Blo Mr. Mot > KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER re © Solid Materials: o Particles behavior: * Arranger Regular pattern, so they have fixed shape. * Bonding fe There are strong attraction forces between them, so they are tightly close to each other and they don’t flow, The particles vibrate but without ositions. o When solids are heated: = Their particles: 1, Gain more K.E., so they speed up. 2. The vibrations take up more space, but without changing position. 3. The volume is slightly increased in all directions, which is called "Thermal expansion’ = The reverse happens when the solids cool down, which is called “Thermal contraction". "More heat causes change in state to the liquid state. co Expansion for different solids: = The expansion depends on: - The type of this material (Aluminium, brass, steel, concrete, glass, Pyrex glass, invar, etc...). - The size of the material Increases with their increase - The temperature of the material ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBloc Mr. Moha © Typical examples: (1) Using steel rods to support the concrete in buildings because they have the same expansion rate. (2) Agap is left between the rails of the train to allow a space for expansion when it’s hot. (3) Overhead electricity cables are left slack when they are suspended from pylons, Why? (4) Concrete roads: gaps between sections are left and filled with pitches (soft material) to prevent them from cracking and allow thermal expansion when it’s hot ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Bloc Mr. Mohan ° Useful applications for solids expansion: ing steel ty Consists of bimetal strip which is two thin bonded strips of different materials which have different expansion rate. Used to control the electric heater to help keep a steady temperature. Also used in irons, Electrical connection Bi-metalic strip _a— Higher Metal Strip Electrical Contacts | =| .— Lower Metal Strip Closed Electrical Contacts connection Contact Electrical Contacts Movement open due to Heat Open circuit ae Pinan Contact WN Metal sip 8 ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mohe © Liquid Materials: o Particles behavior: + Arrangement; Random arrangement, so they don't have fixed pattern (shape). They take the shape of the container. Bonding force: Strong attraction forces between them make them close ‘together, yet they have weaker bonds than in Solids. - They have fixed volume due to this and they are incompressible. The particles vibrate so vigorously that they appear to move around randomly, so they flow and change positions. co When liquids are heated: = Their particles: 1, Gain more K.E., so they speed up. 2. The vibrations take up more space, but more than in solids. They move around faster. 3. The volume is slightly increased in all directions more than in solids: “ Thermal expansion”, - That's why a space must be left at the top when storing a liquid in a sealed container! —_ [325 Rey —_ * More heat causes change in state to the gas state. = Liquids’ expansion rate depends on: 1 ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Blo Mr. Mot © Gas Materia © Particles behavior: 2” 2 . 2» \ :, Random arrangement, so they: \n Fos - Don't have fixed pattern (shape). 72 >°% - They take the shape of the container. 2 ACS / 2 + Bonding fore: - Very weak attraction forces between the particles, so they are far apart. - Gas molecules are compressible because: 1. There are large intermolecular distances between the molecules. 2. No repulsive force between the molecules, so they need smaller force (pressure) to compress them. ] Microscope——_.. Lens 7 Window ™ Lamp Smoke particles - Smoke particles appear under microscope as dots of light moving ina random zigzag motion (Brownian)... ws Reason: They have so little masses colliding with air particles pumped into them. The Air particles are too small to be visible while smoke (Ash) particles are large enough to be seen. ~ dl. @. a) . cn @.:--:-. a, . . ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 5 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mot v3 The Brownian motion is: "The random, zig-zag wobbling for the particles as they move”. ys The random movement results in: a. Filling the whole container all at a time & take its shape. b. Having no fixed volume, so they occupy the whole volume of the container. © When gases are heated: (Consider fixed mass of gas) = When temperature rises at a fixed vol.me of gas (in a sealed container): - The gas particles gain K.E. and move faster, so they collide more frequently with the walls of the container hitting them harder causing more force/unit area on the walls, so the pressure increases, = Conclusion: “As temperature increases, the pressure increases for fixed mass of gas at a constant volume”. Pressure/Pa net, -273°C or Temperature /°C ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBle Mr. Me = When temperature rises at a fixed Pressure of gas (in a free moving piston): = The gas molecules gain K.E., so their average speed increases. They move further apart and take up more space leading to increase in the volume of the gas: “Thermal Expansion”. ® Conclusion: “As temperature increases, the volume increases for fixed mass of gas at a constant pressure”. Volume/ m? 273°C oc (1) At a constant pressure, Gases expand more than liquids more than solids, when temperature rises. Why? * Because of the attraction force between the particles: + Solids: Strong attraction between particles makes it difficult to be separated. + Liquids: Attraction is weaker so expansion is more. + Gases: attraction is the weakest so they can easily separate and expanding becomes much more. 7 ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBloc Mr. Mohom > HEAT AND TEMPERATURE Heat It's a random sort of energy, which is also called: “Thermal energy” & “Internal energy”. It’s the Sum of the K.E. and P.E. for the molecules of the substance. Measured in Joules using Joul A small cup of hot coffee has low amount of thermal energy. A large swimming pool has high amount of thermal energy. [ Temperature It’s not an energy. It's a measure of how much the object is hot or cold. It's the average K.E. per particle of the substance. The! of the small cup of coffee The temperature is high. The temperature of the large swimming pool is riot high. © Different substances with the same masses don't have the same rise in temperature when heated by the same amount of thermal energy. © This is because of a physical property of the substances called: “Specific heat capacity (C)" , that’s unique for each substance. 1kg of Alcohol 1kg of water ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa 8 AOA Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBic © Specific heat capacity (C) of a substance is: “The amount of heat energy needed to CHANGE the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by I degree". = The specific heat capacity (C) for water is very high which means; it’s the best substance to carry or store thermal energy. = (C) depends only on the type of the substance, regardless of it mass or size. & Thermal Capacity (q) of a substance is: “The amount of thermal energy needed to CHANGE the temperature of an object by 1 degree". = (q) depends on: 1. Mass of the substance (m). 2. Type of the substance (C). * Thermal capacity for thermal insulators is much more than that of thermal conductors. Why?! > TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT © Temperature scales: A. The Celsius (centigrade) scale: = Unit: Degree Celsius (°C). * The scale has two fixed points divided into 100 equal divisions (Centigrade): - Lower fixed point: The pure ice melting point = 0°C. - Upper fixed point: Pure water boiling point = 100°C. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBic Temperature measuring instruments: cer vor « Physical properties that change. a. Volume/Pressure of liquid /gas. eS b. Expansion/Length of bimetal /solid. < | c. Electric Resistance of a metal/ thermistor. oo eo d. Density of liquid (Galileo thermometer). 3 a e. Color of liquid crystals (Thermochromic) : change in color in response to temp changes - placed on the forehead. © Structur = Aglass bulb contains a liquid (mercury or alcohol) along with a thick- scaled glass stem. ~ Thick stem is used to: a. Reduce the chance of breaking. b. Magnify the thread. - A capillary tube through which the Thread rises or falls to indicate the reading of the thermometer. Thick glass Thin glass stem| bulb - . . Hook i eon oo, Capillary tube (bore) Mercury/ Alcohol Thread Vacuum/ Vapor ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 1 0 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBI Mr. I >= Why choosing Mercury or Alcohol in thermometers: a. Linear expansion with temperature changes. b. Remain liquid to wide range of temperatures. c. Expands more than the glass of the tube (high expansivity). - The expansion of the thermometer glass is ignored because: a. It expands much less than liquid. b. It expands linearly with temperature. Alcohoi is preferred to measure low temperatures, while Mercury liquid is used for high temperatures. This is because of their melting/reezine point. o Thermometer characteristics: Sensitivity “Distance moved by the thread per each OC or per unit temp change”. + Higher sensitivity means: liquid expands more for the same temp rise. + Increased by: 1. Using larger bulb with larger amount of liquid to cause more expansion. 2. Using narrower capillary tube. 3. Use liquid with lager expansivity. Range "The difference between the maximum temperature and the minimum temperature can be measured by it” + Increased by: 1. Wider capillary tube diameter. 2. |iquid with low expansivity. Responsiveness | "How quickly the liquid inside the bulb responds to a change in temperature”. + Depends on: 1. The Bulb and Capillary tube glass thickness. 2. The type of the liquid (C) Linearity “Uniform expansion with temperature ris + Depends on: 1. Type of the liquid. 2. Uniformness of capillary tube. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa 1 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International School _~ Place the thermometer in a pure melting ice (mixture of ice and water), then mark the 0°C (The ice point/ zero point). point: w= Place the thermometer in the steam above boiling water or inside a pure boiling water, then mark the 100°C (The steam point/ 100°C point). ~» The boiling water must be at the Normal Atmospheric Pressure to ensure its temperature=100°C. ~ Divide the distance between them into 100 equal divisions. 100"C—+> 120 & Mixture of NW moms ‘Thermometer water & ice at OC at 100°C -A- -B- Mixture of, water & steam ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International School - INBl Mr. M > CHANGES IN STATES OF MATTER (A) Melting: * When heating solid substances: >» The molecules gain thermal energy and make faster vibration which take up more space without changing positions Expansion. ~ At a certain temperature, the bonds between the molecules are broken, so they become free to move around and change positions. c~ The state of matter is now changed into the Liquid state. * There's no rise in temperature during the melting process! « Example: Ice melting into Water Tec Ice & Water mixture Liquid Water Quantity of heat added (Q) Ik Latent Heat of Fusion = Atocec: - The ice absorbs thermal energy and starts melting. - The ice continues absorbing thermal energy till it all melts without the temperature being changed (T=0°C). - This amount of thermal energy is called: “Latent Heat of Fusion”. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 1 3 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBloc Mr. Mohe - Latent heat of fusion is: “The amount of heat energy needed to break the bonds between the molecules of the solid substance to form a liquid, without any rise in temperature *. Latent Heat of Fusion + Notice: Ice at 0°C is more effective in cooling a drink than water at 0°C because: Ice takes energy from the drink to melt, so the cooling lasts for longer time, while water at 0°C experiences rise in temperature as soon as it takes energy from the drink. (B) Evaporation: * From liquid state to gas state. * Occurs in all temperatures. * It.has a Cooling Effect and it.can.be explained as follows: High energy particles + Some particles at the surface have more K.E. than (Evaporate) the others enabling them to escape at the surface forming gas particles. + Particles of the liquid are left with the lower average K.E., which leads to a decrease in temperature. ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Blo Mr. Moh * Typical examples for the cooling by evaporation: A) Sweating: ~ Hands/skin feel cooling as sweat evaporates because energy is transferred from skin to turn liquid into gas. The remaining liquid has lower energy. B) Refrigerators: vs The refrigerant inside the tubes evaporates because of the heat of the food inside the refrigerator, causing cooling for the food. + Liquid evaporates quickly when: (1) The temperature is increased. : ‘ ° (2) The surface area is increased. Le eR Beas (3) Air speed at the surface is increased (4) Humidity is reduced (Draughts). ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 1 5 WLM Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mot (C) Boiling: « It's the change from the liquid state into the gas state. © When heating liquids: - The particles move so fast that they can overcome the attraction forces between them. - Atacertain temperature (Boiling point), the molecules gain more P.E. (not K.E.) to overcome the attraction forces between them. = The bonds between them are broken and they separate without the temperature being changed. ¢ Evidences that water is boiling: 1. Bubbles form throughout the water. 2, Water vapor (steam) is formed at a high rate. 3. The thermometer thread stops rising. 4. Mass of water starts decreasing remarkably. ++ Notice: Boiling differs from Evaporation, because in Boiling: 1. Bubbles form. 2. Occurs throughout the liquid. 3. Not affected by surface areas or draughts. 4, Occurs at a certain temperature. 5. Requires heat. 6. Rate increases ONLY according to the rate of supplying heat. Evaporation Boiling LPS é [Bubbles can form and rise since the vapor Pressure can overcome [atmospheric pressure. BubbIes cannot form since the vapor pressure is less than atmospheric pressure. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 1 6 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBh Mr. Me « Example: Boiling in Water Thc Water & Vapor mixture 100°C Quantity of heat added (Q) fkJS Latent Heat of Vaporisation - The bubbles form rapidly rising up to the surface. = If : Pinside the bubbles > Patmospheric , then the bubbles explode and vapours are released from the bubbles forming what's called: = The water keeps absorbing thermal energy that's used up in turning more and more water into steam without raising the temperature. This is the Boiling phase. This amount of energy is called: "Latent Heat of Vaporization”. - Latent Heat of Vaporizati “The amount of heat energy needed to break the bonds between the molecules of the Liquid substance to form a gas, without any rise in temperature”. Latent Heat ) * water vapor 100°C / 7 x) 100°C ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 1 7 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBle Mr. Mot (D) Condensation: * The change of state from the gas into the liquid state. * During this process, temperature doesn’t change, but the Thermal Energy lost to the surroundings causes the particles to: a. Come closer together (intermolecular distance decreases). b. Move slower. c. Change the state of matter into Liquid state again. * Cold air can hold less water vapour than warm air. Why? > THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER PROCESSES, (A) Conduction: It is the transfer of thermal energy from one side (hot) of the solid material to the other side (cold) by the vibration of these particles. Boiling TN Steel Iron Solid) Aluminium wax Copper Steam Aluminium Bolling water \ spacer ——> \ Airtight seal} Water a te IN \ Twopans | Sealed air te of glass ‘space \ \ Metal gauze | ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 1 8 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolMr. Moham Bloc ¢ The thermal conduction process: The solid. ‘The particles ain’ More electrons more K. ee are released From vibrate foster their atoms The extra motion is transferred to the neighbouring cold side. particles 2. Make more collisions with the atoms. Heat — ee e@ The neighbouring 0 oo” Q 0 a . particles vibrate O00 foster 00 O » 0, 00 | i vom 0900000 oa Heat is conducted From the hot side to the cold side —s Free Electrons ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolMr. I Thermal conduction is increased if : Thickness of the bar increased Length of the bar decreased _., Temperature difference across ¢! bar increased * Materials are thermally classified into: Thermal conductors Conduct thermal energy very well All metals Thermal Graphite conductors (non-metal) Silicon Examples: (metalioid) Copper, Aluminium, Iron & Steel. Used in applications that need fast and good heat transfer such as cooking saucepans and refrigerant tubes Thermal insulators Poor thermal conductors Non-metal solids Thermal liquids insulators (poorer) Goses (poorest) Examples: Glass, Plastics, Rubber, Wood, Wool, Water & materials containing trapped air: (fiber glass, plastic foam and expanded polystyrene). Used in applications where thermal isolation is needed such as in ice tanks & sheep's wool & winter sweaters ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa & Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mohe (B) Convection: * It's the transfer of thermal energy by the circulation of the liquid or gas particles that can carry thermal energy. ¢ Thermal convection process: The liquid or gas material is heated from the bottom of the container The lower particles become warmer The lower particles expand and become less dense Warm, less dense water rises up Cool less dense water falls down The lower particles \ rise up and the cooler upper denser particles replace them sinking down his circulation for the particles is called: Convection current convection curent ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Blo Mr. Mohe ¢ Typical examples for using convection: Hot water out Hot water A. Hot water system Thermal out insulation Cold water in oe i Electric i immersion B. Room Heating “) heater efri | Freezer C. Refrigerator a eee Hot air rises pe lL Cold air Z sinks D. See breeze and Land breeze ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo! 22Bh Mr. Me (C) Radiation: * It’s the transfer of thermal energy by the means of electromagnetic waves; mainly: Infrared waves like that from the Sun. Uttraviolet iste mw light The object's temperature is increased Thermal radiation is The object's surface area _ increased if. is increased | The object's material is good thermal emitter Surfaces could be: Emitters / Absorbers Reflectors + The matt black surfaces are the + The white and silvery surfaces are best thermal absorbers. poor thermal absorbers and good + They are also the best emitters reflectors. for the absorbed heat. + They are poor thermal emitters + Ex.: Black saucepan as they reflect most of the thermal radiation away. + Ex.: White painted houses in Best emitter Worst emitter sunny areas EI : Best — ‘y “ absorber Worst absorber Ig Radiant heat Cool Hot ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 2 3 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolB Mr. I « An experiment to show that black surfaces are better absorbers of thermal radiation: J Radiant heater \. da —<$$—i__» i © An experiment to show that black surfaces are better emitters of thermal radiation: Hot water \ Thermometer in case of measuring this temperature (by emission of radiation) has narrow tube to be more sensitive as the temperature difference between the two readings is very small. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa 24 ‘W&M Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBloc Mr. Moham ¢ Typical usages for Thermal radiation: A. The Greenhouses: Used to plant hot-season crops in cold seasons. The plastic or glass surfaces absorb thermal radiation from the sun. The ground warms up and heats the air. The plastic surfaces traps the hot air. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane gas act like the greenhouses which is called the "Greenhouse effect". vAy a ase Di A B. The solar panels: = Used to obtain hot water using the solar radiated energy. = The blackened layer of the solar panel absorbs thermal radiation from the sun. "The water inside the pipes warms up and flow to the storage. Glass of R. q )lastic cover a Pl Ce, Storage Hot water — out ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly 25 Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Moh > WHAT ARE WAVES? © Wave is a" Disturbance that spreads and transfers energy from one place to another”. © This disturbance may take the form of ripples or oscillations (up & down / back and forth movement). © Waves can be represented by either one of the following drawings [ | Crests (tops) and Compressions Wave fronts troughs (bottoms) & rarefactions yyuajanem auQ, uonrejarey 60, uolssasdwo> sjuodjenem 1e]4 ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa s}U0JJaAeM Je[NDIID | | | uoneBedosd | | Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo! juajenemBic Mr. Me © Important terms in waves: Speed | | Frequency ] Wavelength ] Amplitude +The distance +The number of +The distance bin. travelled by any point on the +The maximum the wave per waves passing by distance a point any point per sec. wave and the next moves from its sec. equivalent point rest position. +Unit: m/s +Unit: Hertz (Hz) +Unit: m + Unit: Varies! Or wave/sec +Symbol: v +Symbol: f +Sumbol: 4 (lambda) | +Symbol: A Periodic time (T) / Amplitude Wavelength Frequency = 1ota!number of waves equency = ~~“time taken ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBloc Mr. Mohe © Waves can be classified according to their nature into: Behavior of disturbance Needs medium or doesn't ——__{ Transverse Longitudinal Mechanical . | Electromagnetic Oscillation (vibration) is perpendicular to the direction of propagation (travelling) Oscillation is in a parallel direction to propagation Forms of Crests & — Forms of Waves need medium to propagate through Causes vibration in ‘Medium is not necessary for the waves to propagate through (space) The source of the Troughs Compressions and the medium’s particles wave itself oscillates Rarefactions (the E-field and the M-field) Exampl Examples: Examples: Examples: + Light waves + Electromagnetic waves + Water waves + Sound waves + Colored spring moving back & forth & + Sound waves + Water waves + Colored spring moving up & down / back & forth Back and forth movement + Light waves + Infrared and Radio waves + Ultra-violet waves + Gamma and X-rays ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Bic Mr. Me > ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES © The EM spectrum: ° o Y ¢ > ss $ s sf ew Ss ; < ; s s € & ss s ¢ Ss & ss 4 & &€ | s | Ss | FREQUENCY INCREASES (1) Radio waves Naturally: fron Artificially: oscillating current in an antenna Long & Medium VHF & Microwaves waves ~~ +The shortest wavelength +Can bend round hills | +Cannot bend round hills of all Radio waves. & the curved surface because of their shortness. + Cannot bend (diffract), so of the Earth as they . | they need Line of Sight. are long. 4+ They need Line of Sight to be received. +Uses: +Don't need Line of . . - Microwave ovens; as they Sight (straight path) + VHF used in Stereo Radio. have heating effect when to be received for absorbed. the previous reason. +UHF used in TV broadcast. Mobile comm ti =M nications. + Used in AM radios - TV & Telephone beaming oe i css to and from Satellites. (2) Infrared radiation + Emitted from hot objects. + Uses of IR light: 1. Night vision googles. 7 2. Motion sensors and detectors for security alarms. 3. TV remote controllers. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 2 9 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mohe (3) Ultraviolet radiation + Emitted from very hot objects such as the Sun. + Disadvantages: 1, Harmful to living cells and may cause skin cancer if too much of U.¥. radiation penetrates the skin. 2. May cause blindness as they damage the retina. + Uses: 4. Sterilizing equipment as it can kill bacteria. 2. In fluorescent lamps as the material on the wall of the lamp absorbs the UV radiation converting it to visible light. (4) X-rays + Disadvantage: ‘May cause damage for living cells and can cause cancer. + Uses: 1. X-ray photography as they can penetrate flesh. 2. Weapon detection in Airport security systems. 3. Concentrated beams can treat cancer as they destroy abnormal cells. (5) Gamma rays + Emitted from radioactive materials during the “nuclear fission”. + Have shorter wavelengths than X-rays as the energy changes producing them are greater. .. * + Same disadvantages and uses of X- ‘9 = rays. ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo! 30Blo Mr. Moh > SOUND WAVES © Properties of sound waves: 1. Caused by vibrations. 2. Mechanical waves (travel through solids, liquids and gases) 3. Longitudinal waves (compressions and rarefactions). 4. Can be reflected (echo). © Sound can be displayed using a device called Oscilloscope: A waveform showing the change of pressure against the time is drawn ‘on the screen. Microphone sound ) orn Y 0 0 One wavelength _—Rarefaction Compression So \ IT TP UTMMN YET ———— Direction of propagation Oscilloscope Pressure graph ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 3 1 WLM Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBle Mr. Moi © Speed of sound waves: * Sound speed is higher in solids than in liquids than in gases because of the particles’ arrangement. + Simple experiment to measure the speed of sound: speed = Distance travelled _ Distance between mic A and mic. eed = oor ve time taken time taken © Characteristics of sound wave: (1) Frequency and pitch : x= The frequency of a wave is the number of oscillations per second. os If the wave has high frequency (Hz), then the sound is called to have "high pitch”. > Sound wave with low frequency produces sound with “low pitch”. v= The audible range of frequencies for the human is 20Hz-20kHz. x= Sound waves of frequencies above. 20kHz are called: “Ultrasonic” or “Ultrasound”. v= Useful applications for ultrasound waves: 1- Concentrated beams of ultrasound can break kidney stones without needing surgery. 2- Ultrasonic scan for pregnant. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 3 2 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlac Mr. Mohame (2) Amplitude and loudness: x= The amplitude of a wave is the maximum distance from the equilibrium point. ahpitude time +» Sound waves with high amplitude produces Loud sound, while low amplitudes are sensed as Quiet sound. © Reflection of sound waves (Echo): * Reflection is the turning back for the wave when it hits a hard surface such as walls. * The reflection for sound waves is called "Echo" and the time between producing the sound and hearing its echo is called "Echo time’. Sender Receiver ‘Original wave * We use the Echo time to measure the distance to a wall when the speed of the sound is known. _ Total distance travelled _ 2x distance to the wall eed = Time taken echo time ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International School 33Bic Mr. Me > LIGHT WAVES © Properties of Light waves: (1) Light is a form of radiation (Rays). (2) Travels in straight lines (3) Transverse waves (4) Electro-magnetic wave (can travel though empty space) (5) The fastest thing ever exists (speed of light c= 3x108 m/s). © Types of objects w.r.t. Optics: \ Luminous Non- Luminous * Objects that are sources of light. * They emit light waves. *Ex: Sun, Lamps, We can see them because light is reflected from them to our eyes Candles, Lasers, etc... {_ = Opaque Translucent Transparent Don't (et light through | Let light through Let light through A them (total blockage) them, but you them and you can cannot see through see through them 7 SY them \ Ex: Walls of bricks Ex: Frosted glass Exc: Clear glass ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 34 W&M Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBic Mr. Me © Reflection of light rays in plane mirrors " There are two types of reflection: 1. Diffuse reflection - Occurs when light falls on uneven (rough) surfaces. Witte DDD, 2. Regular reflection \ ~ Occurs when light falls on even (smooth) \\\, & shiny surfaces. - Plane mirrors make regular reflection. © Plane mirrors: = They are Shiny, Flat and Smooth surfaces where the rays are reflected regularly. * Laws of reflection in plane mirrors: 1. Angle of incidence (zi) = angle of reflection (cr) 2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal line all lie in the same plane perpendicular to the plane of the mirror. Normal Incident ray Reflected ray Angle of incidence Angle of reflection ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 3 5 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mot " Properties of image formed by plane mirrors: 1, Image has the same size of the real object. 2. The image is upright. 3, The image and real object are equidistant from the plane mirror. 4, Image is laterally inverted (back to front) 5. Image formed is virtual not real. ok Object 4 4 3 image = Real image VS, Virtual image: Real image Virtual image Formed from the actual rays Formed when the extensions when they meet the surface. _ of rays are met behind or in front of the surface. Formed on a screen Cannot be formed on a screen Examples: Examples: a) Camera images. a) Mirror images. b) Projector images. b) Some lenses’ images. « Useful application for reflection: _ = re «= Periscopes: used in submarines. 45 angle ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 3 6 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBic > LIGHT REFRACTION © Meaning & reason: * It’s the change in Speed and/or Direction for the light waves when they pass between two different media with different densities. = At high density mediums (e.g. glass or water): 1. Speed of light wave decreases. 2. Light rays change their positions towards the normal line. 3. The angle of incidence (zi) > the angle of refraction (Zr) when passing from lower density medium to higher density medium. N 7 boundary emergent air The incident ray and the emergent ray normaly are parallel incident ray ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 3 7 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mot © Refraction in Prism (Dispersion): = The white light (ex. Sunlight) is a mixture of 7-colors called: Spectrum of white light or Rainbow colors). The spectrum of white light is arranged from the Lowest to the Most frequency as: RO GBIV. When a narrow beam of white light passes through a prism as shown, each color inside the white light refracts by different amount; such that: a. Highest frequency refracts the most (Violet). b. Lowest frequency refracts the least (Red). This splitting of the light ray into its basic color components is called the Dispersion. The rain drops act as a water prism, so we see the Rainbow when the sun shines again after the rainfall: ‘Spectrum of white light Glass prism \ ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 38 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mot © Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R): * Inside denser media, as (i) increases, (zr) increases too. = Critical angle (c): “It’s the angle of incidence inside the denser medium where its corresponding angle of refraction- 90°". >= Each material has its own critical angle, for example: Cwater=49° & Cglass=41°. « If those Two conditions are satisfied: 1- The incident ray is in the denser medium 2-(4i) > (zc) Then, Total Internal Reflection occurs for the incident ray inside the denser medium and the boundary acts as a reflecting surface. Total internal reflection Critical angle i ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 39 ‘WS Dedicated copy to: United International School= Applications using T.I.R: 1. The periscope: Glass prisms used instead of mirrors.. why ?? 2. Optical fibers: total internal reflection = ight rays t cladding = Optical fibers may be used in: A. Communications cables such as telephones and internet. Light signal 4 Light signal 2 La B. Endoscopes used by the doctors to see inside the human body and make surgeries. To the oraan ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa LO 4A W&M Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBic Mr. Me > LENSES © There are two types of lenses: 1. Convex lenses: >» They are called converging lenses too. >s They are thick at the middle and thin at the edges. ~s If the rays are parallel to the principal axis, they collect at the principal focus (F). Convex Lens 2, Concave lenses: > They are called diverging lenses too. > They are thin at the middle and thick at the edges. I) vs If the rays are parallel to the principal axis, their extensions collect at the principal focus (F), but the real rays are scattered (bent outwards: diverge). ye 3 a o ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International School Al &Blo Mr. Moh + Notes: a) The focal length: it's the distance between the principal focus and the middle of the lens. b) The focal plane: it’s the plane (surface) passing by the principal focus (F) and perpendicular to the principal axis. Aa Principal Centre Focus | point NN Principal Axis 2F1 Fa | Fy 2F Focal length © Ray Diagrams for Convex lens: A) For very distant objects: ~~ The rays coming out from the distant objects can be considered parallel rays. > Lmage properti 1. Real image 2. Inverted image 3. Formed at the focal plane. ~». Examples: ¢ 1, Images formed inside the eye on ; the retina. 2. Images formed inside the camera on a piece of film. ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Ally Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo! 42Bloc Mr. Mohe B) For closer objects: > The ray diagrams can be drawn as follows: Convex Lens Light Rays - Principle Axis Object 1. Real image. 2, Inverted image. 3. Diminished image. convex lens light rays = Image propert 1. Real image. 2. Inverted image. 3. Enlarged image. + Note: As the object comes closer to the lens, its image is Enlarged and formed further away & vice versa. ©) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa 43 WLM Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolBlo Mr. Mohe 2F, Image Object Object: Between F, and 2F, Image properties: ‘ Beyond 2F, Inverted + Real o eotareed Biconvex lens C) For very close objects: vs The lens acts as a magnifying glass. = Image properties: 1. Virtual image (cannot be received on a screen). 2. Upright image. 3, Enlarged image. 4. Formed at the same side of the object. convex lens oy BEM nae ec BL Pf eee ete cece image 4 object principle ays axis e eye + Note: 1. To draw the rays and the objects accurately, you have to choose a suitable scale for drawing. 2. If the object is at F, then no image is formed. ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!