes people move towards urban areas?
Main push ‘factors’ which have led to rural to urban migration are as follows:
1. Unemployment: in rural areas job opportunities are absent. There are no chances of
earning a good income in rural areas. The educated people move to town and find
work in government or private organizations where they can use their knowledge and
skills.
2. Mechanization of farming: with the increasing use of machinery, a good number of
farm workers are laid off and are no longer needed on the farm. They are forced to
move to towns.
3. Lack of social welfare facilities: education and medical facilities are lacking in rural
areas and many people are compiled to move to towns.
4. Not sufficient farmland for increasing population: land goes out of cultivation on
account of water logging and salinity. On account of laws of inheritance there is sub-
division of farm lands and many farms are so small that they cannot support a family.
People are compelled to move to towns.
5. Lack of utilities: rural areas lack amenities of life such as electricity, gas, running
water and telephone.
6. Lack of political freedom and security of life: it is another important push factor.
The big land lords dominate the political scene and no one can dares to oppose them.
In villages there are frequent family and tribal feuds and quarrels. Many people leave
the villages for security of life.
7. Cultural restraints: There is lack of cultural freedom and very limited shopping and
entertainment facilities in rural areas.
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Migration:
It is the movement of people from one area to another. It can be of different types depending
on the cause, duration, distance, origin and destination. Population of an area will grow if in-
migration is greater than out-migration. Immigrants are the people who arrive in the country
e.g. Afghan refugees in Pakistan, and emigrants are those who leave a country, e.g. many
Pakistanis leaving for Canada or the Middle East.
Self-Help Schemes
Usually a government sponsored scheme under which members of a community are
encouraged to better themselves through means such as creating self-employment, growing
own food, or making own shelter. The members contribute their labor and/or materials while
the government (or some agency) provides equipment, infrastructure, land, etc.
KARACHI Frustrated with Karachi Water and Sewerage Board's

(KWSB) attitude towards Mohammadi Colony, popularly known
as 'Machhar Colony', residents have designed a water scheme on
self-help basis to supply drinking water to around 2,500
households in the neighborhood.
Q-Q Explain how such schemes could be beneficial for the poor and down-trodden?
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A. Emigration by Pakistanis to Europe or the US is good because the emigrants’

remittances help their families in Pakistan and it also helps to reduce the size of the
population.
B. Pakistanis should be discouraged from emigrating so that they can work to develop
Pakistan’s economy.
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What causes Unemployment?
The pie charts above show that whilst the percentage of labor force is lesser in
Industries and Services, the contribution towards our GDP is much more. On the
other hand almost half the labor force (45.1%) is involved in Agricultural sector
but the output is much lesser. This shows the decline in agricultural system in
recent times. Some of the reasons of unemployment are:
 High rate of population growth

 Use of mechanization in agriculture
 Revolution in Information Technology
 Cultural restraints
 Mismatch in demand & supply of labor force
 Rural-urban migration
 Political instability

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1

Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199

Strategic importance of Pakistan:

 Central Asian Republics provide a great opportunity to get access to the

 Jinnah terminal connects the West with Asia by air.

 Border links with India via Wagah-Attari in Punjab and Khokhrapar-

B. We should not depend on natural resources of other countries to solve our

PAKISTAN: THE NATURAL

Topography: is the study and description of the surface features of land

 The Northern Mountains & The North-

 The Western Mountains

 The Baluchistan Plateau

 The Potwar Plateau

 The Indus Plains (Upper & Lower Indus

 The Desert Areas (The South-Eastern &

The Northern & North-Western Mountains

Tirich Mir (7708M) Nanga Parbat (8126M) K2 (8611M)

Relief features of the Northern Mountains:

Characteristics of the winter climate of the Northern

The Western Mountains

Relief & Drainage of Western Mountains:

The Baluchistan Plateau

Relief of the Mountains and Hills of Baluchistan:

Drainage of the Basins of Baluchistan:

A. In order to develop Baluchistan’s economy we should promote farming here by

B. Baluchistan requires infrastructure facilities, exploitation of minerals and the setting

The Potwar Plateau

The Indus Plains

Active flood plain:

Old flood plain:

Bar up-land area:

Upper Indus Plains

Lower Indus Plains

The Desert Areas

Characteristics & Economic activities of the summer

Relief features of the South Eastern Deserts of Pakistan:

A. The Northern Mountains should be developed for tourism by providing

B. The Northern Mountains are difficult to develop because of topographical

Climatic Zones in Pakistan

Factors Affecting Climate of Pakistan

Direction of the winds:

Proximity to the Equator:

Types of Rainfall in Pakistan

Convectional rainfall happens when convection of warm moist air happens.

Convective rainfall is common in tropics. It is characterized by rapidly changing

In tropics, convective rainfall results in hail storm whereas in mid-latitudes it

The Western Depressions: They are the cyclones which originate in

Why does Pakistan receive very less amount of western depression?

Pakistan receives a very less amount of rainfall from western depression

The Monsoon Rainfall:

A Monsoon's "Dry" phase occurs in winter:

Beneficial, but potentially deadly:

Monsoon is of TWO types:

Pakistan relies a lot on the South-West Monsoon rain as it helps in growing

crops and recharges the rivers.

Monsoon rainfall distribution in Pakistan:

How does the monsoon wind develop?

Monsoon rainfall distribution in Pakistan:

Winter rainfall and wheat cultivation:

What causes floods?

 Global Warming causing the glaciers to melt at a rapid pace

 Moisture: Moisture required to form clouds and eventually rain.

 Long dry spells