CE 108 – HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD After the Norman Conquest of England, it was
ENGINEERING decreed that:
BRIEF HISTORY OF ROADS
Early roads with hard surfaces were found in
Mesopotamia -3,500 B.C.
Purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest
and for defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods
between neighboring towns and cities
1716-1796
During the 17th century- Napoleon the Great,
Jerome Tresaguet, introduced new methods of
construction and maintenance of stone roads,
he improved the:
 crown
 drainage
 grade of the road
 stone foundation (reducing the depth of
broken stone to 25 centimeters)
1757-1834
Thomas Telford, president and founder of
Institute of Civil Engineers:
 The road foundation course was made
of stones having 3 inches minimum
thickness, 5 inches breadth and 7 inches
height.
 Smaller stones were driven by mauls on
top voids and trued the surfaces by
breaking the projecting points.
 Employed a flat subgrade, providing
slight crown using stones of varying
sizes
1715-1836
England followed the ongoing highway
development started by France.
Macadam Road Concept (John Louden
MacAdam)
1858
Eli Blake invented the first stone crusher and at
the same period, a steam roller weighing 30
tons was introduces in France by its inventor,
Aveling and Porter
EARLY LAWS THAT REGULATES ROADWAY
1. To repair the roads and bridges
2. To repair the castles and the garrisons
3. To aid repel invasions
1. The king’s highway is sacred. Anybody who
occupies any portion thereof, by exceeding the
boundaries of his land, is considered to have
encroached on the king himself. Roads are for
public use. All persons who want to use them
may do so.
2. Property owners adjoining the roads were
required to drain the road, clip any bordering
hedges, and refrain from plowing and planting
trees, shrubs or bushes closer than the specified
distance from the center of the road.
BRIEF HISTORY OF RAILROADS
Started in England in the 19th century during
the industrial revolution. A huge need for
transportation of goods and materials.
Wheeled vehicles pulled by man or animals. The
tracks were to prevent the wagon from leaving
the intended route.
The oldest operation railway Reisszug
documented in 1515
Mine Carts have been popular in Europe
In Late 1760s, plates of cast iron. Metal rails
started
1784, inventions of steam carriage started
Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830s. The
first public railway using steam locomotives
only. First public railway passengers
In 1837, electric locomotive powered by
batteries.
In 1863, First underground railway,
Metropolitan Railway in London
In 1891, AC Electric locomotive
In 1912, first diesel locomotive in Switzerland
In 1938, steam locomotive world speed record,
193kph by Mallard
In 1960s steam locomotive were replaced by
diesel and electric engines
In 1964, First electrified high speed rail
Shinkansen
Since then, more high speeds rail (300kph and
above) in developed countries
In 2007, 575 kph rail by TGV
In 2015, Japan LO series, speed of 603 kph on a
magnetic levitation track, Bullet Train
 d. Phasing road development programs from
considerations of utility and importance as also
THE PHILIPPINE HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION
of financial resource
SYSTEM
e. Evolving a financing system compatible with
Early part of 1900, transportations in this
the cost and benefits
country depended largely on trails, waterways,
railroad, earth roads and partially graveled
roads.
Importance of Highway Planning
The American government initiated the
a. To plan a Road network for efficient and safe
development of roadways in the Philippines,
traffic operation, but a minimum cost;
connecting towns, cities and provinces. The
Construction, maintenance, and vehicle
popular Macadam road type was introduced.
operation costs
After the second world war, the new
b. Arrive at the road system and the lengths of
independent Philippine government, continued
different categories of road which could provide
the rehabilitation and construction of roads and
maximum utility and could be constructed
bridges, through the reparations and war
within the available resource during the plan
damages paid by the Japanese government.
period under construction
Other financial grants and aids received from
c. To fix up date wise priorities for development
the US. Government were used in the
of each road link based on utility as the main
construction and rehabilitation of roads and
criterion for phasing the road development
bridges
program

d. To plan for future requirements and

HIGHWAY PLANNING AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
is an engineering discipline branching from Civil
Engineering that involves the planning, design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of
roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and
effective transportation of people and goods
HIGHWAY PLANNING
Roads and Highways play a vital role in
development of human society. But for every
successful project planning is necessary.
Planning becomes more important when
sources of funds and materials are limited in
quantity.
Thus, for developing a highway or a structure,
planning along with the consultations from
experts are basic requirements.
Objectives of Highway Planning
a. Planning a Highway Network for safe, efficient
and fast movement of people and goods
b. Keeping the overall cost of construction and
maintenance of the roads in the network to a
minimum
improvement of roads in view of anticipated
developments
e. To work out financing system
The Functions of Planners
1. To prepare preliminary design, scope of study
and the initial work program. Know the basic
needs, plan and objectives of affected person
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by
contacting the representatives of other agencies
involved.
3. Detailed Analysis. Prepare detailed plan for
appropriate community interaction
4. Secure formal ratification from the local
officials and have the results documented. If
nothing goes wrong, this step is considered
final.
Planning Difficulties
 Financial
 Political
 Technical
HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING

c. Planning for future development and There are 3 inseparable sets of input involved in
anticipated traffic needs for a specific design highway programming, they are:
period 1. Economic- Deals with the questions of
resources
2. Financial- The question of who pays and who
spends, how much and where
3. Political and Administration- This involves
decision making
Approaches of Highway Programming
a. Financial resources are either short or long
ranged implementation by the agencies
functions like construction, operations and
maintenance
b. Recognition of the legislative and
administrative desire and constraint
c. Tentative priorities based on economic
analysis, critical situations, present and future
expected level of traffic, and claims based on
political subdivisions
d. Providing continuity of route system and
coordination with other transportation mode
e. Selection of projects based on availability of
labor and materials, including climatic
conditions
f. Scheduling the project implementation in
coordination with other agencies, acquiring
right of way and making final plan and
specifications
g. Budgetary Reserve to cover emergencies like
floods and other natural disasters
Direct Effects of Construction and its Use:
Cost of Highways as to:
 Planning Cost
 Right of Way appropriations
 Construction Cost
 Maintenance Costs
 Operating costs
Cost benefits to highway user:
 Vehicles operating costs (including
congestion cost) net income or decrease
in costs of vehicle operation per year
 Travel savings time (commercial). Net
increase or decrease in travel time
multiplied by the peso value of
commercial time
 Motorist’s safety (economic cost
accident) Net change in expected
number of accidents times the average
cost per accident per year
Cost benefits to highway user:
 Motorist’s safety – accident cost of pain
suffering and deprivation
 Comfort and conversion- discomfort,
inconvenience and strain of driving
 Aesthetic from driving viewpoint-
Benefit of pleasing views and scenery
from road
Cost benefits to highway user:
 Traveling savings time. (non-
commercial) Minutes save per vehicle
trip
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Public hearing should involve the public from
the start of planning to give them the chance to
participate in the discussions and involved them
in:
 Solicit the cooperation and support of
public officials, nongovernment
organizations, influential persons and
conservative group of the community
 Create special staff to carry out this
function
 Community leadership opportunity to
participate continuously in the planning
stage.
 Organize and develop skilled persons to
conduct group meeting, workshops,
hearing and other related activities
ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS
A road classification system divides and
categorizes the roads into different groups or
classes depending on the type of service each
road is required to provide. The road
classification system is a fundamental tool for
the infrastructure development and traffic
management of any city. Sorting and grouping
roads that provide similar functions can help
improve transportation planning, road
infrastructure design and maintenance, and
other traffic operations.
Based on Construction Materials Used
Earthen Roads- These roads are also called as
temporary roads usually laid for moving
constructing vehicles while building a structure
or for moving army vehicles during war times.
Gravel Roads- In this type of roads, the mixture
of gravel and earth (available soil at the site) is
paved on the surface and compacted. These
types of roads are easily built and generally laid
in villages
Bituminous Roads- The bituminous is a black
viscous and adhesive material occurred during
the distillation of petrol. Bituminous roads are
primarily used all over the world which is very
easy to lay and provides smooth and good
surface finish. The thickness of bitumen road
depends upon the subgrade soil at the site. It is
always recommended to lay the bitumen roads
in two layers
Concrete Roads- The roads which are laid using
the cement concrete material is called concrete
roads. These are the costlier roads among all
type of roads. This type of roads are
recommended at the places of the high volume
of traffic and it takes more time to construct the
concrete roads as the concrete requires proper
curing.
Based on Rigidity
Flexible Roads- The flexible road has four layers,
the outer surface layer is topped with
bituminous material which is called as wearing
course and an underlying subbase, base and
subgrade course. All these layers make the road
flexible. Periodic maintenance is required for
flexible roads otherwise it can disintegrate
easily with heavy traffic. All roads except
cement concrete roads are flexible roads.
Rigid Roads- These are the roads with only three
layers (Surface course, Base and Subgrade
course) makes road non-flexible. Cement
concrete road falls under this category.
Based on Traffic Type
Cycle Tracks- The tracks which are built
especially for cycles or bicycles are called Cycle
tracks. These tracks are provided on both sides
of the pavement.
Pedestrian Ways- The way or a route built
specifically for the pedestrians where any
vehicles are strictly restricted are called
pedestrian ways.
Motorways-
Based on Speed and Accessibility
Freeways- called as access-controlled highways.
-wide roads designed for fast-moving
vehicles to travel long distances with
higher speeds. Traffic movement on
freeways is continuous and
unhindered because there are no
railway or road intersections and no
signals.
-The driver never comes in contact
with the opposing flow of traffic.
-Freeways are accessed only through
ramps. Bridges or underpasses are
constructed to create a passage for
roads which cross freeways.
Expressways- one of the superior types of
access
controlled roadways where the
entry and exit of the expressway
are fully controlled by ramps.
-designed to travel quickly with
great comfort and safety by
avoiding sharp curves, busy traffic
intersections, railway junctions.
-Vehicles with high acceleration are
only permitted in expressways.
Heavy load vehicles, cargo
vehicles,
pedestrians are not allowed.
Parking, loading and unloading are
strictly prohibited on Expressways.
Highways- connect villages to cities or cities to
cities or state to state or the roads connect the
state capital to the national capital are called
highways. Highways are the roads run through
the length and breadth of the country. They are
generally laid in two lanes. Highways are further
classified into National Highways, State
Highways, Urban Highways and Rural Highways.
Arterials- are the roads laid inside the city or
town for the movement high volume of traffic.
An arterial road joins the central business point
to the outside residential areas. Arterials
provide access to the highways. Pedestrians are
allowed to cross the roads only at intersections
or at designated pedestrian crossings. The flow
of traffic is controlled by a signaling system at
intersections.
Local Streets- don’t carry a large volume of
traffic like arterials. The speed limit is restricted
to 30km/hr in a local street. Local streets allow
you to properties around it. In simple the road
which you to take to reach the nearest
vegetable market is the local street. Pedestrians
can cross the road at any point in local streets.
Unrestricted parking, loading and unloading of
vehicles are allowed in local streets.
Collector Roads- collect and deliver the traffic to
and from local streets and arterials. The speed
limit usually ranges between 35- 55km/hr.
Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at
intersections. Parking can be allowed except at
peak times.
ROAD PATTERS
When a road is constructed in various patterns
(with the interconnection of branch roads and
main roads) for proper management of traffic is
called road pattern.
Grid Iron Pattern- Also known as rectangular Hexagonal Pattern- The basic figure of the road
block pattern and is perhaps the simplest network in this case is a hexagon each hexagon
has at least one side common with an adjacent
Benefits:
pattern
 Grids benefit pedestrians since
Benefits:
there are several routes from
point A to point B.  Travel time and distance are cut
 Grids benefit restaurants and down.
retail establishments since they  Reduced traffic congestion
provide several corner lots.
Drawbacks:
 A grid's navigation is quite
simple.  There should be enough traffic
signs, pavement markings, and
illumination to alert vehicles to
Drawbacks: lower their travel speed and
minimize the risk of accidents.
 Grids are dangerous for
motorists and bicycles because
they contain numerous
HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATIONS
junctions and many potential
conflict places. According to System
 Grids may encourage individuals
National Roads
to take shortcuts through
residential areas. Road Right of Way 20.0m Minimum
 Grids don't work well in places Width of Travelled Way 2 6.70m Minimum
with many hills since they result Lane
in unnecessarily steep streets. Allowable Grade 6.0% Maximum
 Traffic may readily occur on a
grid that is uneven or
Provincial Roads
unfinished.
Road Right of Way 15.0m Minimum
Radial Road Pattern- roads emanate from a
Width of Travelled Way 2 6.10m Minimum
central focal area, which maybe a business
Lane
centre or an important public building.
Allowable Grade 6.0% Maximum
Benefits:

 Less risky compared to a City Roads

rectangular pattern. Road Right of Way 15.0m Minimum
 It reduces the level of Width of Travelled Way 2 6.10m Minimum
congestion at a primary Lane
bottleneck location. Allowable Grade 6.0% Maximum
 If one radial road is blocked
then another can be used as an
alternative. Municipal Roads

Drawbacks: Road Right of Way 15.0m Minimum

Width of Travelled Way 2 6.10m Minimum
 Its design is complex, and it isn't Lane
easy to provide a decent curve. Allowable Grade 6.0% Maximum
 It impacts driving abilities (most
drivers experiencing this issue
Barangay Roads
are senior citizens).
 The appropriate installation of Road Right of Way 10.0m Minimum
traffic signals, road markings, Width of Travelled Way 2 4.00m Minimum
and illumination is required to Lane
alert the driver. Allowable Grade 10.0% Maximum
 Splitter islands must be made
long enough to include a
Tourism Roads
crosswalk and a roundabout
description. Road Right of Way 6.10m Minimum
 Width of Travelled Way 2 2.10m Minimum
Lane
Allowable Grade 6.0% Maximum
Farm to Market Roads
Road Right of Way 6.0m Minimum
Width of Travelled Way 2 4.00m Minimum
Lane
Allowable Grade 6.0% Maximum
HIGHWAY ALLIGNMENT
The laying out of the centre line of a proposed
highway on the ground is called its alignment. A
new road should be aligned carefully since any
change in alignment may not be possible or may
be expensive at a later stage, owing to increased
land acquisition costs and roadside structures
constructed after the road has taken shape.
Horizontal and Vertical Allignment
Horizontal- This is the alignment of the roadway
in the horizontal plane; although it is ideal to
have a straight route between end points, it is
practically impossible owing to several
constraints
Vertical- The vertical alignment of highway
generally defined as the presence of heights and
depths in vertical axis with respect to horizontal
axis of alignment. These heights and depths in
roads may be in the form of gradients (straight
lines in a vertical plane) or vertical curves.
HIGHWAY PLANNING & ALIGNMENT SURVEYS
A basic highway design problem is to find the
most economical alignment connecting two
given end points based on topography,
socioeconomic factors and environmental
impacts, while satisfying a set of design and
operational constraints.
In designing a highway, engineers gather
information about the topography of the area,
ground conditions and possible adverse
environmental impacts.
Design controls are established which ensure
that the highway designed will provide suitable
and safe service for the traffic within the
topography for which it is designed
In the early planning stages of a highway, it is
very important to take the right decisions as far
as selecting alternative alignments and
screening them as this proves to be a time and
money saving method as the project proceeds
into detailed design where less flexibility is
attained.
Requirements of an Ideal Alignment:
1. Directness - The aligned route between end
points should be as direct as possible and result
in the minimum possible length under the
circumstances.
2. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and
Operation -The alignment should be such that it
is easy to construct, maintain and operate the
highway. The curves and gradients should be
easy.
3. Safety - Safety for the road-users should be
the primary consideration; the stability of
natural slopes and man-made slopes for
embankments and cuttings should be ensured
to prevent possible accidents.
4. Economy – the overall cost of construction
and maintenance of the road, as also the
operation cost of the vehicles should be as
lowas possible
5. Special Considerations - Depending upon the
purpose of the highway and the characteristics
of the terrain, special considerations may be
needed as in the case of hill roads or flat roads
Disadvantages due to Improper Allignment
 Increase in construction cost
 Increase in maintenance cost
 Increase in vehicle operation
cost
 Increase in accident cost
Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is
not easy to change the alignment due to
increase in cost of adjoining land and
construction of costly structure.
Historically, poor planning has resulted in
unnecessary delays in project completion. A
delay in project completion often results in
additional costs.
Establishing a preliminary location for a new
road is mainly a trial and error process involving
defining the trial alignment, then checking to
see if it complies with the horizontal and vertical
controls, then modifying it in successive
iterations until all the controls are complied
with. After refining the alignments, a
preliminary design is then conducted on
possible alignments in order to come up with a
cost estimate.
The final decision for selecting an alignment will
depend upon right-of-way and land acquisition
costs, environmental costs, construction costs,
maintenance costs, and user costs
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is otherwise called
photogrammetry. It is the science and art of
obtaining measurements by means of
photography. Photogrammetry is based on
aerial photographs for engineers working data
on:
 Locations
 Planning
 Geometric design
 Right of way
 Traffic Studies
 Drainage
 Soil
 Classifications and identifications
 Earthwork measurements
 Material Location
 Pavement condition survey
Location of Proposed Highways and Bridges
Topography is a major factor in determining the
physical location, alignment, gradients, sight
distance, cross sections and other design
elements of a highway
Highway Location consists mainly of
reconnaissance, topographic surveys,
establishment of horizontal and vertical
controls, centerline staking, centerline profile
and cross-sectional leveling, bridge site survey,
parcellary survey, and other surveys related to
highway engineering
Location Surveys in the Rural Areas are Divided
into 4 Stages:
1. Reconnaissance Survey of the entire area
between the terminal points
 Stereoscopic examination of small
scaled aerial photographs of the area
supplemented by available maps
 Determination control of photography
and land use
 Location of feasible routes based on
photographs and maps
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes
 Stereoscopic examination of large-scale
aerial photographs of each route
 Determination of the detailed control of
photography and land use
 Preparation of route maps by
Photogrammetric methods
 Location and comparison of feasible
routes on photographs and maps
 Selection of the best route
3. Preliminary Survey of the best route
 Preparation of large-scale topographic
maps using the route photograph and
photogrammetric methods or
preparation of large-scale topographic
maps by ground survey guide by the
best route location made on
photographs in the second stage
 Design of the preliminary location
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way,
the highway and the structure for construction
 Staking of the right-of-way and the
highway and structures for construction
Proposed Sites for Stream Crossings
The Location of a highway when crossing a
stream is important for several reasons. For
example:
 Hydrologic and hydraulic considerations
are different when crossing near the
confluence of two streams as compared
to a single stream
 Tidal areas present a list of entirely
different hydraulic considerations
 Whether the structure is a bridge or
culvert can make a difference in the
hydraulic study
Environmental considerations, such as land
usage upstream and downstream.
Location of Bridges
Highway and Bridges have but one purpose- to
convey traffic. The location and position of a
bridge is subordinate to the general alignment
and grade. But sometimes, favorable alignment
has to be sacrifices, only to provide a right angle
crossing to small creek.
Bridge survey report should be accompanied
with accurate data on the waterway and the
historical behavior of the water.
The bridge survey data shall include the
foundation conditions, stream characteristics,
ad the adjacent structure on the stream more
particularly, their waterway opening.
When the location of the bridge is
approximately determined, the following
requirements must be considered:
 A complete data report and special
survey of the site
 Prepare sketches and full -scale map
and profiles
 The survey report must contain accurate
data of the waterway for all behavior of
water
 There must be a complete report on the
foundation condition and the stream
characteristics
 A complete data of the adjacent
structures particularly the waterway
opening
 If possible, skewed bridge should be
avoided.