CHAPTER 1
All persons who want to use them
The Highway and its Development
HISTORY OF ROADS
Mesopotamia
-early roads with hard surfaces were found.
-constructed as early as 3,500 BC
Mediterranean island of Crete
- stone surfaced roads
Purposes of constructing these early roads:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest
and for defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods
between neighboring towns and cities.
Romans
-discovered cement
-roads still exist after 2000 years
Roman roads were laid on three courses:
1. A layer of small broken stones.
2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with
mortar and then compacted firmly.
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks
properly set and bedded with cement mortar.
Jerome Tresaguet
-17th century, France (French engineer)
-reign of Napoleon the Great
-Father of modern road building
-improvement of crown, drainage, grade of the road,
stone foundation reduced depth of broken stones to 25
centimeters.
Thomas Telford
-Scottish engineer born in Westminster Abbey
-founder and president of the Institute of Civil Engineer
-road foundation was made of stones having 3 inches
minimum thickness, 5 inches breadth and 7 inches
height. Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top
voids and trued the surfaces by breaking the projecting
points. Also employed a flat sub-grade.
John Louden Mac Adam
-Macadam road concept (England)
-Scottish engineer
Eli Blake
-1858
-invented the first stone crusher
Aveling and Porter
-steam road roller weighing 30 tons
EARLY LAWS THAT REGULATE ROADWAY
Saxon Laws:
1. To repair the roads and bridges.
2. To repair the castles and the garrisons
3. To aid repel invasions.
After the Norman Conquest of England:
1. The king’s Highway is sacred. Anybody who
occupies any portion thereof, by exceeding the
boundaries of his land, is considered to have
encroached on the king himself. Roads are for
public use.
may do so.
2. Property owners adjoining the roads were
required to drain the road, clip any bordering
hedges, and refrain from plowing and planting
trees, shrubs, or bushes closer than the
specified distance from the road.
HIGHWAYS IN THE PHILIPPINES
Early part of 1900
-transportations depended largely on trails, waterways,
railroad, earth roads and partially graveled roads.
American Government
-introduced the Macadam Road type
After the Second World War
-construction and rehabilitation of roads were paid by
Japanese government as well as financial grants and
aids by the American government.
50 years later
-major highways and expressways were constructed
through loans.
-vehicles of various types and sizes (80000 added every
year) started flooding the roadways.
-DPWH open 400 kilometers new roads every year.
1960 to early part of 1980
-automobile age.
-road construction is a priority
-“This nation is on Wheels.”
PLANNING DIFICULTIES
Highway planners’ problems:
1. Financial - lack of funds
2. Political - corruption
3. Technical – experts/technical men are not
valued
HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING
Inseparable sets of inputs in highway programming:
1. Economic - deals with the questions of
resources
2. Financial - the question of who pays and who
spends, how much and where?
3. Political and Administration - involves decision-
making.
Highway Programming Approaches
1. Financial resources are either short or long
ranged implementation by the agencies
functions like construction, operations, and
maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative
desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis,
critical situations, present and future expected
level of traffic, and claims based on political
subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and
coordination with other transportation mode.
5. Selection of projects based on availability of
labor and materials, including climatic
conditions.
 6. Scheduling the project implementation in influential persons and conservative group of
coordination with other agencies, acquiring the community.
right of way and making final plan and 2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
specifications. 3. Community leadership opportunity to
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like participate continuously in the planning stage.
floods and other natural disasters. 4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct
group meeting, workshops, hearing and other
Direct Effects of Highway and Construction and its Use related activities.

A. Quantifiable market value HIGHWAY ECONOMY

1. Cost of highways as to:
a. Planning cost
b. Right of way appropriations
c. Construction costs
d. Maintenance costs
e. Operating costs
2. Cost benefits to highway users
a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion
cost) net income or decrease in costs of vehicle
operation per year
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase
or decrease in travel time multiplied by the
peso value of commercial time.
c. Motorists’ safety (economic cost accident) Net
change in expected number of accidents times
the average cost per accident per year
The intent of expenditures for highways and public
transportations are enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire
protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and
delivery of related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation
and increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower
cost of operations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value COMPUTATION AND SURVEY

1. Cost benefits to highway user:
a. Motorists’ safety- accident cost of pain suffering Computers can do processing data for many problems
and deprivation. like:
b. Comfort and conversion - discomfort, 1. Projections and statistical studies of traffic and
inconvenience and strain driving. transit passengers.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint – benefit of 2. Economic analysis.
pleasing views and scenery from road. 3. Financial programming.
4. Geometric
C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value 5. Bridges
1. Cost benefits to highway users- traveling savings 6. Pavement design and maintenance
time.(non-commercial) Minutes save per vehicle trip. 7. Pavement management
8. Scheduling for design and construction
THE PLANNER 9. Computation of earthworks and other
quantities both for planning and payment of
Planner’s role: contractors.
1. To provide technical and organizational support.
2. To receive input or information on the needs Computers
and goals of affected persons group or agencies. -provided with stereo plotter for map making and
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making location identification.
decision.
Computer graphics
The functions of the planners are: -display a motorist view of the highway.
1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study
and the initial work program. Know the basic Interactive graphics (environmental simulation)
needs, plan and objectives of affected person. -used without computer
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by
contacting the representatives of other REMOTE SENSING
agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for Remote sensing (Photogrammetry)
appropriate community interaction. -science and art of obtaining measurements by means
4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials of photography.
and have the results documented. If nothing
goes wrong, this step is considered final. Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for
engineers working data on:
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT 1. Locations
2. Planning
Public hearing should involve the public in discussions 3. Geometric design
like: 4. Right of way
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public 5. Traffic studies
officials, non-government organizations, 6. Drainage
7. Soil classifications and identifications
 8. Earthwork measurements  Location survey, staking of the right of way, the
9. Material location. highway and the structure for construction.
10. Pavement condition survey.
Highway Plans and Specification
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING -Plans and Specification are set of documents of
instructions and conditions under which highways and
Flight (End lap) bridges are built.
Runs (Side lap)
The complete detailed scheme for the road which are
Instruments used in converting data from aerial incorporated in the geometric design are:
photographs into maps are: • Traffic
1. The Kelsh and Baplex stereoscopic plotters. • Drainage
2. The wild autograph • Erosion control
3. The Kern PG2 • Roadside development
4. The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph • structures
• Soils
Modern Theodolites • Pavement
-accurate angular triangulation measurement.
Partial List of subjects covered by the standard
Computer is programmed to develop showing the drawing:
following:
1. Profiles • Pipe Culverts
2. Cross sections • Concrete box culverts
3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities • Guard rail and parapet
4. The motorist view of the road • Curbs
• Gutters
A separate map would be plotted easily like: • Curb structure
1. The highways • Sidewalks
2. The drainage • Drainage intel and outlet structures of
3. Housing numerous type
4. Land use and zoning • Manholes
5. Property assessment • Rip-rap and other devices used for bank
protection
Orthophotographs • Fences and right of way
-aerial photographs corrected for scale and fit. • Other survey markets

Colored photographs Specification

-gives detailed information on traffic and parking
studies.
-gives clear information of the geological conditions,
land use, source of materials, surfaces and sub-surface
drainage.
Location Surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4
stages:
 Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
between the terminal points.
 Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
 Preliminary survey of the best route.
 Location survey, staking of the right of way, the
highway and the structure for construction.
Location of Bridge
-Highways and Bridges have but one purpose. To convey
traffic. The Location and position of a Bridge is
subordinate to the general alignment and grade. Lately
however, the general policy for minor roads is to
determine the proper highway location, then provide
the structures. A Skewed Bridge is comparatively more
expensive than the right-angle bridge.
Requirements must be considered when locating of a
bridge:
 Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
between the terminal points.
 Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
 Preliminary survey of the best route.
-Writing is generally different and delicate work
requiring knowledge of the law of contracts as well as
highway practices and experience.
Highway Specification is Divided into two (2):
• Standard Specification - applies to
project implemented by administration
which treat the subject that repeatedly
occurs in agency work.
• Specification Provision - covers peculiar
item of the projects is questions that
includes additional modification to
standard specification.
Importance of Transportation
• Transportation contributes to the economic,
social and cultural development of any country.
Transportation is vital for the economic
development of any region since every
commodity produced whether it is food,
clothing, industrial products or medicine needs
transport at all stages from production to
distribution.
• The inadequate transportation facilities retard
the process of socio-economic development of
the country.
Different Modes of Transportation
• Roadways or highways
• Railways
• Waterways
• Airways
Characteristics of Road Transport
• The characteristics of road transport are briefly
listed here
• Roads are used by various types of road
vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks. But
railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives
and wagons.
• Road Transport requires a relative small
investment for the government. Motor vehicles
are much cheaper than other carriers like rail
locomotives and wagons.
• Road transport offer a complete freedom to
road user to transfer the vehicles from one lane
to another and from one road to another
according to the needs and convenience.

Scope of Highway and Traffic Engineering

• Such as road are therefore termed as
highway and the science and
technology dealing with roads are
generally called highway engineering
• Highway engineering dealss with
various phase like;
• Development
• Planning
• Alignment
• highway material
• Traffic Control
• Highway geometric design and location
• Pavement Design
• Construction and maintenance
• Economic considerations
• Financial and administration

Scope of the highway engineering

• Development, planning and action
– historical background, basis for planning,
master plan, engineering surveys and highway
alignment.
• Highway Design, geometrics and structure
– Road geometrics and their design, rigid and
flexible pavement, design factors and thickness
design, overlay design, design of drainage
system
• Traffic performance and its control
– Traffic studies analysis, need for new road
links, traffic regulation and control, intersection
design and their controls with sign, signals and
markings.
• Materials, construction and maintenance
– Highway material and mix design, highway
construction, earthwork, construction of
different types of pavements, WBM, pavement
failure, pavement evaluation, maintenance of
pavements.
• Economics, finance and administration
– Road user cost and economic analysis of
highway projects, pavement types and
maintenance measures, highway finance.