Section 3 Economic Development

Cambridge IGCSE®
Geography
STUDENT’S BOOK
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Section 3 Economic development
Topic 3.1 Development

Topic 3.2 Food production
Topic 3.3 Industry
Topic 3.4 Tourism
Topic 3.5 Energy
Topic 3.6 Water
Topic 3.7 Environmental risks of economic development
© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 3 : Economic development 1

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Answers 3.1 Development
Page 137: Quality of Life
1 a) Pupil-led answer. It is likely pupils doing the IGCSE will have a good quality of life but this may depend on their
own perceptions.
1 b) Pupil-led answer. It is likely pupils doing the IGCSE will have a good quality of life but this may depend on their
own perceptions.
It is unlikely that students will think anyone living in the shanty town will have “a good life”. Reasons why not
may include substandard accommodation and living next to a dirty water source. However, it may be that
students concentrate on some of the more positive aspects such as a loving family living together.
2 a) Reasons may include poorly constructed housing, lack of obvious amenities including electricity and location
next to a dirty river which is likely to be their only source of water. People who live in such marginal areas will
do so because they have little money with which to afford somewhere better.
2 b) Reasons include well-constructed houses, a cleaner environment, presence of trees and garden spaces and
affluence indicated by the number of cars and accessibility including roads.
3 a) Pupil-led answer which may lead to different questions being chosen by different pupils. However, the most
likely options will concentrate on availability of food, life expectancy, shelter, availability of water and medical
care.
3 b) Reasons could include:

Do I have enough to eat? Do I have the right kinds of food? – indicating likelihood of availability of food and a
decent diet.
If I become sick? Are my children likely to survive? Can I expect to live for many years? – all indicating the
presence of medical care and how affected the population is by disease.
Do I have enough clean water? – one of the fundamental needs to sustain human life.
Do I have shelter? – again a fundamental human need for survival.
Do I have a job? – likely to indicate levels of affluence with jobs leading to money and a better life.
Can I read and write? – indicative of the levels of education and access to education in a country.
Do I live in a region with an extreme climate? – less likely to be important although extreme climates are often
indicative of LEDCs.
4 a) Do I have a job? – GDP per capita

Can I expect to live for many years? – life expectancy
Are my children likely to survive to become adults? – life expectancy
Can I read and write? – adult literacy
These questions are the most relevant but others may also be proxy indicators e.g. having enough food and
shelter may indicate low incomes and, therefore, GDP per capita.
4 b) Do I live in a region with an extreme climate?

Do I have enough clean water?
All the others would appear to have some relevance to one or more of the indicators in the HDI.
2 Section 3 : Economic development © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

Page 140: Development
1 Life expectancy and average income per person have increased in all countries between 1962 and 2015.
The increase in life expectancy is greater in countries which had a lower life expectancy in 2012.
The increase in average income is more in countries which had a higher average income in 2012. These
changes have taken place because countries are getting richer with more trade and development of
new industries, especially in more developed countries. As countries become richer and there are more
improvements in healthcare, such as better medicines to treat outbreaks of disease, then there is longer life
expectancy.
2
Norway
Canada
Poland
Georgia Mongolia
Italy
Nepal
Dominican
Mexico Republic
Mali
Guatemala
Indonesia
Kenya
Brazil
UN HDI ranking Malawi
very high
high
medium
Uruguay
low
UN HDI ranking:
The countries in four groups are in different parts of the world. The very high group of countries are typical of
North America and Western Europe. The high group are typical of Central and South America and Eastern
Europe. The medium group are typical of Eastern Asia. The low group are typical of Africa.
3 The two maps show the same pattern of variation. Average life expectancy and average income per week are
generally higher in the south of the UK, especially the South East, and decrease towards the north and west of
the UK.
4 Lulwah is poor but lives in a country where some people are very rich. There is a big gap between rich
and poor people in Saudi Arabia. Lulwah and her husband have poorly paid jobs with which to support five
children. Although she works for herself she must use some of her income to repay the loan. She works long
hours because she also makes clothes as well as selling from her stall. Much of her income goes to pay rent
on the apartment. She probably has little time to relax with two jobs and five children to look after.
5 Group research question.

Progress towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals can be measured in different ways. Put the phrase
‘Measuring UN Sustainable Development Goals’ into a search engine to find web sites which suggest various
ways to measure progress.

Page 142: Classifying industry
1 Primary industries are those that work by taking something out of the earth
Secondary industries take raw materials and make new products from them
Tertiary industries are those that provide a service so they are also known as service industries
Quaternary industries are those that provide knowledge and information
2 a)
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Oil worker Computer maker Teacher Mobile phone designer
Fisherman Steel worker Writer IT expert
Tea picker Car factory worker Lawyer
Diamond miner Food canning factory Hairdresser
worker
Sugar cane worker Waiter
Farmer Fashion designer
Farmhand Doctor
Banker
Shop worker
Magician
Crane operator
Carpenter
Baby-sitter
Mechanic
Secretary
Builder
2 b) The tertiary sector
3 a) Pupil-led answer based on location but examples could include: primary – fisherman, farmer; secondary –
factory worker, car manufacture; tertiary – teacher, doctor; quaternary – mobile phone worker, research
scientist. It is likely the quaternary sector will be the most difficult to find examples for.
3 b) As for answer 3a.
Page 145: Changing countries, changing work
1 a) The differences will depend on the charts chosen but will focus on the differing proportions of people employed
in agriculture and in manufacturing and mining. Agriculture is almost always the lowest percentage, except
in the case of Nigeria where it is higher than manufacturing and mining. It should also be highlighted that the
different percentages in services are all high and over 50 per cent in all the countries shown but is especially
high in the most developed countries such as the UK and the USA.
1 b) The differences will depend on the charts chosen but will focus on the differing proportions of people employed
in agriculture and in manufacturing and mining. Agriculture is almost always the lowest percentage, except
in the case of Nigeria where it is higher than manufacturing and mining. It should also be highlighted that the
different percentages in services are all high and over 50 per cent in all the countries shown but is especially
high in the most developed countries such as the UK and the USA.

Examples of computer generated pie charts
Note: the computer rounds the percentages to the nearest whole number.
There are various styles of pie charts to choose from, these examples all use the same style and colours.




2

"* $"* %"* &"* '"* #""*

4 Pie graphs are instantly very visual and allow for a quick comparison between the different countries. It
is difficult to determine exact figures for the percentages shown but this can be done by writing the
percentages on to the separate bits of “pie”. Divided bar graphs are, again, a good quick visual comparison
tool and have the added advantage that they have a scale from which the exact figures can be read. Both
pie graphs and divided bar graphs suffer from the disadvantage that more than one has to be constructed and
it can be difficult and confusing to compare if there are more than two or three of them. The triangular graph
has the advantage in this respect in that much more data can be displayed all on the one graph. However,
it requires much more thought in interpretation and is more difficult to construct. As can be seen in the example
for question 3, there can also be too much information concentrated in one corner of the graph, making it more
difficult to read.
5 Using a combination of high percentages involved in agriculture as an indicator of low levels of development,
and high percentages of services as high levels of development then the most likely ranking (from low to high
levels of development) would be as follows:
Afghanistan
Nigeria
India
Bangladesh
China
Brazil
South Africa
USA
United Kingdom
It may be debatable as to which of the USA or UK should top the list. Whether China, with its much higher
levels of manufacturing and mining, should be higher than Brazil would also be a cause for some debate.
Page 147: Changes over time – Newly Industrialised Countries
1 The main characteristics of a Newly Industrialised Country are: strong government; an economy moving away
from primary industries and becoming based on manufacturing; lots of foreign investment because of low tax
rates and other benefits; big, successful, home-grown multinational companies.
2 Brazil has shown almost continual economic growth over the past 20 years. It has a strong primary sector
based on agriculture including chicken, beef and soybeans and exports a lot of the food it produces to China.
Agricultural products are used in the manufacture of food products in the secondary sector and, also, in the
production of ethanol as food from sugarcane. The tertiary (service) sector has also developed with investment
in infrastructure projects and management of factories and financial systems. (This last point is inferred from
the text but not specifically mentioned so may be beyond the analysis of some pupils).
3 There could be both environmental and social problems facing Brazil as its economy continues to grow. The
amount of land being given over to farming has led to widespread deforestation in the Amazon rainforest
with potential consequences for global climate change. There are also social problems as the middle classes
are becoming wealthier while the poorest people still live in ramshackle homes with little or no access to clean
running water, electricity and other basic amenities. It will be a challenge for the country to ensure that the
benefits of economic growth are spread equally across all sectors of society.
Page 150: Globalisation
1 BRIC stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China. MINT stands for Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey. These
countries have fast growing economies where many TNCs locate. These countries are becoming increasingly
important in world trade as they provide more products and services and are large emerging markets for
products made in more economically developed countries in Europe, the USA and Japan.
2 Pupil-led activity. Some industries to consider: electric and electronic equipment, telecommunications, food and
beverages, electricity, gas and water, mining, pharmaceuticals, aircraft, chemicals, transport.
3 A ‘positive’ multiplier effect is the ‘snowballing’ of economic activity; e.g. new jobs are created when a factory or
office opens in a town, the people who are employed have money to spend in the shops, which means that
more shop workers are needed. The shop workers pay their taxes and spend their new-found money,
creating yet more jobs in industries such as transport and education. If a factory or office is closed the opposite
effect will be created, known as a ‘negative’ multiplier effect.
4 Globalisation can be positive or negative. Positive features include: growth of TNCs employing more people
and creating a positive multiplier effect; people are more aware of events around the world via the internet and
social media; there is increasing awareness of global environmental issues. Negative features include the
adverse effects of growing TNC influence in less economically developed countries; threats to traditional
cultures and way of life; growing influence of some TNCs in political and environmental decision-making.

Page 152: Nike – a transnational corporation
1 Nike has factories in many countries across the world. This means that there is movement of people, goods
and services and money between countries. There are closer economic links between countries and there is
increased trade.
2 Most of Nike’s factories are located in countries in South East Asia, especially China. Factories which employ
most workers, especially Vietnam and Indonesia, are in countries where incomes are lowest. This means that
labour costs are cheaper than in countries such as the USA where incomes are higher.
3 Nike employs many workers who might otherwise not have full-time jobs. The impacts on workers are both
positive and negative. Positive effects include regular wages and support for the family and community.
Negative effects include possible exploitation through long hours and poor working conditions, and jobs may
be lost if Nike relocates to another country. There are also positive and negative impacts on the country as a
whole as outlined in the answer to Question 4 on globalisation (page 150).

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Answers 3.2 Food production
Page 155: What do farmers grow in your local area?
1 Pupil-led answer depending on location.
2 Definitions as follows:
commercial = producing food for sale;
pastoral = farms which rear animals;
nomadic = farmers who move from one area to another;
intensive = farms using large amounts of money, machinery, technology or workers.
3 a) Intensive subsistence farming uses a large number of workers in a small area of land to grow crops to eat and
with a small surplus for sale;
3b) Extensive arable farming is where crops are grown over very large areas of land;
3c) Intensive commercial mixed farming involves the growing and selling of many different types of crop and
possibly animals as well, with high inputs of technology or capital.
4 The answer will depend on the exact location of the pupil but should include a diagram with inputs, processes,
outputs and feedback based on Figure C on page 154.
Page 157: Inputs to the farming system
1 A possible top five could be: minimum temperature, rainfall, relief, soil type and aspect. The reason being that
crops will not grow in areas where it is too cold or where rainfall is too high or too low. Relief (and aspect) also
affects the temperature and rainfall while soil type will determine how fertile it is and what can be grown
(although fertiliser input can compensate for this). Finally, aspect (whether north or south facing) can have a
very dramatic effect on temperature.
2 In the temperate regions of northern Europe and North America farming is mainly intensive commercial.
Drier areas of the western USA also have livestock ranching. Further south there is Mediterranean
agriculture and, around the equator nomadic herding takes place in Africa’s Sahara desert. Intensive
subsistence agriculture is widespread across Asia and this gives way to extensive subsistence agriculture
further south. On the southern tips of the continents the picture is much more mixed with the temperate
climates giving rise to a diverse picture of many different types of farming.
3 Pupils should check the global distribution for their own location and compare this with their local knowledge.
Some analysis of any difference would also be welcome.
Page 160: Commercial farming systems
1 Pupil-led investigation into the types of commercial agriculture near where they live.
2 Malaysia has a long history of commercial plantation agriculture originally set up by the British government.
The Malaysian government has concentrated on the expansion of palm oil on such plantations in order to
develop the economy. The crop is well suited to the area with its plentiful rainfall and high temperatures.
Production has increased from virtually nothing in 1964 to tens of thousands of metric tonnes today as
technology has allowed previously unused swamp land to be cleared and used to grow the crop.
3 Problems associated with palm oil production include the destruction of rare tropical swamp forests to clear
land for the crop. Increased use of fertilisers and pesticides could also cause environmental damage. Wages
are also low for the thousands of people who work in the industry.

Page 162: Subsistence farming systems
1 Bangladesh is a very low-lying country with two main rivers - the Ganges and the Brahmaputra - and a large
delta where they enter the Bay of Bengal. Much of the land is given over to rice production but there are also
large areas of jute along the rivers and forests around the coast and in the east and north of the country.
2 Subsistence farming is mainly carried out in poor countries where farmers grow food to feed themselves and
their families, with perhaps a little surplus left for sale. There are very low levels of technology and money
involved and the main aim is survival.
3 An intensive rice farming landscape consists of hills terraced into small fields. These fields are edged with low
walls, called bunds, and then flooded by rainfall or water irrigated from nearby rivers. Fruit trees may also be
part of the landscape and add to the diet of the farmers.
4 a) With Bangladesh as an example: the country has a climate with plenty of rain and high temperatures providing
the ideal conditions for plants to grow; there are fertile soils from silt deposited by the flooding river Ganges;
the large population gives plenty of labour for the intensive farming.
4 b) Problems for the farmers of Bangladesh include increasing world rice prices and natural disasters such as
floods wiping out the crops.
Page 165: Why are there food shortages in some parts of the world?
1 The more developed countries of Europe and North America consume high levels of calories each day – for
instance, people in the USA consume more than 3600 each day. In Asia, consumption is less but still mainly
between 2400 and 3200 calories per person per day. South America has similar levels of consumption.
In Africa, however, levels of consumption are much lower, dropping to between 1600 and 2000 calories in
countries such as Ethiopia and Sudan.
2 Pupils to lead their own investigation using an online calorie counter.
3 Answers will depend on what events are taking place in the news but, in 2017, the recent drought in East Africa
caused famine and food shortages. Countries affected would include Somalia and Ethiopia.
4 Answers will depend on the level of development in the country concerned but could include drought and
climate change or, perhaps, issues of transportation in more developed countries.
5 Pupils may put forward ideas including the fact that having fewer people in the world and having fewer mouths
to feed would mean that people could have more food. On the other hand they may feel that more people
means more farmers to cultivate crops. Perhaps more important than the answer itself is the explanation and
the geographical reasons behind it.
Page 167: The health effects of a shortage of food
1 a) Diseases could include marasmus, kwashiorkor, anaemia, vitamin A deficiency and iodine deficiency.
1 b) Countries are affected in two main ways. They need to spend more on medical care and facilities which leads
to less money spent on other aspects of the economy. People are also unable to work because of a lack of
energy, poor health and mental problems, so family incomes fall and people continue to become ill through lack
of food.
2 The Green Revolution of the 1960s helped give higher rice yields around the world by introducing new faster
growing strains of rice combined with new irrigation schemes and new fertilisers to help the plants to grow.
Genetically modified crops have been altered scientifically to allow them to withstand pests and diseases and
to survive drought. Other methods of increasing food production rely on technology or on simpler solutions
such as educating farmers in the effective use of water and building small terraces to stop soil erosion.
3 Pupil-led activity looking at local farming. Pupils should come up with ideas of how to increase locally produced
food through encouraging people to grow more and to insist on supermarkets stocking more local food.

Page 170: Food shortages and government action
1 Ways in which a government can influence a country’s food supply include providing an efficient infrastructure
system, building up food reserves when they are available, avoiding wars and conflict, investing money in
farming and making sure land is available to grow crops.
2 Bolivia has a very varied landscape with very high mountains and areas of land over 4000 metres above
sea level as well as a large area of sparsely populated lowland rainforest. Only about two per cent of the
land is considered quality arable land and food distribution is difficult because of the mountainous land and
scattered population. Food production is also affected by drought, frosts, hail and soil erosion.
3 This is a pupil-led exercise but should concentrate on Christian’s feelings about how he
can feed his family in a time of rising expenses and civil unrest.

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Answers 3.3 Industry
Page 173: What do you want to be when you start work?
1 From top left clockwise there is a farmer, medical worker (doctor or nurse), computer repairman (or IT worker)
and a teacher.
2 Answers will depend on individual pupils but may concentrate on any aspect of the job including personal
interest, pay, conditions, location and sense of duty in helping people / community.
3 Dependent on job chosen: an example from tourism could include skills such as communication, people
skills, experience of working in bars and restaurants, reliability, timekeeping, being numerate and literate and
knowing the history of your country.
4 The world of employment is so fast moving it is likely that increasing technology will lead to jobs that do not
exist at the moment. For instance, 20 years ago there was no such job as a blogger or vlogger.
5 Pupil-led activity based on personal opinion but should concentrate on the skills that they would need to gain to
be able to do it successfully.
Page 175: What things are made in my local area?
1 Pupil-led activity depending on location.
2 The actual list is not as important as the reasons chosen. So, for instance, if a pupil chooses raw materials as
the top factor they need to say it is because, perhaps, they are rare and need to be imported from far away,
they are expensive or they are bulky and difficult to transport. If government policies are top this could
be because politicians are particularly keen on encouraging a certain type of economic development.
3 The diagram will be specific to the industry chosen but needs to include inputs (including the specific raw
materials needed), processes, outputs, feedbacks and the waste produced like the example on page 174 B.
4 a) This will depend on location but, for instance, the UK would include an educated workforce, good infrastructure
and a strong economy.
4 b) This will depend on location but, for instance, in the UK would include expensive wages and laws which restrict
activities because of their environmental impact or health and safety issues.
Page 177: Manufacturing industries
1 It is possible clothes will come from a wide variety of countries but likely there will be many from less
economically developed countries.
2 Inputs include raw materials such as cotton, wool and fabrics as well as metal and plastics for zips and clips.
Decent infrastructure for transport and provision of energy and land for factories are important. In addition
there will need to be a workforce, capital and markets for the sale of the finished product.
3 Although originally starting in MEDCs such as the UK and France in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
production mainly moved to LEDCs in the twentieth century where the climate was more conducive to growing
raw materials such as cotton and where there was a readily available cheap workforce. In addition, global
shipping routes became cheaper to access, there were expanding markets in more economically developed
countries and the technology for production was also easy to replicate in LEDCs.

Page 180: High-technology industries
1 Footloose industries are those which make small, high-value products and are not tied to any one area
because, for instance, it is the only place raw materials are available. Examples include many high-tech
industries such as computer gaming, telecommunications and robotics.
2 China and the USA lead the world in the distribution of science parks with around 15 per cent of the global total
each. The European Union also has large numbers but many leading countries are those in south-east Asia
including Japan, Singapore and Hong Kong. Mexico is the leading country in terms of science park numbers
for Central and South America.
3 a) Pupil-led activity depending on location.
3 b) Governments could increase links between universities and industry to ensure the knowledge is available
for an educated workforce. They could provide capital in the form of government grants or allocate land where
science parks could be built. Governments can also look at providing services such as superfast broadband or
improved airport links.

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Answers 3.4 Tourism
Page 183: Where do tourists go on holiday?
1 Pupil-led activity which should include major tourist destinations of the country in question but also lesser
known areas which would be of interest to family of four with teenagers.
2 a) From a total of around 30 million tourists a year in 1950 there was steady growth to around 300 million in 1980.
From then growth became increasingly rapid and had doubled by the year 2000. After this there was a very
sharp increase in numbers travelling with one billion tourists a year by 2010. Forecasts show this increase is
expected to continue at the same rate for the foreseeable future.
2 b) The greatest growth has been for tourism in Africa and East Asia and the Pacific. Europe, meanwhile,
continues to grow, but at a lesser rate than all other areas.
2 c) The greatest areas of growth look likely to be in Africa and the Americas.
3 The main reasons for the growth in global tourism have been the increase in rapid air travel and the
development of more efficient planes meaning the cost of flying has decreased. Wealth has increased and
workers have more paid holiday time so people have more money to spend on luxuries such as holidays.
Global connectivity and television has made them more aware of the range of places they can visit.
4 Pupil-led activity based on personal interest. There should be evidence of atlas work in the answer including a
range of things that the pupil could do while on holiday in the country.
Page 186: The importance of global tourism
1 a) Pupil-led activity will depend on the location but will probably include work in restaurants, tourist information
services, museums and other tourist attractions as well as tour guides, bus drivers and travel agents.
1 b)
Income from tourism as a percentage of the
national economy 2016
Maldives
British Virgin Islands
Aruba
Macau
Former Netherlands Antilles
Seychelles
Bahamas
Anguilla
Vanuatu
Cape Verde
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage
From the graph it should be seen that, in general, there is steady increase in revenue with the number of
tourists but there are some anomalies. Visitors to the USA spend far more money per person than in any other
country and, in less developed countries such as Mexico and Malaysia, the amount of revenue per tourist is
less than the average shown on the graph.

2 Tourism brings employment opportunities to France, both seasonally and all year round. The workers
in the industry pay taxes, spend money in local shops and on services in their area. People also benefit from
the development of infrastructure such as roads, airports and port facilities. France also benefits from a
positive image on a worldwide scale.
3 The problems of tourism include an unequal distribution of wealth between, for instance, people living in
the towns and the countryside. There are inconveniences for local people with tourists using local
services and facilities (some of which may only be available in summer when tourism is in season) and driving
slowly causing congestion. Tourists can also be rude and expect too much of local people. There are also more
global concerns with the effects of increased air travel by tourists on climate change.
4 Pupil-led activity based on imagination and an opportunity to be creative. Ideas for people to come to France
could capitalise on already well-established attractions such as the Eiffel Tower or new ones which pupils can
find in an atlas or on the internet.
Page 188: Tourism in LEDCs
1 Mombasa has a hot, tropical climate with a small temperature range from 24 to 28 degrees. The hottest
months are from January to March. There is precipitation throughout the year with a distinct rainy season in
April and May when rainfall can reach almost 250 mm in a month.
2 Advantages of tourism to LEDCs include employment for local people with knock-on effects for local
businesses and national taxes as people have more money to spend. Governments can use the money
gained to improve infrastructure and services such as health and education leading to benefits for the whole
country. People will gain a better quality of life and a positive global image of a country may lead to further
benefits from incoming investment. Disadvantages could be that tourists may not respect local customs
and there may be a dilution of culture. Incomes can be low and seasonal and many tourist companies are
owned by foreigners so the benefits may not stay in the country. Tourists put pressure on scarce local
resources and may damage the environment through pollution and waste. There may also be increasing crime
rates with criminals targeting richer visitors. Despite all this, tourism, if carefully managed, can be a good way
for countries to develop, and for many people to escape from poverty.
3 Kenya has a warm and comfortable climate for visitors to come all year round and, for many years, had a
stable government. Many people speak English so communication can be easier for some visitors, especially
those from the UK and USA. The country has a coastline with many resorts for people to visit and the natural
beauty of the interior is considered very special. There are also large numbers of animals, including elephant
and zebra, which has increased the safari industry in the country.

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Answers 3.5 Energy
Pages 190 and 191: Where does our energy come from?
1 a) Pupil-led answer depending on interpretation. However, most pupils will recognise that Ali from Dubai will use
the most energy because of the need for air conditioning in the desert and the sprinklers and fridges. Mei Lin
and Imran will also use a lot and pupils may find it surprising that Birgit perhaps consumes the least energy.
1 b) Pupil-led activity. Answers will depend on personal opinion but it would be hoped that NECESSARY would
include energy for cooking and perhaps for transport and UNNECESSARY would include power for video
games and music players.
2 a) Pupil-led activity.
2 b) Pupil-led answer.
3 a) Fossil fuels: coal, crude oil and natural gas have seen the greatest increase in consumption. Hydro power has
also seen a much more recent increase.
3 b) The biggest changes in fossil fuel consumption have been in the decades since the 1950s. The big increases
in hydro power have been since 2000.
3 c) Consumption of biofuels, wood and charcoal has been relatively constant although there has been a sharp
decline since 2000.
4 Pie graph.
Hydro
Nuclear 4% 7%
Oil
33%
30%
Coal
24%
Natural gas
Page 193: Fossil fuels – making the world work
1 a) The main oilfields are located in the countries around the Persian Gulf, in parts of Russia and the North Sea,
and in Texas and other areas in the mid-USA. Natural gas fields are found in similar locations. There are also
oilfields found in isolated pockets in Venezuela, Australia, Alaska and Gabon. Coal production is now mainly
concentrated in the USA.
1 b) The main transport of fossil fuels is by sea from the Persian Gulf to Europe. Smaller quantities are sent from
Venezuela to both North and South America, and there are significant amounts from the Persian Gulf to
Asia and parts of East Africa. The main coal transport is from the USA to Europe and from California to eastern
Asia. Transport of natural gas, meanwhile, takes place largely from the gasfields of Russia to western Europe.
2 Governments need to ensure an adequate supply of energy so that they do not have to depend on expensive
imports or face the threat they could be cut off by other countries. If a country fails to have an adequate supply
there may be problems for individual people, who would not have power to cook, heat and light their homes,
and for industry, which would not have enough power to continue production. If a country has no oil then there
will be no petrol for transport.

3 a) The statement appears to be correct as coal provides around 80 per cent of all the electricity in the country
and powers the factories that produce the goods which China sells overseas. It also produces electricity in
the power stations which power all the electrical goods which Chinese people are buying as they become
wealthier.
3 b) One of the major problems associated with China’s coal industry is that burning fossil fuels is adding to
the global problem of climate change. It also produces pollutants which causes the acid rain which falls on
agricultural land, killing crops and leaving the ground unsuitable for farming.
3 c) For the country and its economic growth the benefits may well outweigh the disadvantages but, on a global
scale, it is unlikely this is the case.
4 a) Pupil-led activity depending on location.
4 b) This will depend on the location but it is likely some general concerns will include the effects on pollution on a
local scale as well as the global concerns about climate change.
Page 195: The fuelwood crisis
1 a) India and China lead the world as individual countries consuming the highest amount of fuelwood. Brazil and
Indonesia also consume high amounts as does Nigeria. It is likely, given the percentages in Figure D, that
many of the other countries involved are countries in Africa.
1 b) In a number of African countries almost all the total fuel is provided by the burning of wood. Countries including
Mali, Rwanda, Tanzania and Chad have over 90 per cent of their total fuel provided by wood. For many other
countries including Nigeria, Cameroon and Madagascar the figures are around 80 per cent, while in some,
including Ivory Coast and Kenya, the amount of wood used is much lower as a percentage but still accounts for
around 35 per cent and 48 per cent, respectively, of the countries’ totals.
2 a) Pupil-led answer.
2 b) Pupil-led activity.
3 a) Deforestation in north-west Bengal has become a severe problem as immigrant tea plantation workers have
cut down the forests for fuel for their own cooking and to sell as fuelwood to others.
3 b) Cutting down the trees has had an effect on the weather, which has become drier, and on the local soils which
have lost their fertility. This has had an effect on farming in the region, which has become less productive as
the tree cover has been removed.
4 a) Rashid has come from Bangladesh after being forced off his land by flooding. He has found collecting and
selling fuelwood to be one of the easiest ways to make money. He needs the money to buy food to feed his
family but has noticed the effects of removing wood on the weather and landscape. He realises what he is
doing is wrong but believes he has little alternative.
4 b) It is likely if he stops that somebody else will do exactly what he is doing. However, if no more fuelwood
was taken the land would be likely to regenerate (although this may take a number of decades) as long as
there is sufficiently fertile soil remaining.
4 c) Pupil-led opinion piece. There should be justification for whichever answer is given.
Page 197: Renewable energies
1 More than half of all renewable energy comes from hydro-electric power where rivers have had dams
constructed along them. Wind power is the next largest. Many wind turbines have been built to benefit from
reliable prevailing winds. Solar panel development allows sunshine to be harnessed to generate solar power.
These account for 93 per cent of renewable energy generated. A smaller amount comes from plants such as
biogas and the remainder comes from geothermal energy that is only available in certain parts of the world
such as Iceland, where there are thermal springs.
2 The main advantage of renewable energy is that it decreases reliance on the fossil fuels responsible for global
warming and climate change. It also helps reduce reliance on expensive fossil fuels, provides energy security,
and eases the global energy crisis brought on by increasing demand for resources that are running out.

3 The choice here is not as important as the reasons why, So, for instance, if a pupil has chosen wind power the
reason could be because wind is a readily available source of power which is cheap and safe to operate and
almost completely pollution-free.
4 Pupil-led activity dependent on location but, for instance, if the pupil lives in a country with many volcanoes
then geothermal may be the best option. If they live in a desert country then solar may be a better source of
power.
Page 199: How do we generate electricity?
1 The greatest energy consumption is in the USA and China in terms of kilowatt hours per year. There are
also high levels of consumption across western Europe, Australasia, the Middle East, Brazil, Venezuela and
Argentina. Levels decrease in the rest of Europe and South America while the lowest levels of consumption are
in Africa (except for South Africa), Bolivia, Mongolia, and some Asian countries including Bangladesh and Laos.
2 Pupil-led activity depending on location and comparing their home country with the rest of the world. So, for
instance, a pupil from Chile would say their country’s consumption is on the low side compared to many others.
3 Power stations convert energy sources into electricity using turbines. The turbines have blades which are
forced to turn very fast and they produce the energy.
4 Pupil-led activity depending on location.
Page 202: Where to put a nuclear power station?
1 Pupil-led activity to construct a bar chart.
Nuclear power as a percentage

of total energy production
% 0 20 40 60 80
France
Belgium
Ukraine
Switzerland
Czechia
Finland
South Korea
Canada
Spain
USA
2 The majority of the countries which rely most on nuclear power are in the developed north (with the exception
of South Korea). There are a high number in eastern Europe - these were originally allied to the Soviet Union
which encouraged the reliance on nuclear technology.
3 The main factors for the location of a nuclear power station are a nearby water supply to cool the nuclear
reactors and flat, cheap land to accommodate the site. They are almost always located away from major
population centres and in countries which do not have a supply of their own fossil fuels.
4 Pupil-led activity. Pupils should use a map of their country to find three sites with flat land (preferably cheap),
near to a water source, and away from major towns and cities. They need to give reasons for their choices.
5 Pupil-led activity. The answer is not as important as the reasons given. Pupils need to weigh up the
advantages in terms of reducing reliance on fossil fuels and encouraging fuel security and weigh
them up against the inherent risks such as those posed by Chernobyl.
Page 204: Power from water
1 Pupil-led activity depending on location. Using an atlas, pupils may be able to identify potential sites in
mountainous areas with fast-flowing rivers and a deep basin available for flooding as a reservoir. More
complex answers will include analysis of the underlying geology to identify impervious rock and recognition of
the effects on people, the natural environment and historic sites located in the area to be flooded.
2 The Rocky Mountains are an area of high rainfall, consistent all year round but with a peak from October
through to March. Temperatures are mainly mild to cool reducing the amount of evaporation. This means there
will be a ready supply of water for reservoirs which is unlikely to be lost by evaporation in the summer months.

3 Hydro-electric power is cheap to produce and generally reliable, it creates very little waste or pollution and the
power stations can quickly increase the amount of electricity they produce when needed. In large-scale
schemes the dams used for HEP can also reduce the risk of flooding, are important sources of water
for population centres, and are often used for tourism and leisure. Small-scale schemes - often used in LEDCs
- are easy to install by local people and can produce enough electricity for people to supply their own homes.

Now
Investigate
Answers 3.6 Water
Pages 206 and 207: How can water supplies be managed?
1 Pupil-led activity.
2 More sustainable ways to use water include:

As shown in the photographs - Drip-feed irrigation; washing cars by hand; taking a shower instead of a bath;
washing dishes by hand.
Other (non-exhaustive) possibilities include:

• Watering plants very early in the morning or late in the evening (this reduces loss by evapo-transpiration)
• Watering plants and the lawn using grey water collected from roofs, using a water butt; such water can also be
used for washing cars and hosing paths
• Turning the tap off while brushing teeth
• Installing a toilet which has a dual-flush system. This is a variation of the conventional flush toilet that uses two
buttons or handles to flush different amounts of water. It provides water in either 3-4.5 or 6-9 litre capacities;
the smaller amount is designed for liquid waste, while the larger amount disposes of solid waste. These toilets
have become almost universally adopted in Australia, New Zealand, Singapore and Israel, with their installation
in new buildings often made compulsory by national legislation
• Installing a domestic ‘grey-water’ supply system (which harvests and stores rainwater) to be used for toilet
flushing, clothes washing, etc., where the water used does not need to have been purified / treated
• Replacing flush toilet systems with compostable alternatives
• Recycling washing-up water for watering plants (washing-up liquid / detergent / soap does not harm them)
• Running the washing machine only when fully loaded - and ensuring that it is an eco-friendly machine which
uses minimum amounts of water
• Similarly, if you use a dishwasher, ensuring that it is ‘eco-friendly’ and waiting until full before running a cycle.
3 a) Note: The easiest way to approach a question such as this is to reorder data from the given table in a
way which allows you to compare the importance of different variables. At A Level or the International
Baccalaureate, you would be expected to use statistical methods to compare such data, but at this stage,
visual comparisons are fine! So, quickly sketch out a new table like the one below, showing countries
rearranged in rank order according to per capita GDP (the only indicator of economic development in the data
set), with the National water usage (litres/person/day) for each country in the third column:
Country GDP Water use

(in rank order of GDP) per person litres/person/day
USA 57 300 575
Canada 46 200 323
UK 42 500 149
France 42 400 287
Russia 26 100 245
Mexico 18 900 365
China 15 400 86
Egypt 12 100 200
India 6 700 135
Ghana 4 400 36
Having done this, you can then begin to answer the question! (Note: the table itself is not credit-worthy until
you actually refer to it and utilise the data relationships it shows).

For the purposes of this answer, GDP (per person) will be taken as the indicator of economic development,
with water use (average litres per person per day) used as the indicator of fresh water use as required by the
question. An initial oversight of the data shows the USA to be the most developed country listed, with Ghana
the least developed. Overall, it appears that water use is linked directly to development levels because the
USA is the greatest consumer (with an average of 575 litres used per person every day) whilst Ghana’s
population uses the least water.
A closer examination of the water consumption data reveals some significant anomalies from this general
statement. For example, if it is true for all countries, the UK could be expected to use up to twice
its actual daily water consumption of 149 litres, yet usage in Mexico would be expected to be significantly
below 365 litres (the second highest consumption of the ten countries). Another ‘exception’ to the anticipated
usage is China - a country well-known for its heavy industrial activity and economic progress - but one which
has a surprisingly low water consumption per person.
So far, the evidence suggests that economic development is not a reliable indicator of water usage, with
some advanced economies using relatively little water per person and other, significantly less developed
economies, averaging quite high usage per person.
The table’s GDP data includes four of the world’s G7 ‘advanced’ economies; the USA, Canada, the UK and
France. Three of these are ranked 1st, 3rd and 4th for water use, supporting the general statement that
economic development is a determinant of water usage. However, the UK’s data clearly shows that water
consumption can vary quite widely between advanced economies, with an average of 395 litres per person
across the USA, Canada and France compared to only 149 litres in the UK.
Similarly, in the second group of economies (maybe ‘economies in transition’), i.e. Russia, Mexico and China,
there is an even greater variation in water usage - from 86 litres in China to 365 in Mexico! Variation in use
is also evident amongst the least developed economies (as indicated by GDP) of Egypt, India and Ghana, as
there is a 164 litres per person difference between Ghana and Egypt, those countries which occupy the highest
and lowest rankings in this economic grouping.
In conclusion, this data set shows clearly shows that water use can vary widely, not only between countries at
different stages of development, but also between countries at similar developmental levels.
3 b) Note: Again, the best way to prepare to answer questions such as this is to re-order the given data set in a way
that allows you to analyse GDP’s link to different sectors of water use:
Country GDP Industry

Agriculture Domestic
(in rank order of GDP) per person (and electricity)
USA 57 300 41 13 46
Canada 46 200 12 68 20
UK 42 500 3 22 75
France 42 400 9 17 74
Russia 26 100 18 19 63
Mexico 18 900 78 17 5
China 15 400 67 7 26
Egypt 12 100 86 8 6
India 6 700 86 8 6
Ghana 4 400 66 24 10
Having done this, you may opt to analyse the data country by country, category by category, or possibly group
some countries together in order to identify generalisations. There is no right, or wrong, way to tackle the
question; just make sure that in your concluding comments you refer back to what the question asked.
A possible way forward is:

In answering question 3a, it was noted that the most developed countries (the G7) tend to use most water,
although there are exceptions. As GDP decreases, there also seems to be a trend towards lower water usage,
but with some significant variations. The data set above reveals a striking difference between those
countries where the dominant use is for industry, and those where it is for agriculture. The G7 countries plus

Russia tend to use much of their water (on average approximately 56 per cent) for industry, although
there are exceptions like the USA and Canada. In contrast, poorer countries such as Mexico, Egypt, India and
Ghana use over 75 per cent of their total water consumption for agriculture. Identify two patterns are perhaps
to be expected. Traditionally, economic development has equated to industrialisation while less developed
countries continue to be dominated by agricultural activity - and both economic sectors are major users of
water.
In countries such as China and India, where there are large populations to feed and a high dependency on rice
as the staple foodstuff, water consumption will continue to be dominated by food production because, of all the
staple foods, rice has by far the highest water demand at approximately 10 000 litres per kilo!
Similarly, in more developed economies, huge amounts of water are required for industrial processes such as
heavy industry and manufacturing. For example, 340 000 litres are required to produce one tonne of steel, 110
litres for half a kilo of plastic, and 3 200 litres for a single shirt – hence the high percentages of industrial water
use in countries such as France, the UK and Russia.
A particularly striking anomaly is the USA - the world’s leading economy - because it is not the world’s greatest
industrial water user! Unlike most other countries in the table, it has a relatively balanced water-use profile,
with water being used in almost equal measures in agriculture and industry. This may be due to its huge land
area (giving a wide range of climatic and environmental conditions suitable for extensive and varied food
production), much of it used for grain and meat for export to Europe; this is also coupled with its wealth of
industrial raw materials which have stimulated industrial growth.
Canada is another anomaly because it is the only country in which domestic usage (68 per cent) exceeds
that for agriculture and industry combined (32 per cent). Not only is its domestic use high, but industrial use
is low for a G7 country. Like the USA, Canada has a long tradition of producing grain for export, and such
crops require a significant water input (approximately 1245 litres of water per kilo of wheat). Canada is a
water-rich country, with a relatively small population; its population density is only 3.49 per square km. This
results in a plentiful supply of water for all Canadians, with many regions providing water which is free – or at
an exceptionally low cost.
In countries where water is scarce (e.g. Ghana, Egypt and India), overall use per person per day is lower -
on average only 125 litres per day compared with Canada’s 323 litres. In conclusion, the wealthier, more
industrialised nations use proportionally more water, with less for agriculture and more for industry, although
there are some notable exceptions to this. On the other hand, poorer countries tend use more of their water
for agriculture, while generally using significantly less per person – although some, like Mexico, do use much
larger quantities.
4 a) Spider diagrams example.
Personal hygiene
Irrigating family plot and providing Drinking and food preparation

water for animals
Washing the cooking

LEDC family
and eating utensils
Traditional cottage-style industries
such as textiles and pottery
Washing clothes, bedding, etc.
Domestic cleaning

Personal hygiene
Watering flower beds / lawn / allotments Drinking and food preparation
Washing cars, caravans, etc. Washing the cooking and eating

MEDC family utensils (in a dishwasher)
Domestic cleaning
Washing clothes, bedding, etc.
(in a washing machine)
Toilet flushing
Swimming pools and other recreational

facilities such as hot tubs and jacuzzis
4 b) Uses which are similar include:

• Drinking and food preparation
• Washing the cooking and eating utensils
• Washing clothes, bedding, etc.
• Personal hygiene
• Domestic cleaning
Uses which are different include:

LEDC – agriculture and cottage industries.
MEDC – use of greater amounts of water by kitchen equipment; recreational uses and gardening; cleaning
cars and caravans; greater use of water for personal hygiene because of large baths filled to the top and power
showers; toilet flushing (which accounts for approximately 30 per cent of domestic water usage).
4 c) One clear difference is that in MEDCs, agriculture and industry tend to be separate from domestic life, so far
fewer households will have any such dual water use.
Another difference is in the widespread use of water-consuming equipment in kitchens (and water use in
bathrooms) in MEDCs – most notably dishwashers, washing machines and baths.
A final difference is in the use of water for recreational activities; in warmer climates many better-off families
have their own pool and, in temperate climates, fashion trends have seen the growth of hot tubs and jacuzzis
in gardens. Personal wealth is often marked by land ownership – with large gardens and lawns being an
indicator of affluence. During summer months / dry seasons, these consume large quantities of water as they
are often watered twice daily to maintain their appearance. Similarly, cars, caravans and boats are cleaned
regularly, again consuming large volumes of water.

Page 209: Meeting the demand for water
1 a) and c) Pupil-led activity.
My house as it is today
INPUT:
Mains tap water Attic
usage c 350 kl/year
Bathroom
Bedroom
Kitchen
Lounge
All runoff
into
stormwater
system
OUTPUT:
Waste water to sewage
treatment plant c 210 kl/year
Hosepipe
for watering
garden/washing
car

1 b) and c)
My water-efficient house
INPUT:
Mains tap water Attic
use reduced to
160 kl/year
Bathroom
Bedroom
Water efficient
shower
Dual flush
toilet
Kitchen
Single aerator
mixer tap Lounge
Water
butt
ECO
Rainwater used
to water garden
OUTPUT:
67 kl/year to sewage Belfast
treatment plant sink
70 kl/year
60 kl/year
Excess to sewer
Water reused Sub-surface emitters direct
from domestic water to lawn and plants.
appliances on A regulated feature that
120 kl/year to garden only waters when the soil
dries out.

2 Possible answers include:
Water source Benefits of this type of water source Disadvantages of this type of water source
Aquifers They don’t lose water through evaporation They replenish very slowly, so care must be taken
not to extract more than can be replaced naturally
They aren’t directly polluted by towns, by rainwater and surface water sources (e.g. rivers)
farms and factories
It can be difficult to measure water reserves deep
Most pollutants are filtered as water underground
percolates down through the rock layers
They often depend on rain which falls in a
different area, or even country; this other place
could develop its own water storage systems or
increase its water usage which would affect aquifer
replacement rates
Aquifers know no national boundaries so

international disputes could arise over increased
water extraction rates by neighbouring countries
Desalination This process uses seawater, which The desalination process is very expensive, so
plants represents a limitless supply can only be afforded on a regular basis by wealthy
countries
The water produced is exceptionally
pure as pollutants are left behind This process traditionally uses fossil fuels as its
during the evaporation process and the heat source, therefore various forms of pollution can
newly condensed water is free from result
contaminants as well as salt
Lakes and rivers These are the main sources of easily Many of these have been heavily polluted by waste
accessible water from homes, farms and industries
They are regularly and effectively Many have been overused, so their reserves are
replenished in areas of high rainfall now depleted
In hotter climates (or in summer in more temperate

regions), water reserves are reduced through
evaporation; for example, approximately 10 per
cent of the river flow in the Colorado river basin
(south-west USA) is lost through evaporation each
year – enough water to supply a city the size of
Denver (population: 693 060 in 2016) with all of its
water needs
HEP/reservoir schemes in the upper reaches of

river systems may deplete the flow; often, these
developments are outside the control of people
relying on the river or lake for water. Such schemes
may be developed in other countries’ territories over
which they have no jurisdiction. Or, a river’s upper
course may be dammed by the national government
to meet the demand for electricity, without due
consideration of the requirement of communities
downstream to have an adequate and reliable water
supply

Water source Benefits of this type of water source Disadvantages of this type of water source
Large-scale Reservoir dams are often fitted with Reservoirs in warmer regions can lose much of their
rainwater turbines to generate HEP which can be water due to surface evaporation
harvesting sold to offset construction costs as well as
supplying electricity to local communities Reservoirs flood lowland, often the most fertile and
bio-diverse within a region
Reservoirs can create fisheries and extra
recreational facilities People living and working in the area to be flooded
lose their homes and livelihoods; often, they are
Reservoirs can regulate river flow not compensated effectively or resettled in an area
downstream of their dams, reducing the which allows them to continue their habitual lifestyle
risk of flooding after prolonged, heavy rain
Dams trap a high proportion of a rivers’ fertile silt –
Reservoirs can provide a regular, reliable meaning farmers downstream have to buy fertiliser
supply of potable water (i.e. water which is (costing them more) or cope with the declining yield
safe to drink and use for food preparation) which, over time, results from loss of soil fertility
Reservoir flooding often disrupts communication

networks and human communities
Large dams can increase the risk of localised

earthquakes
Water supplied in this way has to be paid for. This

can cause some rural communities in LEDCs to
lose, rather than increase, their access to water as
they cannot afford to pay for supplies which were
once free
Inferior construction methods and building materials

can, over time, increase the risk of a dam collapsing
(due to the increasing weight of the silt deposited
behind it). This could lead to devastating flooding
downstream
Small-scale Domestic harvesting systems do not Domestic harvesting systems rarely incorporate
rainwater involve costly water transportation water purification arrangements which meet MEDC
harvesting networks potable water standards – and so in such countries
are deemed to be unsafe to drink and cook with
Such local projects avoid the costs of
water-treatment and, once constructed, In LEDCs, some rural communities still lack the
maintenance costs tend to be low knowledge, expertise and skills to implement and
maintain effective rainwater harvesting
Such projects often involve the local
community which creates a sense of
ownership and responsibility for the water
supply and its proper maintenance
Rainwater is effectively pollution-free

(again, as only pure water can evaporate)
so, if stored effectively, such water can
contribute to the reduction of disease and
ill-health (e.g. Bilharzia)
Where the scheme provides water for a

local community, low-cost sand and gravel
filtration systems can be incorporated
to remove impurities from the harvested
water
In MEDCs, grey water harvesting at the

domestic level can significantly reduce the
household’s water bills - particularly if the
supply of treated water is metered. This is
because the largest single use and cost of
water in most homes is toilet flushing

3 a) The first map (Figure C on page 32) shows that there are significant differences between individual continents’
population distribution and density patterns. India and Japan are shown as the world’s most densely-populated
countries, with the other countries of east and south-east Asia providing its prime examples. Australia has the
lowest average population density of all the continents, with only 0-10 persons per square km; Canada and
Russia have similarly sparse populations. Western Europe and the West African countries south of the Sahara
are heavily populated, while others such as Mexico and Egypt are much more densely populated than most of
their neighbours.
The second map (Figure A on page 207) shows that there are also significant continental differences in access
to safe drinking water. North America, Western Europe and Australia have the highest access percentages,
while much of South America and the remainder of Eurasia are also well-supplied with potable (safe drinking)
water. It is Africa which stands out as the continent in which people’s water provision is most variable; in
several of its countries, less than 50 per cent of the population has access to adequate water provision.
The third map (Figure B on page 208) suggests that latitude is a major locational factor in the July global
distribution of rainfall. The areas of highest precipitation include south-east Asia, the mid-latitudes of North
America and Eurasia and those areas of South America and Africa which lie between the Equator and the
Tropic of Cancer. The driest regions are North Africa, south-west and central Asia, the western states of the
USA, and all those regions within the three continental land masses which are located between the Equator
and the Tropic of Capricorn.
3 b) As this question focuses on regions where access to water is a significant issue for people, do not waste
valuable time writing about areas which enjoy an adequate supply of water for agriculture, industry and
domestic consumption.
In the answer to question 3a, it has already been stated that Africa is particularly noteworthy as its people
experience such a wide range of access to water; this involves every percentage range in the map’s
colour scheme, apart from the very highest (100 per cent). The countries in east and north-east Africa within
the lowest water access range (30-49 per cent) are Ethiopia, Somalia and Mozambique. They experience a
marked dry season and are subject to periodic climatic variations due to the El Niño effect. Being some of the
poorest countries in the world, they do not have the financial capacity to build enough reservoirs to capture
surplus water during the wetter months or drill wells deep enough to access major aquifers. In these countries,
the limited investment money available is usually allocated to meeting the needs of large urban areas; this
leaves rural communities with endemic water shortages and to water-access percentages well below average
national figures. A classic example of this urban/rural imbalance is Somalia, a country with a GDP per capita
forty times smallerthan the world average; 70per cent of its urban population have an improved water supply,
whereas its rural population (60 per cent of the country’s total) has only 9 per cent.
Mauritania and Niger are the most water-deficient countries in the west and north of the continent. Both
countries receive little and very irregular rainfall and there is considerable water loss through evaporation due
to the high temperatures. Rural water deficiencies are often so serious that many children are habitually absent
from school whilst occupied searching for any available water for their families.
The Democratic Republic of Congo, by far the largest central African country, is surrounded by others with
much superior water provision. Although it is located in a wet tropical climate zone, a combination of civil war,
economic mismanagement and chronic poverty has resulted in most of its population experiencing long-term
water deficits.
Page 212: Water supply issues
1 A sample answer could be:
Yes, I do have access to a regular supply of clean water.

Here is a record of my use for a typical day during the school holidays:
Glass of water when waking up – 250 ml

Morning shower – 60 litres
Mug of coffee with breakfast – 350 ml
Bowl of water for washing up – 9.5 litres
Cleaning teeth – 200 ml
Washing clothes in washing machine – 50 litres
Mug of coffee mid-morning – 350 ml
Washing salad products for lunch – 3 litres

Mug of coffee with lunch – 350 ml
Cup of tea mid-afternoon – 250 ml
Preparation of fish, vegetables and fruit for dinner – 3 litres
Glass of water with dinner – 250 ml
Mug of coffee after dinner – 350 ml
Washing bedding during the evening – 50 litres
Cup of tea for supper – 250 ml
Personal washing and teeth cleaning before bed – 9 litres
Total amount of water used in a typical day is 206.1 litres.
2 a) Hint: Before you start answering this question, re-read it and note that it requires you to, “Describe in detail the
contrasts between....”
This is a ‘hint’ that the Examiner will be looking for data to be quoted from the information provided and for
comparisons (i.e. contrasts and differences) to be made very clearly. This means that you need to write your
answer using phrases such as, “on the other hand”, “however”, “while” – or even “but” at suitable points to
emphasis the contrasting features and to link statements or ideas. The question also offers you the
opportunity to undertake some simple analysis of the data – perhaps calculations of annual temperature
ranges, or mean precipitation totals.
For top marks, you should also aim to include specialist or technical terminology – starting by using the terms
‘rainfall’ and ‘precipitation’ appropriately, then noting that these are mean (not average!) temperatures and
precipitation totals and including terms like ‘temperature range’ and ‘drought’. You can also comment on
precipitation totals – e.g. noting that the total precipitation in Cairo is low. When doing this, be very careful
about making similar points about ‘high’ - or ‘low’ - temperatures in the more general sense; what is considered
to be a high temperature in one part of the world may be relatively moderate in another. There is, however, far
more agreement about what ‘much’ rain and ‘little’ rain mean!
Also, be wary of referring to spring, summer, autumn and winter in answers such as this, particularly if you
live in a place where the year is clearly divided into four seasons. Be certain that referring to ‘seasons’ is
appropriate and ensure that you name them correctly - remembering that ‘summer’ is December - February in
the Southern Hemisphere, but June - August in the northern. In many places, the climatic year divides more
accurately into ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ seasons, or occasionally a ‘dry’ and a monsoon season. The model answer below
uses many of these terms, cautiously, to show one way you could incorporate them appropriately and possibly
gain extra marks by doing so.
Finally, take the time to ‘read’ the graphs carefully. Every year, some candidates write about line graphs
showing precipitation and/or bar graphs referring to temperature! Others will state that there is xx˚C
of rainfall... or may write °F in their answer because, in their home nation, temperature is measured
and recorded in Fahrenheit (or they quote precipitation totals in inches – again because they work in feet and
inches at home)! The line graph shows temperature – and its y-axis is generally the one on the left, labelled in
˚C. The bars represent precipitation, and their y-axis is generally on the right, labelled in mm.
Temperatures in Addis Ababa range from lows of about 13˚C (in November and December) to a high of
approximately 17˚C in April. As Addis Ababa is north of the Equator, this maximum temperature is achieved
in what might be referred to as ‘spring’ - although the annual variation in temperature is not really sufficient to
write about a ‘classic’ division of the year into four seasons. It is probably more accurate (for
both cities) to think in terms of a wet season and a dry (or drier) one. The annual range of temperature
for Addis Ababa is only 4˚C, with a relatively steep but steady increase between January and April - followed by
a slow return to the cooler temperatures of November, but with a marked ‘levelling out’ of the temperature
gradient from mid-July to mid-September during the height of the rainy season.
In contrast, Cairo’s mean temperatures show significantly greater variation - from a low of 14˚C in January
(very similar to Addis Ababa’s temperature at the same point in the year) to an average high of 27-28˚C in
June/July. The resultant temperature range of 14˚C is much greater than that of Addis Ababa (4˚C).
Also, Cairo’s maximum July temperature is 10˚C higher than that of Addis Ababa, even though Cairo
is 21˚ of latitude further north than the Ethiopian capital. Like Addis Ababa, however, Cairo’s highest
temperatures occur mid-year; this is due to this city also being located north of the Equator but, unlike
the other city, Cairo’s highest temperatures coincide with an annual drought / dry season. The period
with no rain whatever (and, because Cairo has a very low altitude, we can use the term ‘rain’ with confidence)
lasts for only two (or, more often, three) months between mid-May and mid-September. However, prior to this

dry season, and immediately following it, rainfall is almost negligible – with an average total of only
8.5 mm during the months of April, May, June, September and October. Typically, the rainfall totals for each of
these months (1.5 mm; 2.5 mm; 1.5 mm; 1.5 mm and 1.5 mm, respectively) will fall in a single day, or two at
the most.
The annual precipitation total for Cairo, a mere 25-26 mm, is less than that falling on Addis Ababa per month
for the nine consecutive months between February and October. Indeed, the total precipitation falling during
Addis Ababa’s dry season (29 mm in November - January) exceeds Cairo’s total annual rainfall! While
Cairo’s rainfall totals are typical of desert environments (i.e. < 250 mm of rain per year), precipitation in
Addis Ababa is relatively high, with an average total of approximately 1125 mm; this is distributed throughout
the year, although there is an obvious ‘drier’ season in winter.
Although Addis Ababa lies within the northern Tropics, snow can occur due to the city’s elevation above sea
level; therefore, it is more correct to refer to ‘precipitation’ in Ethiopia’s context. Like Cairo, Addis
Ababa’s precipitation graph illustrates a distinctive pattern. However, whereas Cairo’s dry season occurs from
June to September, this is Addis Ababa’s wettest time of year! Immediately after a relatively dry start to the
year (on average, only 15 mm of precipitation falls in January), its monthly precipitation totals rise sharply to
75 mm in March, and 115 mm in June. Addis Ababa’s ‘wet season’ then extends through the next three
months, with over 660 mm of rain falling; an average of 220+ mm in each month. October’s precipitation
shows a quite dramatic drop – with the expectation of only approximately 30 mm falling – heralding the start of
the drier, cooler season, referred to earlier.
2 b) Note: You must make very clear any linkages between your answer to this part of the question and your
response to question 2a. Never leave it to the Examiner to work out exactly what you are referring to.
Also, Ethiopia has often made world headlines because of a series of severe droughts which have led to food
shortages. However, this is not relevant to this question and so should not be referred to in your answer.
Focus totally on linking the idea of water supply to the precipitation data in the graphs. If you wish (as the
model answer does), you could refer to the regions around Addis Abba and Cairo but do not assume that a
city’s data is typical of the entire country. Both Egypt and Ethiopia are large countries and you are only working
with data sets for one (quite centrally located) city in each of them.
These graphs suggest that Addis Ababa and its surrounding region (although perhaps not the whole of
Ethiopia) benefits from an adequate and regular water supply. The mean data shows that in excess
of 1100 mm of rain can be expected annually and that this is distributed throughout the year, with no apparent
periods of drought. This exceeds the precipitation totals for many large cities in MEDCs such as London, Paris
and New York (601 mm, 641 mm and 1145 mm, respectively), and they manage to supply their citizens with
a reliable water supply throughout the year. Heavy rainfall mid-year in Addis Ababa may cause some precious
water to be lost due to heavy surface run-off, but this water will, quite quickly, make its way to rivers and
streams and so be available for later extraction. Temperatures are moderate throughout the year, so
water loss due to evaporation need not be a major issue. However, the degree to which the precipitation
ensures adequate supplies of water for the city and its region will also depend upon how many people it has to
supply (6.5 million in 2017) and their actual demands for water – information which is not included in the data
available.
Water supply in Cairo seems to be more problematic. With a mean annual rainfall total of only 25-26 mm,
high summer temperatures (27-28˚C) and considerable water loss through evaporation, rainfall alone can
never meet Cairo’s demands for water. The city’s population is currently 9.5 million, i.e. three million more that
in Addis Ababa, yet the city receives less than 3 per cent of the precipitation of the Ethiopian capital.
It is probable that both city regions (and, certainly in Egypt’s case, the whole country) lack the volume of
potable water that their current, and constantly growing, populations require. But it is also reasonable to
suggest that, when ‘expected’ precipitation conditions do occur, it is Cairo (and Egypt generally) which has
the greater lack of rainfall. This is also coupled with a significant loss of water through evaporation, due to
the dry desert air. However, northern Ethiopia should, under ‘normal’ conditions, experience less water
shortage for the reasons outlined earlier.
3 a) My farm is located in the valley of the Blue Nile (which we call the Abbay) as it flows out of the Ethiopian
Highlands towards our boundary with Sudan. Due to the high relief of our area, rainfall can be sufficient for me
to grow the crops my family needs to survive. However, the rains often fail and then we have to take water
from the river so that our crops and animals can survive. In a wet year, we mostly use the river’s water for
domestic purposes; I make pottery goods to earn some money and my wife and daughters use the water for
washing textiles and then dyeing them. We harvest rainwater for drinking and cooking. We mainly grow teff,

barley, millet and pulses. Pulses provide our main source of protein. Sadly, all of these crops (except millet,
which is drought-resistant) are water-intensive. I also try to grow some oilseed - an indigenous
crop called ‘Niger-seed’ – an alternative to animal fats, which our faith forbids us from eating on many
days each year. Oilseed harvests increase when the plants receive greater amounts of water, so keeping
these plants watered is really important and water from the river can help us to increase their yield.
3 b) In Egypt, 90-95 per cent of the total land area is classified as hot desert. In this arid environment, there
could be little or no farming without the irrigation water provided by the River Nile, except in the occasional
oasis or along the country’s coastal Mediterranean lands. Therefore, for all Egyptian farmers, wherever they
live and farm, the overwhelming priority for using water from the river is for farming. Only 3 per cent of Egypt’s
total area is classified as arable land, and this limited area extends along the entire length of the Nile between
the southern border with Sudan and the Mediterranean Sea.
Egyptian farming is predominantly commercial agriculture (i.e. crops grown to be sold within the country or
exported overseas), unlike the north-western regions of Ethiopia where farming is small-scale subsistence
agriculture. Plentiful sunshine and fertile soils along the banks of the Nile provide two of the basic
requirements for profitable agriculture – but, owing to the almost total lack of rainfall, the water necessary
for successful cropping must come from the river. Egyptian farmers can crop at least twice per year, increasing
the demand for water even more as there is no fallow period when irrigation is not required.
In addition, Egypt’s main crops – cotton, rice, wheat and sugar cane/beet - all require significant amounts of
water (e.g. for 1 kg of cotton, it takes 20 000 litres; for 1 kg of rice you need up to 10 000 litres, and wheat
needs up to 4 000 litres/kg) and so the priorities for using the river’s water are much more focused upon
commercial agriculture and maximising profits, providing products for export and bolstering the national
economy. In direct contrast, the nature of agriculture along the Blue Nile is dominated by meeting the domestic
needs of farming families; providing the basic foodstuffs they require and, in a good year, enabling them to sell
any surplus crops and traditional craft goods - both of which bring in money to enhance their daily lives.

Now
Investigate Environmental risks of economic
Answers 3.7 development
Pages 214 and 215: A balancing act?
1 Pupil-led activity depending on location

.
2 Pupil-led activity. Depending on location pupils may talk about areas of desert or high mountains or other
inhospitable landscapes, and there should be some analysis of the opportunities available.
3 Answers will depend on individual pupils but, in general, water should be seen as the priority because it is
the main pre-requisite for life. After that the hierarchy of needs would suggest land for crops would be next and
a comfortable climate to live in. Natural beauty attractive to tourists would be useful but would not have
an impact on ability to survive as many of the other aspects do.
4 a) For agriculture: low, flat land, with deep, fertile soils; no extremes of climate and a long growing season;
reliable supplies of water;
b) for tourism: reliable supply of fresh water, no extremes of climate, areas of natural beauty.
Page 217: Exploiting the natural environment: disaster!
1 The environment around the Aral Sea is harsh and arid with high summer temperatures, very cold winters, and
low rainfall throughout the year. There are now high levels of salinity in the area surrounding the lake as it has
dried up and very little water remains. Violent dust storms also now affect the environment in the area.
2 The sketch map could be a set of three or, perhaps better, one map showing the
original extent of the Aral Sea with the progressive drying up shown in different colours.

3 There is a direct relationship between salinity and the level of water in the Aral Sea. As the water level
decreases there is a corresponding increase in the salinity of the lake.
4 Answers should concentrate on the drastic reduction in water levels in the lake and the fact that the disaster
is almost wholly man-made. There should be discussion about the role played by the governments of
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan as they diverted water away from the lake in order to increase cotton production.
There should also be analysis of the effects on local people and the environment, including the loss of fishing
and the increased incidence of disease from pollutants carried on the wind in violent dust storms. Finally, there
could be a paragraph about the prospects for a better future following collaboration between the World Bank
and the Kazakh government.
Page 219: Exploiting the natural environment: success?
1 The polar regions lie inside the Arctic and Antarctic circles, north of 66 degrees north and south of 66 degrees
south. They are extremely cold, mainly covered in ice with very low levels of precipitation. The long winters with
months when darkness lasts for 24 hours means there is no opportunity for agriculture, making life very hard
for the inhabitants.
2 a) In Greenland, the traditional way of making a living has been through fishing, fish processing, seal hunting and
fur trapping, with a little bit of agriculture on the rare green pieces of land. Recently eco-tourism has been a
boost to the economy and, perhaps more importantly, the growth of mining for lead and zinc, diamonds, copper
and other precious metals and minerals has provided more opportunities for the economy.
2 b) The main problems caused by recent developments are damage to the environment and the pristine
wilderness found in many parts of Greenland. There may also be international disputes over who owns the
waters around Greenland between the governments of the island and other countries as it becomes known
how rich in minerals these seas may be.
3 Answers could concentrate on the visitors coming to see animals such as penguins in their natural habitat,
whale-watching, and people attracted to the beauty of the ice sheets and glaciers. There may also be some
scope for adventure tourism as people want to come and climb the high mountains in one of the most
inhospitable landscapes on the planet.
Pages 221 and 222: How much are we damaging our environment?
1 Pupil-led activity depending on location. Pupils should base their answer on Figure A using examples from
their own home area.
2 Using the images we can see that factories can cause severe air pollution and that mines can cause damage
to the natural environment. It also seems obvious that the mining will also cause damage to watercourses
through the sediment and chemicals washed out of the mine workings.
3 Pupil-led activity depending on location. Pupils should concentrate on the types of transport used in their
local industries - rail, road, sea and air transport - and how these impact on the environment. The answer
should then be expanded to look at the pollution directly from the economic activities themselves whether this
is from factories, agriculture or some other sector.
4 Arguably the greatest danger from pollution is the burning of fossil fuels which causes climate change. More
directly, however, pupils should talk about the acid rain caused by pollution from factories, the damage to
watercourses caused by mining and agriculture and the resultant diseases, including brain damage, which
may be suffered by affected populations. Much of the damage will be done to the people working directly in the
industries involved but there will also be a lot of people affected in the general populace.
Page 224: The world gets warmer
1 a) Pupils should draw a labelled diagram based on that shown in Figure B on page 222.
1 b) Human activities have led to an increase in the burning of fossil fuels for transport, industry and fuel. Burning
down forests to create space for building and farming has also added to the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Methane, another greenhouse gas, has also increased in concentration as people have farmed more padi
fields and increased the amount of cattle in pastoral farming. Finally, halocarbons and chloroflourocarbons
have historically been leaked from aerosols, fridges and freezers.

2 Examples should be based on Figure C and could include: melting polar ice caps and ice sheets in countries
like Greenland; widespread flooding of low-lying areas as sea level rises (for example, in the Carteret Islands);
tropical diseases, for instance, malaria, becoming more common in the countries of Europe; coral reefs in
Belize and Australia bleaching and dying leading to a decrease in tourist revenues.
3 Pupil-led activity depending on location. Local impacts could include loss of habitats, flooding of low-lying
areas and more extreme weather events.
Page 226: Destruction of the forests
1 In general, there has been a global loss of forest cover and, although this has decreased in the decade from
2000 to 2010 compared to 1990 to 2000, the rates of deforestation are still high in Africa and South America.
Oceania has seen a moderate loss of forest cover while there have been success stories in Asia and Europe
which have both seen an increase in the amount of tree cover over the past couple of decades.
2 Pupil-led activity which will require some investigation, either on the internet or through a personal visit by
pupils.
3 a) In 1950, much of the island of Borneo was covered in forest, but this has shown steady and progressive
decline. Initially, the forest on the north coast of the island was removed, followed by that on the southern
and western coasts by the year 2000. Since 2005 the rate of deforestation has increased with more and more
trees removed towards the centre of the country, and by 2020 it is estimated that the only real areas of forest
left will be in the central northern part of the island.
3 b) The main causes of the deforestation in Borneo have been the sale of wood to the USA and Japan to be made
into paper, furniture and chopsticks and, more recently, the planting of oil palm plantations for export. Effects
have included the destruction of habitats for animals such as the pygmy elephant and the orangutan; an
increase in forest fires and subsequent air pollution causing environmental health problems; an increase in soil
erosion; the loss of tourist revenues from visitors who used to come and see the tropical rainforest.
4 a) The removal of forest cover leaves the soil susceptible to soil erosion, either by wind blowing the dry soil or
heavy tropical rains washing it away.
4 b) Although soil eroded by water can be devastating on a local scale it is likely that wind erosion is more
widespread, transporting large amounts of topsoil long distances and depositing it on top of agricultural land or
in watercourses in other areas.
5 Pupil-led activity. Local knowledge may be important here as there may be local news reports of forest
destruction which would lead to areas susceptible to soil erosion.
Pages 228 and 229: How can we conserve the environment?
1 Pupil-led activity with pupils keeping a diary record of their own resource consumption.
2 Pupil-led activity following on from record kept from question 1 on page 228.
3 a) Pupil-led activity comparing the pupil’s own country to those in Figure C. Recycling figures for the country as a
whole should be available on government websites.
3 b) Pupil-led activity based on local knowledge. Pupils should be aware of their own local recycling centres but, if
not, this is an excellent activity for them to discover where they are and to mark and keep them on a map.
4 Pupil-led activity based on local knowledge. Pupils may be aware of local people who have businesses with a
strong element of recycling. If not, this can be run as a whole-class activity pooling knowledge.

Page 231: Looking after our natural environments
1
Country Percentage of total visitors Number of visitors (total 200 000)
United Kingdom 30 60 000
Germany 10 20 000
Other European countries 21 42 000
Japan 15 30 000
USA 11 22 000
Other countries 13 26 000
2 Information from the completed table in question 1 should be shown as a pie chart or bar graph. Chart
and graph supplied. There are positive effects on the reef in that the money spent by tourists can be used to
help environmental protection. However, the large number of people can cause damage by using polluting
vehicles or damaging the coral reefs when snorkeling and diving.
3 a) The Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef system on the planet and one of the wonders of the natural
world. Some of the species found there are found nowhere else on the planet and so need to be protected.
3 b) The Australian government has declared the Great Barrier Reef a marine park in order to protect it. The reef
has been divided into zones to allow people to use it for different purposes and to allow local people to carry
out fishing and other economic activities. The marine park authority controls permits to limit the number of
people using the reef at any one time, can fine companies which pollute the reef, and sends boat patrols to
check up on illegal activity. It also employs rangers to educate the public on the sustainable use of the reef.
Page 234: Conservation management and National Parks
1 Pupil-led activity depending on location although most national parks will have been set up to protect some
kind of animal or plant species or to restrict access and damage to an area of outstanding natural beauty.
2 The UK National Parks have three main aims: to maintain and improve natural beauty, wildlife and culture; to
help the public understand and enjoy their special qualities; to make sure local communities can survive
economically and socially.
3 The Yorkshire Dales has very varied scenery including flat, agricultural land, with fields lined with stone
walls and dotted with historic barns, as well as mountainous land, some showing the industrial heritage
with quarries damaging the landscape. In addition, there are areas of limestone pavement and other limestone
features which are unique to the area. These landscapes are important because many are not found
anywhere else in the UK, and because they show the national park to be a working area still holding many
economic opportunities for local people.
4 Pupil-led activity which should provide a good revision tool for pupils. Problems on the mind map should
include: traffic congestion, noise and visual pollution from quarries, loud noises from military equipment
disturbing the wildlife, and a lack of affordable housing for local people.

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Now Investigate Answers

Section 3 Economic development

Topic 3.1 Development

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 3 : Economic development 1

Page 137: Quality of Life

3 b) Reasons could include:

4 a) Do I have a job? – GDP per capita

4 b) Do I live in a region with an extreme climate?

2 Section 3 : Economic development © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

UN HDI ranking Malawi

5 Group research question.

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 3 : Economic development 3

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

2 b) The tertiary sector

3 b) As for answer 3a.

Page 145: Changing countries, changing work

4 Section 3 : Economic development © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

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Page 147: Changes over time – Newly Industrialised Countries

Page 150: Globalisation

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 3 : Economic development 9

10 Section 3 : Economic development © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

Page 155: What do farmers grow in your local area?

1 Pupil-led answer depending on location.

Page 157: Inputs to the farming system

Page 160: Commercial farming systems

12 Section 3 : Economic development © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

2 Pupils to lead their own investigation using an online calorie counter.

Page 167: The health effects of a shortage of food

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 3 : Economic development 13

14 Section 3 : Economic development © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

Page 173: What do you want to be when you start work?

Page 175: What things are made in my local area?

1 Pupil-led activity depending on location.

Page 177: Manufacturing industries

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3 a) Pupil-led activity depending on location.

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 3 : Economic development 17

Page 183: Where do tourists go on holiday?

Page 186: The importance of global tourism

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Page 188: Tourism in LEDCs

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 3 : Economic development 19