Electricity & Magnetism > ELECTROSTATICS Mr. Mohamed Aly © Electric energy exists because of small particles called "Charges". a) +ve charges (Protons OR Positive ions). b) -ve charges (Electrons OR Negative ions). Recall the atomic structure: - For any neutral atom: # of (p*) = # of (e) Nucleus @ - Electrons are the only moving particles inside the atom; they can be gained or lost. - The atoms gain electrons te ” - Hof (p) < #of(e) “esd 6 @ The substances can be electrically classified into: Electrical conductors Materials that allow charges to move freely through them. The moving charges inside them cause Dynamic charges. Examples: + All metals (iron, copper, Aluminium, + Graphite (non-metal). + lonized water and ionized air. | Electrical insulators Materials that do not allow the charges to move freely through them. The accumulating charges inside them cause Static charges. Examples: + All non-metals (except Graphite) such are rubber, wool, paper, wood, plastics ,glass, air and pure water ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly KhalifaElectricity & Magnetism lohamed Alu © Electrostatic force and the electric field: * There's a non-contact force between charged objects called the electrostatic force (either attraction or repulsion). “Unlike charges attract and like a--- Attract charges repel". @ @ Repel This force acting on each charge means they exist in the "Electric field” of each other. Electric field is simply "The region around the charge where its effect is experienced”. { 2) & (©2020.2021 by Mr. Mohomed Aly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly How to prevent sparks and electrical shocks resulting from electrostatics: = By Earthing (grounding) the objects: This means connecting their bodies to the ground by a wire which passes the excess charges formed on these surfaces. * Example: Earthing for the electrical and electronic devices such as motors, computers and T.V's. Eorthing Leads Grounarearth —T Earth Electrodes (earth Plate) © Lightening is one of the most common phenomena of electrostatics: + To protect buildings from lightening, metal rods called: "Lightning Conductors” are used as shown: {3 Bh Smee enenes na ners ° Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly © Charging methods: Fur (A) Friction (Rubbing): —_ ¥ When rubbing an insulator rod by Rubbes a dry piece of cloth/fur, some of the electrons escape from one of pe them material to the other resulting in a -ve charged and +ve charged materials. (B) Induction: v Means that the charged material is able to generate (induce) charges on the surface of another material when placed near each other. o Charged o SQLs Rod ee Insulated — stand = J ( 1. Ebonite rod 2. Connecting a wire 3. With Rod and helps separate to the ground helps Grounding wire away, the (+) & (-) discharge the (-) (+) charges distribute charges side evenly. ‘The sphere is now (+) charged +} (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa { Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > Dynamic electricity ® Potential difference and electric current: = This attraction force gives the Electrons at the (-ve) terminal high Electric Potential Energy, which is converted to K.E when the electrons flow between the two terminals. The potential difference between the two terminals of the cell is responsible for the flow of the electrons through the circuit. switch e-with low, potential snes 7 e- with high Direction of electron flow light bulb potential —_— = The cell runs out when all the chemicals inside are completely used up. = The cell now is no longer able to push electrons through the circuit and the electron flow stops. * The P.D. / E.M.F. for a Cell can be defined as: “The Work Done to move IC of charges throughout the whole circuit’. * The SI unit to measure the voltage is Volts ). * The P.D, (voltage) between two points is defined as: “The Work Done to move 1C of charges between these two points ". ov Livers { 5 WG ow (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Fly Khalifa dicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly * Voltage is measure by a device called: Voltmeter. = Symbol and circuit connection for 12 joulesofp.e.is — v.ea2v voltmeter (Parallel to component) siven te each couloms: 4 joules of p.e. Is lost by each coulomb nt = It results from the movement of flow of conventional current (I) the electrons through the circuit. " The electron flow shows the actual direction of the electrons through the circuit (from the -ve terminal to the +ve terminal of + the battery). ul = The conventional current direction is from the +ve side to the -ve side of the battery, this is because the early scientists considered the positive charges flow of electrons that flow. The SI unit to measure the current is Ampere (A). Current at a point can be defined as: ” The amount of charge passing through this point each second”. Which means: For example: If |=2A at a certain point, this means: 2 coulombs of electrons are passing by this point in each second {6 JAB, eckzono2az: by Mr Moomed fly Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly = Current is measured by a device called Ammeter which is connected in series: er poo swith ab Real connection “Snueeeee” Circuit diagram Diet 3 Output 1.5V_ Usage With lamps of high brightness or In laptop, mobile or another devices that need high amount —_ rechargeable battery device to of current. continue operating for long time. {7} (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism © Electric circuit components and symbols: Name Real shape Circuit symbol ~ Fixed resistor ae Variable resistor BY rs Heating element Motor {(m) Buzzer Fuse SS LED (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Alu > The Electric Resistance © Electrical Resistance of a substance is: "A measure of how much it resists the flow of electrons (current) through it when a voltage is apptied on it". © Resistance Unit: Ohm (2) © Factors affecting the resistance (R) of a conductor: . Temperature: as the temperature inc’ oases, the resistance of the conductor increases and vice versa. 2. Length (L): as the length increases, the resistance increases. 3. Cross-sectional area (A): as it increases, the resistance decreases and vice versa. 4, Type of the material (p): e.8. Copper and Nichrome. th E Roc a mmm R=— z (p: Resistivity) © Heating effect of the resistance: «As the current increases, the temperature increases due to collision between electrons and atoms, so resistance increases. * As the resistance increases, the temperature increases because of energy loss from flowing electrons. HK} {>} (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > Ohm's law for resistance © Ohm's la = It studies the relation between the voltage across a resistance element and the current passing through it, using the circuit shown: = The data is recorded in a table like below: * The conclusion of the results was as shov y, ), can state Ohm's law: Gradient = R “At a constant temperature, the voltage across the: the current flowing though this conductor“. T/A Ohmic Resistance V-I Graph 0 } J) ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Fly Khalifa { Dedicated copy to: United International SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > Circuit connections: A. Series circuits: © Electric components are said to be connected is Series If: 1. Components are connected side by side. 2. The current passing through all these components is the same. > &) (A ») pe © Voltage & current properties in series circuits: 1) VietVotVs = E (Adding more components will reduce the voltage across each one). 2) IFR1> Rs> Re, then VirVarVo (Voltage is proportional to the resistance values of the components), E 3) The current (1) is the same through all of them. 4) The current (I) decreases when adding more components to the circuit; because the circuit resistance increases. 5) Ifa component is damaged: a- |=0 A (no current passes through all circuit). b- V=E at the damaged component. c- V=0 v across the other components. 6) For a group of resistors connected in series, the combined (total) resistance Re: Ry f f & : a) J Ry = RatR2+Rst...+Ry {uk ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly B. Parallel circuits: © Electric components are said to be Parallel If: — 1.Components are connected terminal to terminal. 2.The voltage across all these components is the ay, same. © Voltage and Current properties in parallel circuits: KS) 1) V4=V2=V3=E <> (Adding more components in parallel won't change the voltage through any of them => Advantage!) Te 2) If Re>Ri>Rs, then b Advantage! i 4) k= litletls (total current from the battery increases by adding more components in parallel => Battery is consumed rapidly!). 5) Ifa component is damaged: a- ht: Decreases. =>= b= lator components : No change. C- Vother components : No change. 6) For a group of resistors connected in parallel, the combined resistance Rt: K ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly © Electric Power and Energy: * The electrical power is: “The rate at which electric energy is transformed by the electrons into another Form of energy”. v2 Eigpeath py aoMncc heme =PxR * The devices have a Power Ratings marked on them to tell the maximum power it will take if connected to a supply of the correct voltage. 1100. 2500 W T yating = Prating/ V + The electric energy can be calculated as follows: E(u)= P(w) x t(s) E=Vxixt 3 } (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa { Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > Circuit components and some applications (A) Resistive components 1. Fixed Resistors: R * They are used to provide resistance to | ) affect the circuit's current. emp * Made of conductive materials. * They have fixed value. «If the temperature increases, the resistance value increases too & vice versa, so its temp. must be kept the same all the time to keep its value. 2. Variable Resistors: { « They provide variable amount of resistance to M the circuit, to control the amount of current = Z passing through the circuit. = Made of conductive materials too. = The Rheostat is one of the most common examples of variable resistors: = The position of the slider specifies the amount of resistance provided to the circuit (from 0 to Rmax)- jitiiel JAR. _— ~ Connection through the circuit: At which positions the slider should be to provide the maximum end minimum brightness for the lamp?! Brightness Control Circuit { 4 ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohomed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly 3. Thermistors (thermal resistors): * They are made from semi-conductors. DA = Used as temperature sensors. « Their resistance values change with the temperature such that: zs As the temperature increases, the resistance decreases. ~» As the temperature decreases, the resistance increases. = Example circuit: 7 Temperature Heat alarm circuit Ri Resistance 4. LDR (light dependent resistors): « They are made from semi-conductors @~ too. \N = Used as Light sensors. — es « Their resistance values change with intensity of the incident light, such that: v= The resistance decreases as the brightness | increases. 2 v= The resistance increases as it gets darker. & * Example circuit: & Light detection circuit Brightness {35 Bp _ cepts enenes ng ene Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Alu (B) Protection components 1. Fuses = Consist of a thin and short piece of wire with low melting point. oe * The thin wire melts if the current passing through it exceeds its max allowable value and acts as on opened switch. = Used to protect electric devices from damage when the current passing through them exceeds the Rating value. It's used just once and replaced by a new one (c/sacvantage!). Always connected in series to the component/s to be protected. rt ll 2. Circuit breakers household electricity and electrical hazards © Components of household electricity: Appliances connected in parallel Electricity meter Mains neutral 1. The mains socket Cable Grip 3. Switch + Fitted in the live wire only, as it's used for protection. I ot. The a.c. current from the generator is sent through it which flows backwards and forwards. b) Neutral (cold) y ire It's kept at OV by the electricity supply company. (18 JAB, cero: by Mr Mahomed fly Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly 5. Protection components a) Grounding (Earthed) wire + Connected to the metal body of the appliance to stop it from becoming live and to discharge any static charges accumulated on the device. OD 2 c) Double insulation + By making the bodies of the appliances made from insulator materials (e.g. plastics) to provide an extra layer of insulation. b) Fu: © Electrical hazards 1. Damaged insulation: * Due to weather conditions, digging in the streets or accidents. * Suitable cable insulation must be selected to suit the operation and the surroundings. 2. Overheating of cables: © If cable size is not suitable for use (either area of wire is too small or length is too long than needed), then the resistance of the wire increases and cause overheating. Old wiring and broken strands mean that the wire has higher resistance too. © The overheating may cause the insulations to melt. 3. Water in sockets and plugs (damped conditions): e The electric resistance of the wet body is much lower than the dry body. * Wet switches and plugs may conduct the current and there's a high risk of electrocution. K ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > MAGNETS & MAGNETIC MATERIALS © A MAGNET isa very special metal that may attract or repel another magnet or some other materials called magnetic materials. © Magnetic poles: “North and South poles exist in any magnet. "The magnetic force between any two magnets behaves such that: "Like poles repel and unlike poles attract’. © Materials can be classified into: Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials + Materials attracted to magnets. + Materials that do not attract to + Can be magnetized and turn into. magnets. magnets. + Cannot be magnetized at all. C = + Also called Ferromagnetic "+ All non-metals are non-magnetic materials. materials. + Materials such as: Cobalt, Nickel, + Some metals such as Copper, Iron their Alloys and Oxides. Brass, Aluminum, Zinc and Tin. * Magnetic materials are classified into: Hard magnetic materials | Soft magnetic materials + Magnetized hardly. + Magnetized and demagnetized + Demagnetized hardly too. easily (lose their magnetism rapidly) + Used to make Permanent magnets + Used to make temporary (switched ‘on or off) magnets like + Materials such as: Steel. Materials such as Iron. {20 FAB, cero: by Mr Monomes fly Kata Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Alu © Induced magnetism: The magnetic materials consist of regions act as a very small magnets called: "Domains". When a magnet comes close to a magnetic material, its small magnets are aligned such that: Unlike poles attract and like poles repel. * After moving the magnet away: Hard magnetic materials: The induced magnetism will remain for some time before the domains lose alignment. v= Soft magnetic materials: The induced magnetism will be immediately lost. © Magnetizing magnetic materials: Stroking the magnetic material repeatedly in the same direction with one pole of a permanent magnet. = steel bar ‘ound the magnetic material with a D.C. current (from battery) passing through it. This is called: Electromagnet. (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa jcated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly © Demagnetizing magnets: 4 1H It causes the particles to gain energy to overcome forces holding them, so magnetic domains are dislocated. vn Hitting by a hammer or dropping the magn Magnetic domains will be dislocated again in a random way. ijl err . Electrical method: wo Slowly withdraw the magnet from a Coil with large A.C. current. The smail magnets inside the domains will lose their alignment, so the magnet becomes demagnetized. s> (22 JAB, eckzongzmby Mr Mohamed fly Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN & PROPERTIES © Magnetic field lines have the following properties: Seen 1. They are invisible lines but they can be detected (using Iron Fillings). 2. They get denser closer to the magnet. 3. The direction outside the magnet is from North to South (Plotting compass). 4. When two. magnets are placed near each other {2} (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa ° Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > MAGNETIC EFFECT OF THE CURRENT © It was found that iron fillings are arranged in a certain 1 pattern when they are placed near a wire carrying a current. © The magnetic field lines of a current-carrying wire have the following properties: 1. They are concentric circles. 2. They get denser closer to the wire. 3. Their number increases (stronger M-filed) as the current increases. 4. The direction can be obtained by the "Right hand grip" rule as shown: 5. The magnetic field becomes stronger when the wire is wound into a coil. *Coil with many turns is called a solenoid. ao, Foe Cuero The magnetic field of the solenoid having a current passing though it can be increased when: 1. The number of turns increases (longer solenoid). 2. The current intensity increases (more number of batteries). 3. The solenoid is turned around a core made of a magnetic material to focus the magnetic field lines (idea of Electromagnets). { » (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly © Electromagnets: = Called also: Switched magnets OR Controlled magnets. Coil of insulated wire « They consist of: a) insulated copper wire wound around a core. b) The core is made soft magnetic material such as Iron or Mumetal. Iron Nail 2, The circuit breaker. 3. Removing iron splinter from the eyes by the doctors. 4. Lifting cranes in the scrap yards. 5. The Electric Bell: switch . springy electromagnet _armatur' e | og contacts hammer cones open gong () @) 25 SOB ac tnganm by Hohomed Fy Kaila { De dicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE © When a current-carrying wire is placed in an external magnetic field, its local magnetic field interacts with that of the external field resulting in a magnetic force that tries to move the wire. F ES © For simplicity, the direction of the magnetic force can be obtained by applying "Fleming's left-hand rule": F © When placing a coil with current between two poles of a magnet, the opposite forces on each side cause a Turning effect (Idea used by electric motors). © Electric motor (simple D.C. motor): In. 1.A Split-ring commutator fixed to the coil and rotates with it. It's fixed such that when the coil is horizontal, the split is vertical. 2. Carbon brushes rubbing against the commutator to keep the coil connected _Splitrina_ to the battery. Metal or graphite rush contact (25 JAB, cezongm by Mr Mohamed fly Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Alu * Operation of the DC-moter: qa (3) At the vertical position, F= 0 because carbon brushes are in contact with the insulator of the split ring commutator. +The coil overshoots the vertical position due to its inertia (4) After passing a vertical position, the current reverses its direction in each side of the coil thanks to the split ring commutator, so the direction of rotation is kept the same. (5) The coil eventually reaches a horizontal position and continues the same cycle again and again till the current stops flowing (circuit is opened). * Advantages of using split ring commutator: 1- It passes the current from the external circuit to the coil through the carbon brushes. 2- It helps reverse the current direction on each side of the coil each half cycle to keep the rotation in the same direction. ing effe 1. Increase the number of turns of the coil. 2. Use stronger magnet. 3. Increase the amount of current by adding more cells in series. 4. Increase the area of the coil to increase the torque. {2 (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism lohamed Alu > ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION © Acurrent produces a magnetic field. However, the reverse is also possible. o is: “The effect resulting from cutting the magnetic field lincs by a conductor producing an E.M.F between the conductor terminals called: induced .M.F". An induced current will flow when the circuit is closed in a direction that opposes the change that produced it ". This is called: Lenz's Law. © Different cases for EM induction: (A) The relative motion between the wire and the magnetic. field: (B) Lenz's law: The induced current will flow in the coil in a direction that make a local pole to oppose the motion of the external magnet. i: (Win . N => Opposing Force s P M-Field as APPLICATIONS ON THE E./M. INDUCTION (A) A.C. Generator (Alternator): * Beside the external magnet and the coil, ac-generator consists of: 1, Two Slip Rings fixed to each terminal of the coil and rotates with it. 2. Carbon brushes rubbing against the Slip Rings to keep the coil connected to the Load circuit (output). 3, A shaft attached to the coil to rotate the coil across the magnetic field. Brush’ Rotation Slip Rings . generator: * Operation of the A.C. (1) At the start of the 1* half cycle (3) At a vertical position for the coil, the sides if the coil are not cutting the magnetic field lines, so Tinducce#0A at vertical positions. RD | Mitsrepeleleerrrate teers Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly (4) Slip Rings role: a 1- Delivers the induced current from the coil circuit / To the output circuit, through carbon brushes. Brissh 2-Helps reverse the current direction in the output circuit every half-cycle, that's why it's called “Alternating” Wire (5) The frequency of rotation (cycles per second) = the frequency of the output A.C. electric signal (waves per second "Hz"). o Ex. Ana.c. current with frequency =50 Hz is resulting from a rotating coil that makes 50 complete cycles in each second. induced voltage across the coil /V angle of rotation ‘one full cycle - turn of the armature ¢ To increase the induced current output from the generator: 1. Increase the number of turns of the coil. 2. Use stronger magnet. 3. Increase the rotating speed of the coil (also increases the frequency). 4. Increase the area of the coil. {31 JB eck2no2m by Mr Mahomed fy Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly (B) Transformers: rease or decrease the output a.c. voltage. 1. An insulated copper coil at the input side called the primary coil. 2. A secondary coil at the output side. 3. An iron core going through both the primary and the secondary coils. Iron Core. ——o ~ Secondary Coil Z ~ Load ac source Primary Coil Lo eH + The a.c. current in the primary coil causes a changing magnetic field. + That magnetic field passes through the core and is cut by the coil of the secondary side. + This results in an induced current anu e.m.f. at the secondary coil. — Result Primary ‘Secondar ary | wy SV NJ i |} 's Ye Nd \e N: * The secondary voltage (Vs) depends on the ratio: ie swhere N: # of turns: + IfNs > Np, then Vs Vp: called Step down transformer. “3 F i f Step up Transformer —_ Step down Transformer {32 JB eckzono2m by Mr Motomes fy Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly * The increase in Vs in step up transformers comes in the cost of the current! + For a 100% efficient (lossless) transformer: Input electrical power = output electrical power Vp Ip= Vs Is 1. Heat loss inside the coils because of the internal resistance of the wires. Solution: 2. Heat loss inside the core due to Eddy currents. Solution: use Laminated core instead of a solid block to reduce the effect of eddy currents, Laminated core: Layers of insulated sheets sticked together. 3. Magnetic field losses due to using separated core. Solution: use continuous core instead of a separated core. Iron Core Low Voltage Magnetic Field High Voltage { » (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > TRANSMITTING & DISTRIBUTING POWER & The electrical power can be now transmitted through Overhead cables in towers called: Pylons, or Underground cables called Land Lines. [Color Key. Substation Red: Generation Se don Subiransmission Blue: Transmission aoe Customer Green: Distbuon Transmission ines 26K and 6K Black: Customer 765,500, 345, 290, and 138 KV Genering Sito Primary Customer i 1340 and ak Gereeing TmsRisen Catone faa) Seana Customer at ro Coll onl Transformer © Electricity is transmitted at_High Voltage using step-up transformers to: 1. Minimize the power losses during transmission. 2. Reducing the cost of transmission line cables (thin cables instead of thick). Power loss in transmission line: — Pioss = Viine X hine So we can write: * Thus, reducing tine or Riine causes reduction in power loss. * Reducing Line using H.V. transmission instead of Riine is more economic; because reducing Riine needs replacing the wires by much thicker wires. 1. Because a.c. can be stepped up or down using transformers while the d.c. cannot. 2. The a.c. is generated more efficiently with lower cost. {3 JB, eckzorgzm by Mr Mahomed fly Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly 9 Atomic Physics > HISTORY OF ATOMIG STRUCTURE © Thomson's Model (Plum-pudding model): * Thomson set his model of atomic structure based on his previous knowledge that the atom is Neutrally charged as follows: " Negative electrons are placed throughout a positive sphere and they move around in rings ". © Rutherford's Model (Solar system model): « He tested the plum-pudding model using the shown scheme: Detecting screen Gold foil ee (Result observed) * He managed to explain his observations as follows: 1, The most of Alpha particles travelled in straight line because most of the atom is empty space. 2. Some Aipha particles deflected as they repelled by the nucleus that has +ve charges. 3. Very few Alpha particles bounced back as they hit the nucleus which has +ve charges. * Rutherford model (Planetary model A. Atoms have a central nucleus that is +ve charged. B. The nucleus has most of the Atom’s mass. C. The nucleus is surrounded by a Big Empty space in which electrons orbits the nucleus like the planets orbiting the sun. { 3 i ©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly > ATOMS AND ISOTOPES © The Nuclide of an element can be expressed as: x ; where X: is the chemical symbol for the element. Z: Atomic number, A: mass/nucleon number © Isotopes: « They are atoms for the same element having the same Atomic number but different number of neutrons (different nucleon number). « For example: Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon- 1+: > NUGLEAR RADIATION © The unstable nuclei of radioactive elements disintegrate (break up) shooting out tiny particles and in some cases a burst of wave energy as well. az © This disintegration of the unstable nuclei is called: o “Radioactive Decay”. © They continue disintegrating till they become stable and eventually they form new elements. © Nuclear Radiation : " The portic’es shot and waves radiated from unstable nuclei as ithe disintegrate", © There are 3 types of Nuclear Radiation: Alpha particles (ct), Beta particles (B) & Gamma Rays (y). a- particles + 2 protons and 2 neutrons | + Anelectron (e) | + EMwaves + Symbol: fa ee + Symbol: p + Similar to X-rays B - particles yo rays wo} (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly a- particles 8 - particles y- rays (Charae) ° * ° ft High compared to beta low | NAL Slowest: Up to 0.1.¢ Fast: Upto0.9¢ ee + Strongest: + Weak: | + Very Weak: -The greatest charge (+2). -Less charge (-1). -No charge. -The Slowest. -Faster. _| -The Fastest. + The Least. + Can be stopped by: + The Most. + Intensity can be + Penetrating. + Can be stopped reduced by: Lead and thick concrete. ¥ Thick sheet of paper. v Skin. v Few centimeters of Few millimeters of Al or other metal —_________________Paper______Weed __Concrete_ Deflected most by both __Deflected less by | Not deflected by fields. both fields. any field. oY 6 XXXX x XXXXX XXXX XXXXXX XXXXX HERRERA ANN {37 JB ecktono2m by Mr Motomed fy Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly © Background radiation: = It's he small random amount of radiation around us all the time. " Sot background | a. Radioactive materials in the environment. b. Soils and Rocks (e.g. Granite). c. Air. d. Building materials. e. Food and drink. f. Space. © Measuring Nuclear Radiation: * Geiger-Miiller (GM) tube Cathode (-) Anode (+) Argon Thin Counter window High penetrated Voliege radiation "H - The GM tube is connected to either: 1, Ratemeter: Counts the particles detected every second. > Unit used: count/second. 2. Scaler; ~ Counts the total number of particles or bursts (for y-rays) detected by the tube. 3. Amplifier or Loudspeaker: = The loudspeaker makes a ‘Click’ when each particle or burst of gamma radiation is detected. x= The sound becomes louder and higher Pe as the radiation increases. 1. (38 JAB, cero by Mr. Mohamed fly Kata Dedicated copy to: United international SchoolElectricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Alu > RADIOACTIVE DEGAY © The original nucleus is called : Parent Nucleus. © The nucleus formed is called: Daughter Nucleus. & The daughter nucleus and any emitted particles are called: Decay products, © Alpha decay: + Example: Radium-226 (77°Ra) decays by alpha emission as follows: Ra Rn +0 © Beta decay: = Example: lodine-131 (3 is decayed by beta emission as follows: @-g@.. Pn iB iodine-131 xenon- oe beta particle & Gamma emission: » “After the alpha or beta emission, the new daughter nucleus rearranges from inside (protons and neutrons rearrange) to become more stable. « While rearranging, the nucleus lose energy in the form of a burst of gamma radiation. ® Gamma radiation causes no change in mass number or atomic number. burst of gamma relaxed ea excited radiation nucleus nucleus K (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Aly © Half -life and Activity of a Radioactive isotope: "The time taken for half the nuclei present in a given sample to decay (disintegrate)"" The half-life of lodine-131 is 8 days for a sample containing 40 million undecayed nuclei means: ss After 8 days, 20 million nuclei are decayed leaving behind 20 million nuclei undecayed. > After another 8 days, 10 million nuclei is decayed leaving behind the remaining 10 million nuclei undecayed.... So on Activity of a radioactive isotope is: “The average number of disintegrations per second". * Exampl The activity of a radioactive isotope= 100Bq means: 100 nuclei is decaying (disintegrating) each second on average. * Half-life can be also defined in terms of the activity as follows: " It's the time taken for the activity of a given sample to fall to half { 0 (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United International Schoo!Electricity & Magnetism Mr. Mohamed Alu > RADIATION DANGERS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & Radiation dangers: 1- Radioactive gas and dust : Alpha radiation is the most harmful of all as it's the most ionizing. 2- Sources in Nuclear reactors and Laboratori: x Alpha particles is the least dangerous as they can be stopped by the skin. >» Beta particles and Gamma rays are the most harmful outside as they can penetrate into the internal organs. The risk of nuclear radiation increases ii 1) The intensity of radiation is greater. 2) The exposure time to the radiation is longer. © We can reduce the risk of nuclear radiation by: (1) Shielding the radioactive sources in the Labs and Reactors very well. (2) Store the sources in a Lead container in a locked cabinet. (3) Keep your body well away from the source. (4) Don't make them point to people. (5) Pick them up with Tongs not directly with hands. (6) Check the surrounding area for radiation levels above normal background levels. {4k (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed Fly Khalifa Dedicated copy tor United International SchoolElectricity & Magnetism lohamed Alu > USEFUL APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY ‘- Tracers : & Movement of very small and safe amount of Radioisotopes can be traced © Examples: A. Medical tracers B. Detecting leaks in underground pipes by adding a tracer to the fluid in the pipe. sine ng ana ry ~ ‘net =m 2- Radiotherapy: a. © Ahighly concentrated beam of a W radioactive material can be used to - | GSS kill cancer cells. my 3-Thickness monitoring: Sensor adjusts © 8B - particles are used to eat era check uniformness of metal sheets 4-Carbon Dating: Rollers material source ‘ The amount of carbon-14 inside bodies of living things is fixed as long as they are living because they still absorb and give out carbon. « When they die, no more carbon is taken in and the proportion of carbon- 14 is gradually decayed by radioactive decaying. & By measuring the activity of a sample of a dead animal (for example), the age of the remains can be estimated knowing that the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years). (©2020-2021 by Mr. Mohamed fly Khalifa Dedicated copy to: United international School