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A.Y.
2021 – 2022, 1st Semester

HRE 313 – Highway and Railroad Engineering
Module #1
CHAPTER 1: THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
1.1 Brief History of Roads
Early roads were constructed as early as 3,500 BCE in the land of Mesopotamia.
Early road systems were constructed primarily for the following purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for defense against invasion
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and cities
The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded their empire through extensive road networks.
Characteristic of Roman Roads:
In the 17th century, under the reign of Napoleon the Great, France made great stride on road
construction.
Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796) – the famous French engineer introduced new method of
construction and maintenance of stone roads. He was titled as the “Father of the modern road
building”.
Thomas Telford (1757-1834) – Scottish Engineer, the president and founder of the Institute of
Civil Engineer, improves Tresaguet’s methods.
John Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836) – introduced the Macadam Road concept.
Saxon Law - early laws that regulates roadway which imposes three mandatory duties;
1. To repair the roads and bridges
2. To repair the castles and the garrisons
3. To aid repel invasions
After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed that:
1. The king’s highway is sacred. Anybody who occupies any portion thereof by exceeding the
boundaries of his land, is considered to have encroached on the king himself. Roads are for
public use. All persons who want to use them may do so.
2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain the road, clip any bordering
hedges, and refrain from plowing and planting trees, shrubs, or bushes closer than the
specified distance from the center of the road.
A.Y. 2021 – 2022, 1st Semester
Module #2
(Continuation from Module #1)
1.2 Highways in the Philippines
In the early part of 1900, transportations in the Philippines depended largely on trails, waterways,
railroad, earth roads and partially graveled roads. The American government initiated the
development of roadways in the country, connecting towns, cities and provinces. The popular
Macadam road type was introduced.
The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was considered the automobile age. It was during this decade
that road construction becomes a matter of priority of the government under the slogan: “This
Nation is on Wheels”.
1.3 Planning Difficulties
Engineers are conscious of the need for roadways to be safe, useful and attractive. These needs
include improvement of the roadside, erosion control, and noise abatement.
Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted with problems categorized as follows:

1. Financial – the economic condition of the government dictates the budget allotted for road
construction.
2. Political – road development plans that are carefully studied by engineers are twisted by
politicians to suit their political interests. Rational planning is no longer the
objective process but rather by the politician’s decision.
3. Technical – Public confidence towards the ability of an Engineer to solve the problems toward
road construction started to diminish. These seems to affect the Engineers that lost
confidence to themselves.
1.4 Highway Programming
Three aspects that is involved in highway programming:

1. Economic – deals with obtaining the resources
2. Financial – deals with the flow of the resources
3. Political and Administration – deals with the decision making
Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use
A. Quantifiable Market Value (Halaga ng kalsada na maaring mabili ng pera)

1. Cost of Highway as to:
a. Planning Cost
b. Right of Way Appropriations
c. Construction Cost
d. Maintenance Cost
e. Operating Cost
2. Cost Benefits to Highway Users
a. Vehicles Operating Cost
b. Travel Saving Time
c. Economic Cost Accident
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value (Halaga ng kalsada na hindi kayang bilihin)

1. Cost Benefits to Highway User
a. Motorist Safety – Life of the drivers, passenger or pedestrians
b. Comfort and Conversion
c. Aesthetic from Driving Viewpoint
C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value (Bagay na hindi mapapaltan o mabibili)

1. Time saved during travel
1.5 The Planner
Planner – a person under an agency or company that coordinates with the project heads, community
members and construction crew.
Role of the planner:
1. To provide technical and organizational support
2. To receive information on the needs of affected people, group or agency
3. Incorporate the list above for planning and decision making
1.6 Community Involvement
Road construction requires to notify the public or community through courtroom proceedings or
public hearing. Public hearing should involve the community from the start of planning to give
them a chance to participate in discussions and involved them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials and NGOs
2. Create special staff to carry out this function
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stage
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops and other
related activities
Module #3
1.7 Highway Economy

There are many designs and administrative decisions that does not involve public policy, but these
should be made by selecting the alternative that is cheapest in the long run.
The reason why we create highways and public transportation:

1. To augment the country’s level of economy
2. To provide easy access to working place
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection and other emergencies
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property assessment
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and maintenance
7. Benefit in time saving
8. Less road accident
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel
1.8 Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry – also called Remote Sensing. It is the science of obtaining measurements by
means of photography based on aerial photographs for engineers working data on:
1. Locations 6. Drainage
2. Planning 7. Soil Classifications and Identifications
3. Geometric Design 8. Earthwork Measurements
4. Right of Way 9. Material Location
5. Traffic Studies 10. Pavement Condition Survey
Photogrammetric Mapping – a vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed almost straight
downward which is most useful mapping for highway purposes.
Instruments used for aerial photographs data into maps:

1. Kelsh and Baplex Stereoscopic Plotters 3. Kern PG2
2. Wild Autograph 4. Zeiss Stereoplanigraph
Type of data collected from photogrammetric mapping:

1. Profiles 3. Cut and Fill of Earthwork Quantities
2. Cross Sections 4. The Motorist View of the Road
**Features of the highway that photographs cannot identify are located by ground measurements.
Google Map and Google Earth uses Photogrammetry for their features.
Colored Photographs – the ground have different colors to indicate difference in elevation between
points.
Module #4
1.9 Proposing a Location for Highway Construction
Factors considered when designing a highway:

1. Reliable Cost Estimate
2. Character and Hourly Distribution of Traffic
3. Economic and Community Benefit Factor
4. Availability of Funds
Stages for Location Survey:

1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area from the start of the road to its end
a. Stereoscopic exam of aerial photographs of the whole area
b. Determining of photograph and land use
c. Location of feasible routes based on the photos and maps
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes
a. Stereoscopic exam of aerial photographs of the feasible routes
b. Preparations of route maps by Photogrammetric method
c. Comparing the feasible routes
d. Selecting of the best route
3. Preliminary Survey of the best route
a. Surveying of the best route
b. Making preliminary design for the best route
4. Location Survey
a. Staking of the Right of Way
1.10 Proposing a Location of Bridges

Highway and Bridges main purpose: To convey traffic
Stages for Proposing a Bridge

1. Complete data report and survey of the site
2. Prepare full-scale map and profiles
3. Acquiring accurate data of the waterway and the history on behavior of the water
4. Detail a complete report on the foundation condition, stream characteristics, adjacent structures
and waterway opening
5. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided
Skewed Bridge – a bridge that has a support (abutment or pier) which is not perpendicular to the
centerline of the bridge
Module #5
1.11 Highway Plans and Specification
Plans – contains engineering drawings of the project

Specifications – written instructions and conditions considered as integral part of the contract
between the contractor and the highway agency classified as legal documents.
*The Plan
Plans should incorporate the following in the highway or bridge design:
1. Traffic 5. Structure
2. Drainage 6. Soils
3. Erosion Control 7. Pavements
4. Roadside Development
How to Present a Road Plan:

1. Upper part of the sheet is for the plan, top view of the horizontal alignment, right of ways,
drainage arrangement and other features.
2. Lower part of the sheet is for the natural ground elevation and vertical aspect of the road. The
stations shown in top view should correspond to the stations in the vertical elevation.
3. The scale of the vertical elevation should be exaggerated for more precise detail
4. Drainage, Channels and Ramps should also be included in the plan
5. The estimated earthwork quantities should be shown in the plan for easier access for both
engineers and contractors
6. Roadway cross sections should be indicated on another sheet of the plan
7. Another sheet is dedicated for showing structures and roadways that are essential as benchmark
for the project
Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:

1. Pipe Culverts 7. Drainage Inlets and Outlets Structure
2. Concrete Box Culverts 8. Manholes
3. Guard Rail and Parapet 9. Rip-rap and other Bank Protection Devices
4. Curbs and Curb Structures 10. Fences and Right of Ways
5. Gutters 11. Other Survey markers/Benchmarks
6. Sidewalks
*The Specification
Specifications writing is generally different and a delicate work requiring knowledge of the law of
contracts as well as highway practices and experiences.
Highway Specification is divided into two:

1. Standard Specification – it is the instructions in the project that repeats almost every time in all
road projects that the implementation of such instruction became standard
2. Special Provision – modification on the standard specifications that is unique to the project in
question.
a. Legal matters regarding the bidding, awarding, execution and control of the project
b. Specific instruction regarding the type of material, manner of work execution, &
measurement of payment
Module #6
CHAPTER 2: SOIL
2.1 SOIL
Soil – accumulation of unconsolidated sediments and deposits of solid particles as a result of the
integration of rocks. Soil is the most important material in any structure, it is where we construct our
infrastructure and where we gather the material needed for construction.
Pedology – study of soil.
Category of Soil:
1. Residual Soil – also called Sedimentary Soil
– are product of weathering that remained in the location of their origin.
2. Transported Soil – soil that are transported away from their place of origin by means of gravity
wind, water, glacier or human activity.
Classification of Soil:
Class Particle Size Description
Gravel 2 – 75 mm Known as coarse grain soil due to their individual
particles are large enough to be distinguished without
magnification.
Sand 0.05 – 2 mm Granular material composed of finely divided rocks
and mineral particles.
Silt 0.002 – 0.05 mm Made up of rock and mineral particles that are larger
than clay but smaller than sand. The presence of silt
can be detected through its grittiness when small
amount is bitten between the teeth.
Clay < 0.002 mm a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing
clay minerals.
Particles that are larger than gravel are referred as cobbles (75 mm – 256 mm) or boulders (> 256 mm).
Soil with clay should not be used close to any roadway surface due to possibility of capillary action.
Dilatancy – occurs when soil is disturbed due to shaking (earthquake or any movement on the surface)
then the water will surface and the soil particles settles at the bottom. This can be observed in quicksand.
Coarse Grain Materials – considered as a satisfactory construction material.
Composition of Soil:
Every soil deposit has a void space between particles, which is either filled with water or gases. Only
when the soil masses are compacted can these parts be observed.
VA
VV
WW VW
VT
WT
WS VS
Engineers are interested to know the properties of soil deposit, specially, the strength and compressibility
because they are necessary in determining the bearing capacity and stability of the foundation.
The strength and compressibility of soil depends in its:

1. Density – the ratio of the mass of the object to its volume
2. Water Content – the percentage of water in a soil deposit
3. Degree of Saturation – the percentage of water to the volume of the void
4. Void Ratio – the ratio of the volume occupied by the voids to the volume occupied by the soil solid
Porosity – determines if the object is porous, the ability of material to absorb or flow a fluid.
Specific Gravity – ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard substance (usually water)
Determining Soil Properties:

Ws = Weight of Soil Solid γwet = Unit Weight of Soil Sample
Ww = Weight of Water γdry = Unit Weight of Soil Solid
Wt = Weight of Soil Sample γwater = Unit Weight of Water = 9.81 kN/m3
Va = Volume of Air Gs = Specific Gravity of the Soil

Vw = Volume of Water e = Void Ratio
Vs = Volume of Soil Solid n = Porosity
Vv = Volume of Void ω = Moisture Content or Water Content
s = Degree of Saturation
Vv = Va + Vw γdry = Ws / Vt s = V w / Vv
Vt = Vv + Vs γwet = Wt / Vt e = Vv / Vs = (Va + Vw) / Vs
Wt = Ws + Ww γs = Ws / Vs e=1/n
ω = Ww / Ws Gs = γs / γwater
Example 1: A soil sample was taken to a laboratory and was weighed. It was then determined that the
volume of the air is 2cm3, volume of water is 3cm3, and volume of solid is 10cm3.
a. Determine the soil’s void ratio
b. Determine the soil’s porosity
c. Determine the wet unit weight of the soil, given that the sample weighs 1N
Solution:
a. e = (Va + Vw) / Vs c. Vt = Va + V w + Vs
e = (2cm3 + 3cm3) / 10cm3 Vt = 2cm3 + 3cm3 + 10cm3
e = 0.5 Vt = 15cm3
b. e=1/n γwet = Wt / Vt
0.5g = 1 / n γwet = 1N / 15cm3
n=2 γwet = 0.067 N/cm3
Example 2: A 200m3 sample of wet soil weighs 300kN. The weight of the soil becomes 260kN when
dried. The soil sample has no air. Determine the dry unit weight and the volume of the soil solid.
Solution:
a. γdry = Ws / Vt
γdry = 260kN / 200m3
γdry = 1.3 kN/m3
b. W t = Ws + Ww
300kN = 260kN + W w
Ww = 40kN
γwater = Ww / Vw
9.81kN/m3 = 40kN / Vw
Vw = 4.0775m3
Vt = Va + Vw + Vs
200m3 = 0 + 4.0775m3 + Vs
Vs = 195.9225m3
γs = Ws / Vs
γs = 260kN / 195.9225m3
γs = 1.327 kN/m3
*specific gravity of water = 1

*subukan gamitin ang iba’t-ibang equation ng soil property upang makita kung aling equation ang
makakapagbigay ng sagot
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS):
The USCS is a classification system used in engineering and geology to describe the texture and grain
size of the soil.
How to use the USCS table:

1. Using a ruler, trace the percentage line that corresponds to the class of the soil given
2. The intersection of the line determines the type of the soil
3. If the intersection is between the borders of two or more type, both must be listed
Example 1: Determine the type of the soil given that its composition is: Clay 30%, Silt 25%, Sand 45%
Answer: sandy clay loam – clay loam
Example 2: Determine the type of the soil given that its composition is: Gravel 10%, Clay 30%, Silt
27%, Sand 33%.
Solution: Since the soil sample has gravel, we must first determine the percentage of the Clay, Silt and
Sand without the Gravel using Ratio and Proportion.
%
Sand: = , new %Sand: 36.67%
( )
%
Clay: = , new %Clay: 33.33%
( )
%
Silt: = , new %Silt: 30%
( )
Answer: gravelly clay loam
*Add “gravelly” to the answer

if the soil sample has gravel
Module #7
CHAPTER 2: SOIL
(Continuation)
2.2 ROCKS
Rocks – natural aggregate of minerals connected by strong bonding of attractive forces classified as
consolidated materials.
Types of Rocks according to their origins:
1. Igneous Rock – formed from a cooled and hardened magma.
Magma – molten rock stored under the Earth’s surface
Lava – molten rock that reached the Earth’s surface through volcanic vents
2. Sedimentary Rock – accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains of organisms that have harden
by pressure or cemented by materials.
3. Metamorphic Rock – rocks that metamorphize due to:
a. changes in temperature
b. pressure and plastic flow
c. changes on the original rock structure and mineral composition of the rock
2.3 WEATHERING
Weathering – process in which rocks and minerals are broken down or dissolved
Types of Weathering:
1. Mechanical Weathering – physical disintegration of rocks due to wind, water, friction or earthquakes
2. Chemical Weathering – decomposition of rocks due to chemical reactions.
*Soils are products of weathered rocks, deposited sediments, and/or organism’s feces.
Module #8
CHAPTER 3: ROAD DESIGN
3.1 The Road Design Elements
Consistency – The element of the roadway that conforms to the expectation of every driver. It is
considered as the most important rule of highway design.
If a road has sharp turns, irregular slopes or changing flow of traffic in which the driver may be caught
in surprise, accident is bound to happen.
(Kung biglaan ang pagbabago ng mga parte ng isang kalsada, maaari itong magdulot ng aksidente.)
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic and road standards.
American Association of State Highway Officials (ASSHO) – established in 1914.

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) – established in 1973,
it was the result of merging of AASHO and Department of Transportation. It is a committee that
was tasked of preparing specifications manual and standards, representing the current highway
engineering practice.
AASHTO Publications:
1. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests
2. Specifications for Highway Bridges
3. Geometric Design Standards
4. Numerous Policy, Statements and Guides
Module #9
3.2 Types of Roads and Highways
Roads and Highways – a strip of land that have been cleared and improved for transportation
Road – general term for public thoroughfare. It can also refer to railways.
Highway – originated from England as a term to patch of land that was made by digging on its side to use
the higher patch of land for transportation
*The term “Road” and “Highway” are almost interchangeable*
Control of Access – determines if the land ownership adjacent to a highway is fully or partially controlled
by public authority.
Full Access Control – a roadway is only accessed via entrance and exit ramps or gates
Partial Access Control – a direct access to and from adjacent private properties is prohibited or limited
Expressway – a divided highway and generally provided with grade separation at major intersections
Freeway – an expressway with full access control
Arterial Road (Primary Road) – Direct access service to abutting land is subordinate to providing service
to through traffic movements on the highway
Collector Road (Secondary Road) – road that connects an arterial roads and local roads. The roads often
have grid-like pattern when viewed from top
Local Road (Tertiary Road) – a way used primarily for residence, business or adjoining properties. It is
constructed and maintained by the LGUs
Through Road – road that are often used on small streets or subdivisions
*In the Philippines this was proposed to be the standard Road Sizes.
Legend:
Expressway
Arterial Road
Collector Road
*Local Road are too small to see in the map provided
Module #10
3.3 Design Speed
Design Speed – it is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a section of the road when weather
and traffic condition are favorable that the design of the road governs. It is the speed determined for
design and correlation of physical feature of a highway that influence vehicles operation.
AASHTO’s Practice in Designing the Design Speed:

1. Determine if the road is Rural or Urban
2. Determine if Freeway, Expressway, Arterial, Collector or Local
Minimum Recommended Design Speed:

Design Speed
ROAD
Urban (km/hr) Rural (km/hr)
Freeway and Expressway 80 – 95 110 – 95 (if mountainous)
Arterial 64 – 95 80 – 110
48 (in built up areas)
Collector 48 60 – 90 (if flat road)
45 – 75 (if sloped)
30 – 60 (if mountainous)
Local 32 – 48 45 – 75 (if flat road)
30 – 60 (if sloped)
30 – 45 (if mountainous)
Module #11
3.4 Elements of Road
A. Road Shoulder – portion of the road between the lanes and ditches, gutter or curb. A continuous white
strip of line is used to separate the vehicle lane and the shoulder
Purpose of Road Shoulder:

1. Place for vehicle to stop when encountered engine problems
2. Decreases the traffic volume and accident rates
3. Increases structural strength of road pavement
4. Increases horizontal sight distance for driver that helps faster administration of the vehicle brakes
Road Shoulder Sizes:

Shoulder Width (m) Vehicle Roadway Width Total Road Width Reference Speed
(m) (m) (km/hr)
3.25 14 20.5 40 – 100
3.25 12 18.5 40 – 60
2.75 7 12.5 40 – 100
2.75 6.7 12.2 40 – 100
2.75 6 11.5 40 – 80
2.00 7 11 40 – 80
2.00 6.7 10.7 40 – 80
1.50 6 9 40 - 80
Thickness of Paved Road Shoulder:

Thickness Material Used for Paving Type of Road
230 mm Concrete National Road / Expressway
75 mm Asphalt National Road / Expressway
150 mm Concrete Arterial Road
50 mm Asphalt Arterial Road
Road Shoulder can differ from the standard design if a special provision was deemed necessary by the
planners.
B. Road Cross Slope – the design of the road which make a part of road higher than the others to prevent
water from accumulation on the road’s center
Crown – the highest point of the road, usually coincide at the centerline of the road. Crown can also be
placed at the side of a curved road with super elevation.
Slope requirement of road:
Slope (%, Rise/Run) Material Used Part of the Road
1–2 Concrete Pavement Roadway
3–6 Concrete Road Shoulder
4–6 Gravel Road Shoulder
7, if the road side is grassy
C. Road Median – is a space between lanes that separates lane of opposite direction
Advantages of Road Median:

1. Reduce headlight glares from opposing cars
2. Refuge for crossing pedestrian
3. Additional space for left-turn lanes
4. Safer and smoother operation of vehicle
5. Minimizes accidents where the vehicle tends to jump on the opposing lane (crossing accidents)
6. Road median can be used as plant beds, in which the dense plant can serve as safety crash barriers
Road Median Size:
Road Median Width (m) Location
18 – 27 Rural Freeway and Expressway
3–9 Suburban and Mountainous Locations
18 Arterial Roads
6 – 18 U-turn and Turning locations
1.2 – 1.8 Horizontally-curved road
*This is the proposed road median width but are often not followed due to lack of proper planning
Road Median can also be paved by concrete or asphalt, but are installed with crash barriers to prevent
vehicles from crossing the opposing lane.
Types of crash barriers that reduces crossing accident:
1. Deterring Devices – uses road signs, paint or warning devices to signal the drivers
2. Non-traversable Energy Absorbing Barriers – barriers that deforms when a vehicle collides, absorbing
the vehicle’s kinetic energy
3. Non-traversable Rigid Barriers – sturdier than the energy-absorbing barriers, in which the kinetic energy
of the vehicle is not absorbed
4. GM Barriers – also called as Jersey Barrier, Jersey Wall or Jersey Bump. Either made of concrete or
plastics.
The concretes are often placed as permanent border along the median while the plastic, since it is
lighter, are used for temporary border. The plastic barrier are filled with water to fulfill its purpose.
D. Island – area between road lanes for control of vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge.
Purposes of Island:
1. Separation of opposite vehicular flows
2. Reduction in excessive pavement areas
3. Reduction of traffic
4. Reduction of signs on proper use of intersection
5. Designed to aid drivers in turning movements
6. Location for traffic control devices
*Road Median is a type of Island*

Module #12
3.5 Interchange
Freeway Interchange – also called as highway junction, is an interconnecting roadway to permit vehicular
flow on a route without interruption from crossing traffic.
Functions of Freeway Interchange:

1. To provide separation between two or more arterial roads
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to the other or between local road and freeway
Types of Freeway Interchange:
A. Cloverleaf Interchange – a four-legged junction that allows left turn by the aid of non-directional
loops
Problems encountered with Cloverleaf Interchange:

1. Requires a large land area
2. More time consuming when traversing the loop
3. Hazardous sharp curves and steep slopes
4. After a vehicle leave the loop, it may obstruct the other that are already in the lane
B. Stack Interchange – a four-legged junction that allows both left and right turn by a ramp
Problems encountered with Cloverleaf Interchange:

1. Most expensive type of four-legged interchange
2. Their tall appearance can obscure vision
C. Turbine Interchange – also called as whirlpool interchange, is a four-legged interchange. It features

a clockwise spiral interchange at its center.
D. Diamond Interchange – a four-legged junction that has four ramps for vehicle entering and leaving
the freeway. It is the most economical in terms of materials and land area.
E. Y-Type Interchange – also called T-Type Interchange, a three-legged junction without loop. It allows
the driver to turn left or right according to its orientation.
F. Trumpet Interchange – also called Jug Handles, a three-legged junction. It concentrates vehicles
entering or exiting the freeway into a single stretch of roadway.
*Different combination of interchange is possible in one stretch of roadway*

Freeway/Expressway Entrance and Exit
NLEX, SLEX, SCTEX, and other expressway are accessible via toll gate. The toll gate allows for
vehicle to enter the freeway.
Traffic Scenario on a Freeway:

Merging – a vehicle from a lighter traffic changes lane into a heavier traffic lane, often done by vehicles
that will enter a freeway/expressway
Diverging – a vehicle from a heavier traffic changes lane into a lighter traffic lane, often done by vehicles
that will exit a freeway/expressway
Weaving – a vehicle that changes lane from its original lane then returns to its original lane later
Module #13
3.6 Intersection
Road Intersection – is where two or more roads meet where vehicle conflicts potentially occur
Conflict Points – are location at which vehicles tend to collide with each other
Difference between an Intersection and Interchange:

Interchange Intersection
Allows vehicles to make turn while maintaining its Requires the vehicle to slow down or fully stop
speed before traversing the road
Uses ramp to separate lanes, entrance, and exit The road has the same elevation
Informational traffic signs are used such as speed Traffic Devices are installed to prevent collision
limit and exit marks accident such as traffic lights and ramps
Roundabout – a circular intersection where drivers travel counterclockwise around a center island. This
reduces conflict point in an intersection due the vehicle traversing a single direction
Intersection at Freeway:
1. For perpendicular intersections with small traffic, signages will suffice
2. Channelization may be required for three-legged intersection that has unfavorable angle
3. Intersections and radius of curves must be able to accommodate large trucks
Module #14
3.7 Right of Way
Right of Way – the right to make a way over a piece of land to allow transportation over that land.
This is often requested by private land owner to highway agencies (DPWH, PEO, LGUS, etc.).
The land owners would request a patch of land outside their property that is connected to a barangay or
local road.
Conflicts arise between land owners when a right of way was requested to the part of their land
because the land owners refused to reduce their property area.
*It is advisable for the owner of Property D to sell it to neighboring property owners, this way it could
prevent further conflict for Right of Way for the other property owners.
*Likewise, it is advisable on the owners of Property A, B, or C to buy the Property D, so they will not
encounter the reduction of their property area when Right of Way was requested
Footpath – a land with right of way for pedestrian, where it can be travelled on foot only
Bridleway – a land with right of way for pedestrian, cyclist and equestrians but not for motorized vehicles
3.8 Road Alignment
Principle of Road Alignment:

1. Road Alignment is a 3-dimensional problem - it is difficult to analyze and design a 3D construction
2. Simplification of designing is necessary – to design a road, it must be simplified into a 2D problem
a. Horizontal Alignment – deals with the road’s width, left and right turns that a vehicle would
travel.
b. Vertical Alignment / Profile – deals with the road’s crest, smoothness of vehicle’s up and down
motion, and vertical sight distance
3. Vehicle dynamics – studies the volume flow of the vehicles on a roadway
To better understand, click on the video link provided:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELzTygJbZYE
Module #15
CHAPTER 4: COMPUTATION FOR ROAD DESIGN
Introduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9XIjqdk69O4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42nqTeOzYd8
4.1 Designing a Vertical Curve
a. Type of Vertical Curve according to Opening:

1. Summit Curve – vertical curve with gradients that meets above the curve
Summit – highest point of the curve
2. Sag Curve – also called Valley Curve, vertical curve w/ gradients that meets below the curve
Dip – lowest point of the curve
b. Type of Vertical Curve according to Design:

1. Symmetrical Curve
2. Unsymmetrical Curve
4.1.1 Vertical Symmetrical Parabolic Curve

Where:
PC = Point of Curvature g1 = grade line from PC
PT = Point of Tangency g2 = grade line from PT
PI = Point of Intersection c = difference in elevation on any point
H= (g1 + g2)
To better understand the nature of the curve, watch the link provided:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SFSEklYN3T0
Module #16
CHAPTER 4: COMPUTATION FOR ROAD DESIGN
4.1 Designing a Vertical Curve

(continuation…)
4.1.2 Vertical Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve
Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve – occurs when two vertical symmetrical curves are connected
For determining the location of the summit or the dip
To learn the derivation of the formulas, watch the link provided:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJHgz-JZy2M

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A.Y.

2021 – 2022, 1st Semester

CHAPTER 1: THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Brief History of Roads

CHAPTER 1: THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

(Continuation from Module #1)

1.2 Highways in the Philippines

1.3 Planning Difficulties

Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted with problems categorized as follows:

1.4 Highway Programming

Three aspects that is involved in highway programming:

A. Quantifiable Market Value (Halaga ng kalsada na maaring mabili ng pera)

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value (Halaga ng kalsada na hindi kayang bilihin)

C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value (Bagay na hindi mapapaltan o mabibili)

1.5 The Planner

1.6 Community Involvement

CHAPTER 1: THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1.7 Highway Economy

The reason why we create highways and public transportation:

Instruments used for aerial photographs data into maps:

Type of data collected from photogrammetric mapping:

CHAPTER 1: THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1.9 Proposing a Location for Highway Construction

Factors considered when designing a highway:

Stages for Location Survey:

1.10 Proposing a Location of Bridges

Stages for Proposing a Bridge

CHAPTER 1: THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1.11 Highway Plans and Specification

Plans – contains engineering drawings of the project

How to Present a Road Plan:

Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:

Highway Specification is divided into two:

The strength and compressibility of soil depends in its:

Determining Soil Properties:

Va = Volume of Air Gs = Specific Gravity of the Soil

*specific gravity of water = 1

How to use the USCS table:

Answer: sandy clay loam – clay loam

Answer: gravelly clay loam

*Add “gravelly” to the answer

CHAPTER 3: ROAD DESIGN

3.1 The Road Design Elements

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

American Association of State Highway Officials (ASSHO) – established in 1914.

CHAPTER 3: ROAD DESIGN

3.2 Types of Roads and Highways

CHAPTER 3: ROAD DESIGN

3.3 Design Speed

AASHTO’s Practice in Designing the Design Speed:

Minimum Recommended Design Speed:

CHAPTER 3: ROAD DESIGN

3.4 Elements of Road

Purpose of Road Shoulder:

Road Shoulder Sizes:

Thickness of Paved Road Shoulder:

Advantages of Road Median:

*Road Median is a type of Island*

CHAPTER 3: ROAD DESIGN

Functions of Freeway Interchange:

Types of Freeway Interchange:

Problems encountered with Cloverleaf Interchange:

Problems encountered with Cloverleaf Interchange:

Road Median is a type of Island

Different combination of interchange is possible in one stretch of roadway