SUBJECT: GROUP GUIDANCE -psychologist who developed one of theories of

TOPIC: COMMUNICATION IN INTERPERSONAL development

DYNAMIC - his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund
- term that describes how people cope and deal with Freud's work
different situations and scenarios -Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial
- highly dependent on the ability of interpersonal development
communication skills
- occurs between multiple people who are physically
close
- Interpersonal dynamics is also a skill that can help
managers forge strong relationships with others,
especially with people who are different than they
are
- Posture, body movement and hand gestures are
among the primary body language factors that
contribute to interpersonal dynamics.
- to increase personal understanding of how she or Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
he impacts others and to learn how they function in - the most fundamental stage in life.
small groups and how they relate to others from infant is utterly dependent,
feedback and reaction of other class members. - developing trust is based on the dependability and
quality of the child's caregivers.
TOPIC: LEVELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT CONTENT - If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and
AND PROCESS love, the child will come to feel that they cannot
Tuckman’s model of team development. trust or depend upon the adults in their life and will
Forming — marked by team orientation result in fear and a belief that the world is
Storming — marked by power struggles, inconsistent and unpredictable.
Norming — marked by cooperation, integration, and - If a child successfully develops trust, the child will
unity, feel safe and secure in the world.
Performing — marked by synergy or smooth sailing, Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Adjourning — marked by a sense of closure and - takes place during early childhood and is focused
dissolution. on children developing a greater sense of personal
Forming Stage control.
- children are just starting to gain a little
-everyone is just getting to know one another.
independence.
- overly polite to each other because they are
- By allowing kids to make choices and gain control,
looking to be accepted among this new group of
parents and caregivers can help children develop a
people.
sense of autonomy.
- a bit uncertain and anxious.
- toilet training was a vital part of this process
- also overly positive about the project because it’s
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their
new
accidents may be left without a sense of personal
Storming Stage
control
-team members are likely to forgo the politeness
- Children who successfully complete this stage feel
they exercised in the first stage.
secure and confident, while those who do not are
-This can lead to conflict, disputes, and competition
left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Norming Stage
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
-The team — no longer just a group —
- children begin to assert their power and control
-learns about each other’s strengths and
over the world
weaknesses.
- Children who are successful at this stage feel
-More importantly, they realize how to harness their
capable and able to lead others.
strengths and work around their weaknesses.
-Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a
Performing Stage
sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
- In this stage, you and your team get to enjoy
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
synergy
- Through social interactions, children begin to
-a state where work flows smoothly.
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments
-focused on reaching the project goals established in
and abilities.
the Forming Stage.
- Children need to cope with new social and
- Bear in mind that not all teams reach this stage.
academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
Adjourning Stage
competence, while failure results in feelings of
-usually associated with short-term projects
inferiority.
-team members are expected to disband over time
- Children who are encouraged and commended by
parents and teachers develop a feeling of
TOPIC: STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
competence and belief in their skills.
Erik Erikson
-Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities
to be successful.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
- This stage plays an essential role in developing a
sense of personal identity which will continue to
influence behavior and development for the rest of a
person's life.
- Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself,
while failure leads to role confusion and a weak
sense of self.
- children explore their independence and develop a
sense of self.2 Those who receive proper
encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong
sense of self and feelings of independence and
control.
- Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
- While Erikson believed that each stage
of psychosocial development was important, he
placed a particular emphasis on the development of
ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction and
becomes a central focus during the identity versus
confusion stage of psychosocial development.
- According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly
changes due to new experiences and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we
have new experiences, we also take on challenges
that can help or hinder the development of identity.
- Why Identity Is Important?
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated
and cohesive sense of self that endures through our
lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is
this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and
behaviors as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Young adults need to form intimate, loving
relationships with other people.
- Success leads to strong relationships, while failure
results in loneliness and isolation
- Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal
identity was important for developing intimate
relationships.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
need to create or nurture things that will outlast
them
often by having children or creating a positive
change that benefits other people.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
- focused on reflecting back on life.
-At this point in development, people look back on
the events of their lives and determine if they are
happy with the life that they lived or if they regret
the things they did or didn't do.
-Those who look back on a life they feel was well-
lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of
their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look
back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that
their lives will end without accomplishing the things
they feel they should have.
-Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom,
while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.
Cognitive Development
-Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive
development
-The theory is based on four stages
 Sensorimotor
 - (birth to 2 years old)
 - children learn object permanence, which is the
understanding that people and objects still exist
even when they’re out of view.
 Preoperational
 - (2-7 years old)
 - children develop symbolic thought, which is when
they begin to progress from concrete to abstract
thinking.
 - Children in this stage often have imaginary friends.
 Concrete operational
 - (7-11 years old)
 - children solidify their abstract thinking and begin to
understand cause and effect and logical implications
of actions.
 Formal operational
 - (adolescence to adulthood)
 - humans plan for the future, think hypothetically,
and assume adult responsibilities.
Moral Development
 Preconventional
 - In the preconventional stage, people follow rules
because they’re afraid of punishment and make
choices only with their best interests in mind.
 Conventional
 - In the conventional stage, people act to avoid
society’s judgment and follow rules to maintain the
systems and structures that are already in place.
 Postconventional
 - In the postconventional stage, a genuine concern
for the welfare of others and the greater good of
society guides people.

Psychosexual Theory
-Sigmund Freud popularized the psychosexual
theory. -The theory comprises five stages:
 Oral
 - (birth to 1 year old)
 - children learn to suck and swallow and may
experience conflict with weaning.
 Anal
 -(1-3 years old)
 - children learn to withhold or expel feces and may
experience conflict with potty training.
 Phallic
 -(3-6 years old)
 -children discover that their genitals can give them
pleasure.
Latency
-(roughly 6 years old through puberty)
-they take a break from these physical stages and
instead develop mentally and emotionally.
Genital
- (puberty through adulthood)
- people learn to express themselves sexually.
Behavioral Theory
-focuses solely on a person’s behaviors rather than the
feelings that go alongside those behaviors.-Behavioral
theorists believe that behavior determines feelings, so
changing behaviors is important because this will in turn
change feelings.
Attachment theory
-An important attachment theory finding is that children
must develop at least one strong bond in childhood to
trust and develop relationships as adults.
-The attachment theory comprises four stages:
Asocial or pre-attachment (birth to 6 weeks old)
Indiscriminate attachment (6 weeks old to 7 months
old)
Specific or discriminate attachment (7-9 months old)
Multiple attachments (10 months old or later)
Social Learning Theory
-builds upon the behavioral theory and postulates that
people learn best by observing the behavior of others.
-They watch how others act, view the consequences,
and then make decisions regarding their own behavior
accordingly. The four stages in this theory are:
Attention, Retention, Reproduction,Motivation
attention stage
-people first notice the behavior of others.
retention stage
- they remember the behavior and the resulting
consequences.
reproduction stage
- people develop the ability to imitate the behaviors
they want to reproduce
motivation stage
- they perform these behaviors.
Sociocultural Theory
-ties human development to the society or culture in
which people live.
-society as a whole makes to individual human
development.
TOPIC: COUNSELING GROUP
-usually distinguished by its emphasis on effective
planning.
-has as its major objective helping people to learn to
manage their lives more effectively. -members develop
increased awareness of who they are
-awareness of what opportunities are available to them
-and increased ability to make decisions in planning their
own development
TOPIC: ATTITUDE AND SKILLS OF A GROUP COUNSELOR
1. Interpersonal skills
2. Trust
3. Flexibility
4. Hope
5. optimism
5. Multicultural sensitivity
6. Self-awareness
TOPIC: FUNDAMENTAL GOALS OF GROUP
COUNSELING
 Bringing people who share similar experiences
together.
 Focusing on a specific mental health concern,
such as social anxiety or depression.
 Providing emotional support.
 Validating the grief experience.
 reduce wait times and give more people access to
mental healthcare.
TOPIC: DIFFERENCE OF GROUP GUIDANCE AND
GROUP COUNSELING
GROUP GUIDANCE
-provides beneficial information to a number of
people at once
-This offers the group leader a more efficient way to
educate
-Common examples in the workplace include
orientation programs, career information sessions
and job training workshops
- recommended for all school students on a regularly
scheduled basis
-makes an indirect attempt to change attitudes and
behaviors through accurate information
- emphasis on cognitive or intellective functioning
-applicable to classroom-size groups
GROUP COUNSELING
- form of psychotherapy in which two to 15
participants meet face-to-face to work through their
problems and concerns under the guidance of one or
two mental health professionals
- recommended only for those who are experiencing
continuing or temporary problems that information
alone will not resolve.
- make a direct attempt to modify attitudes and
behaviors by emphasizing affective involvement
- dependent upon the development of strong group
cohesiveness and the sharing of personal concerns
which is most applicable to small, intimate groups.
TOPIC: NON VERBAL AND VERBAL GROUP
TECHNIQUES
PSYCHODRAMA THERAPY
-type of experiential, action-based therapy in which
people explore issues by acting out events from their
past.
-incorporates aspects of role-playing, dramatic self-
presentation, and group dynamics to help people
gain greater understanding and insight into their
lives and experiences.
- it functions as individual therapy, it utilizes a group
format
 - rooted in psychology, but it also incorporates
elements of theater and sociology
BENEFITS OF PSYCHODRAMA
- may lead to an increased sense of competence
and self-efficacy.
- may contribute to a better understanding and
resolution of trauma.
- is adaptable depending on the individual's needs
and situation
-can also be integrated with other psychotherapy
approaches
TOPIC: GESTALT THERAPY
- focuses on a person's present life rather than delving
into their past experiences.
- stresses the importance of understanding the context
of a person’s life when considering the challenges they
face.
- involves taking responsibility rather than placing
blame.
- the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
- was developed by Fritz Perls with the help of his wife
Laura Perls
- gestalt therapists want to learn about the experience
of their clients. It is understood that context matters and
the therapists use techniques to help the client become
more aware of their experiences, their perceptions, and
their responses to events in the here and now.
- gestalt therapists operate from a place of
understanding that as clients become increasingly
aware, they will overcome existing roadblocks.
- help bring the client back to the present if there is a
sense they are spending too much time in the past or if
their anxiety may be speeding them into the future.
TOPIC: TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
- developed by psychiatrist Eric Berne
- form of modern psychology that examines a
person's relationships and interactions.
- took inspiration from Sigmund Freud's theories of
personality
- can be used to address one's interactions and
communications with the purpose of establishing and
reinforcing the idea that each individual is valuable
and has the capacity for positive change and personal
growth.
- Berne developed his own observable ego states of
Parent, Adult, and Child
-He highlighted the fact that facial expressions,
gestures, body language, and tone may be regarded
as more important by the receiver than any spoken
words.
THE EGO STATE OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Parent
- consists of recordings of external events observed
and experienced by a child from birth through
approximately the first five years of life
- These recordings are not filtered or analyzed by the
child; they are simply accepted without question
 Do not play with matches.
 Remember to say “please” and “thank you.”
 Do not speak to strangers.
Child
- represents all brain recordings of internal events
(feelings or emotions) that are directly linked to
the external events observed by the child during
the first five years of life.
 I feel happy when Mom hugs me.
 Dad’s late night movie was very scary.
 I feel sad when Mom is sad.
Adult
- the final ego state, is the period in which a child
develops the capacity to perceive and understand
situations that are different from what is observed
(Parent) or felt (Child).
- The Adult serves as a data processing center that
utilizes information from all three ego states in
order to arrive at a decision
- One important role of the Adult is to validate
data which is stored in the Parent:
 I see that Suzie’s house was burnt down.
Mom was right—I should not play with
matches.

TOPIC: PRIMAL THERAPY
- Janov's theory is that psychological issues are
caused by repressed emotions and feelings.
- these repressed emotions can cause a variety of
psychological problems,
including anxiety, depression, and rage.
- repressed pain from a person's life can be
converted into physical symptoms, such as ulcers,
headaches, and asthma
- pain goes back to incidents in people's lives that
were too traumatic for them to fully accept or
integrate into their conscious selves
- the only way to resolve psychological problems is
to express repressed emotions and feelings
TOPIC: INTROSPECTIVE TECHNIQUES
FANTASY
- tool that can be used in counseling to help clients
explore their emotions, thoughts, and potentials
through mental imagery
- a technique where you visualize either an actual
event from the past or a hypothetical situation as
the therapist guides you
- therapist then helps you focus on what you’re
thinking, feeling, and doing, while you’re immersed
in the fantasy
- to help you develop your imagination, creativity,
and problem-solving skills
EXPRESSIVE THERAPY
- uses different types of artistic expression to explore
emotions and experiences
- Some of the techniques include finger painting,
mask making, music, dance, drama, and poetry
- can help people with various psychological
disorders and enhance mental well-being

VISUAL AND ACOUSTIC EXERCISE
-involve using mental imagery to relax, cope with
anxiety, or explore emotions
- using music or sound to enhance mood, self-
esteem, or social skills
SENSORY AWARENESS
practice of paying attention to your senses and your
bodily sensations in the present moment
- Sensory awareness can also help you develop self-
awareness, which is the ability to recognize your
own thoughts, feelings, and biases as a counselor
- Sensory awareness can be cultivated through
mindfulness training, somatic psychotherapy, or
other sensory-based activities
RELAXATION AND MEDITATION
SUBJECT: COUNSELING THEORIES AND TECHNIQUES
TOPIC: COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY (CBT)
-Through CBT, people learn that their perceptions
directly influence how they respond to specific
situations.
- a person’s thought process informs their
behaviors and actions.
- For example, a person with anxiety may believe
that “everything will turn out badly today.” These
negative thoughts may influence their focus. They
may then only perceive negative things that
happen. Meanwhile, they may block out or avoid
thoughts or actions that could disprove the
negative belief system. Afterward, when nothing
appears to go right in the day, the person may feel
even more anxious than before. The negative
belief system may get stronger. The person is at
risk of being trapped in a vicious, continuous cycle
of anxiety.
-Cognitive behavioral therapists believe we can
adjust our thoughts.
-The adjustment process is called cognitive
restructuring. Aaron T. Beck
-is the psychiatrist widely considered to be the
father of cognitive therapy
Self-references: "People always focuses attention
on me, especially when I fail."
Selective abstraction: "Only my failures matter. I
am measured by my failures."
Overgeneralizing: "If something is true in one
setting, it is true in every setting."
Excessive responsibility: "I am responsible for
every failure and every bad thing that happens."
Dichotomous thinking: Viewing the world in
extremes, black or white, with nothing in
between.
-People in therapy are helped to unlearn negative
reactions and learn new ones.
- helps break down overwhelming problems into
small, manageable parts.
-Therapists help people set and reach short-term
goals.
-Then the therapist gradually adjusts how the
person in treatment thinks, feels, and reacts in
tough situations.
-Changing attitudes and behaviors can help people
learn to address specific issues in productive ways.
-Beck discovered he could train people in therapy
to analyze and test their maladaptive cognitions.
He learned that doing so could improve their
attitudes and emotions.
TOPIC: RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY
(REBT)
- type of cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT) developed by psychologist Albert Ellis.
- action-oriented approach that’s focused on helping
people deal with irrational beliefs and learn how to
manage their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in a
healthier, more realistic way.
- In order to understand the impact of events and
situations that people encounter throughout life, it’s
essential to look at the beliefs people hold about
these experiences and the emotions that arise as a
result of those beliefs.
- the main goal of REBT is to help people respond
rationally to situations that would typically cause
stress, depression, or other negative feelings.
- the emotionally healthy response would be to
realize that it is not realistic to expect success in
every endeavor. All you can do is learn from the
situation and move on.
 You are worthy of self-acceptance no matter
what even when you struggle or make
mistakes; there is no need for shame or guilt.
 Others are also worthy of acceptance, even
when their behavior involves something that
you don’t like.
 Negative things will sometimes happen in
life, and that doesn’t mean that things are
happening in a way they shouldn’t be. Life is
not positive all of the time, and there’s no
rational reason to expect it to be.
ABC Model
 A: Activating event, which is when something
happens in the environment around you
 B: Belief, which describes your thoughts
about the event or situation
 C: Consequence, which is your emotional
response to your belief
-If you’re feeling depressed due to a conflict in your
relationship, for example, a rational emotive
behavior therapist may help you identify the
activating event for your problem
- before encouraging you to figure out which beliefs
led to your negative feelings. -they would then work
with you to change those beliefs and, ultimately,
your emotional response to the conflict.
Some of the most common irrational beliefs
addressed in rational emotive behavior therapy
include:
  Feeling excessively upset over other people’s
mistakes or misconduct
 Believing that you must be perfectly
competent and successful in everything to be
valued and worthwhile
 Believing that you will be happier if you avoid
life’s difficulties or challenges
 Feeling that you have no control over your
own happiness; that your contentment and
joy are dependent upon external forces
 view of some of the other following therapies.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Techniques
Disputation
-One step toward changing your beliefs
-meant to teach you life-long skills to help you
manage your emotional response and overall
mental health.
-During disputation, your therapist will challenge
your irrational beliefs using direct methods. They
may question your beliefs head-on, causing you to
rethink them, or they could ask you to imagine
another point of view that you haven’t considered
before.
-While each therapist may approach disputation
differently, challenging your beliefs is part of the
process.
- Ellis suggested that rather than simply being warm
and supportive, therapists need to be blunt, honest,
and logical in order to push people toward changing
their thoughts and behaviors.
Targeting Emotional Responses
-An important part of the REBT process is learning
how to replace your irrational beliefs with healthier
ones.
-This process can be daunting and upsetting, and it’s
normal to feel some discomfort or to worry that
you’ve made a mistake.
-While REBT uses cognitive strategies, it focuses on
emotions and behaviors as well. In addition to
identifying and disputing irrational beliefs, therapists
and clients also work together to target the
emotional responses that accompany problematic
thoughts.
Techniques that might be encouraged include:
 Meditation
 Journaling
 Guided imagery
-When developing REBT, Ellis’s goal was to create an
action-oriented approach to psychotherapy that
produced results
- by helping people manage their emotions,
cognitions, and behaviors.
-Indeed, research suggests that REBT is effective at
reducing irrational beliefs and changing behavior.
TOPIC: FEMINIST THERAPY
-specializing in gender and examines the stressors
that women experience due to biases,
discrimination, and other areas that may affect one’s
mental health.
- individuals accountable for their own decisions and
problems
Types of Feminist Therapy
Liberal feminism
- centered around helping women take back control
from the constraints put on them by society through
personal empowerment.
- In other words, this kind of feminist therapy looks
more at the individual than the zoomed-out societal
Cultural feminism
-This school of thought also believes that oppression
comes from society emphasizing gender differences
and downplaying women’s strengths.
Radical feminism
- you and the therapist look closely at the effects of
oppression on women, particularly the patriarchy’s
impact on them. Followers of this model believe that
all therapy is political and a vehicle for effecting
change.
Socialist feminism
- focuses on making societal changes to change
oppressive institutions. This approach also looks
closely at marginalized intersectional identities and
further oppression based on socioeconomic status,
race, and other types of discrimination such as
sexuality or religion.
egalitarian relationship between you and the
therapist.
-This means that you are the expert of your own life,
not the therapist.
- You and your therapist will explore your
intersectional identities and how they are showing
up in the therapy room, which may help you see
how you interact in similar situations outside of the
therapy room.
TOPIC: FAMILY THERAPY
-type of treatment designed to help with issues that
specifically affect families' mental health and
functioning.
- It can help individual family members build
stronger relationships, improve communication, and
manage conflicts within the family system.
-By improving how family members interact and
relate to one another, family therapy can foster
change in close relationships.
Types of Family Therapy
 Family systems therapy
- an approach that focuses on helping people
utilize the strengths of their relationships to
overcome mental health problems.
 Functional family therapy
 - a short-term treatment often utilized for young
people experiencing problems with risky
behavior, violence, or substance use.
- It helps teens and families look for solutions
while building trust and respect for each
individual.
 Narrative family therapy
- This type encourages family members to each
tell their own story to understand how those
experiences shape who they are and how they
relate to others.
- By working with this narrative, the person can
start to view problems more objectively than just
seeing things through their own narrow lens.
 Psychoeducation
- is centered on helping family members better
understand mental health conditions. By
knowing more about medications, treatment
options, and self-help approaches, family
members can function as a cohesive support
system.
 Supportive family therapy
- focuses on creating a safe environment where
family members can openly share what they are
feeling and get support from their family.
TOPIC: SOLUTION FOCUSED BRIEF THERAPY
(SFBT)
- also called Solution-Focused Therapy (SFT)
-developed by Steve de Shazer
and Insoo Kim Berg (1934-2007)
- is future-focused, goal-directed, and focuses on
solutions, rather than on the problems that brought
clients to seek therapy.
-helps clients change by constructing solutions
rather than focusing on problems.
-Solution-Focused practitioners develop solutions by
first generating a detailed description of how the
client’s life will be different when the problem is
gone or their situation improved to a degree
satisfactory to the client.
TOPIC: NARRATIVE THERAPY
-a method of therapy that separates a person
from their problem.
-It encourages people to rely on their own skills to
minimize problems that exist in their lives.
-throughout life, personal experiences become
personal stories. People give these stories
meaning, and the stories help shape a person’s
identity.
-Narrative therapy uses the power of these stories
to help people discover their life purpose. This is
often done by assigning that person the role of
“narrator” in their own story.
-Michael White and David Epston developed
narrative therapy.
-It recognizes that people have skills and expertise
that can help guide change in their lives.
NARRATIVE THERAPY TECHNIQUES
 Helping people objectify their problems
 Framing the problems within a larger
sociocultural context
 Teaching the person how to make room for
other stories
-The therapist and person in therapy identify and
build upon “alternative” or “preferred” storylines.
-These storylines exist beyond the problem story.
-They provide contrast to the problem, reflect a
person’s true nature,
-and allow someone to rewrite their story.
-People can then move from what is known (the
problem story) to what is unknown.
-The therapist also helps people see what is
“absent but implicit” in the presentation of a
problem.
-They help people explore a problem's impact. -
This allows them to identify what is valuable to
someone in a broader context, beyond the
problem.
-People may then find a connection between their
actions and choices.
-All “other” life experiences and values are
“absent but implicit” as people navigate new
terrain. This process can help people better
understand how they experience life.
-It may allow them to gain agency for addressing
problem scenarios in the future.
TOPIC: DIALECTICAL BEHAVIOR THERAPY (DBT)
- is a modified type of cognitive behavioral
therapy (CBT).
- Its main goals are to teach people how to live in the
moment, develop healthy ways to cope with stress,
regulate their emotions, and improve their
relationships with others.1
DBT TECHNIQUES
INDIVIDUAL, GROUP THERAPY AND,
 Phone coaching in which patients can call the
therapist between sessions to receive
guidance on coping with a difficult situation
they are currently in.
TOPIC: EMOTION-FOCUSED THERAPY (EFT)
-is a therapeutic approach based on the premise
that emotions are key to identity.
emotions
- assumes that lacking emotional awareness or
avoiding unpleasant emotions can cause harm
-The person in treatment, not the therapist, is
seen as the person most capable of interpreting
their emotional experience.
 How emotions are produced
 The importance of emotions to human
functioning
  How emotions are related to thought and
behavior
how emotion can:
 Be experienced physically
 Cause physiologic changes
 Influence thinking
 Guide future action
-Various therapeutic techniques known as
emotion coaching are utilized.
-These help people learn new ways to use healthy
emotions to guide their actions.
-The next phase of treatment focuses on leaving.
It may include the following goals:
 Evaluate whether emotions are helpful or
unhelpful in various situations
 Learn to use helpful emotions to guide
action
 Identify the source of unhelpful emotions
 Learn to change unhelpful emotions
 Develop alternative, healthy ways of coping
with situations that often elicit maladaptive
emotions
 Form personal scripts that help challenge
the destructive thoughts that may be
associated with unhelpful or maladaptive
emotions
-EFT was developed primarily by Leslie Greenberg.
A humanistic approach to treatment,
-it is designed to help people better accept,
regulate, understand, and express their emotions.
- Greenberg did not set out to develop the
approach intentionally. Rather, he studied how
people change.
SUBJECT: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC: THE HEALTH PERSONALITY
Physical health
- the well-being of the body and the proper
functioning of the organism of individuals
Mental health
- a broad topic that covers how people think, feel,
and behave. It also includes the diagnosis and
treatment of mental disorders, such as depression,
anxiety, bipolar disorder, addiction, and
more1. Mental health is important for everyone’s
well-being, learning, work, and social participation
Emotional health
-a state of positive psychological functioning. It can
be thought of as an extension of mental health; it’s
the “optimal functioning” end of the thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors that make up both our inner
and outer worlds
-Emotionally healthy people have good coping
mechanisms for negative emotions, and they also
know when to reach out to a professional for help
Social health
-the aspect of overall well-being that stems from
connection and community.
-While physical health relates to the body and
mental health relates to the mind, social health
relates to relationships.
Moral health
-specifically describing a persons moral character -
that is to say are they good at making moral
decisions - what is good and what is bad - and
choosing the most good of options.
- to be of good moral health would be a person that
makes moral decisions based on the perceived good
of their surrounding culture.
Spiritual health
- a dimension of human wellness that integrates all
dimensions of health: physical, emotional, mental,
and social.
- creates meaning in life, cultivates altruism and
ethics, and is based on individual perceptions
convincing us of our ability to survive.
-Spiritual Health is the combination of these two
aspects: experience of the divine and wholeness.
TOPIC: FACTORS IN PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
1. Inherited predisposition
2. Abilities
3. Family and Home Environment
4. Culture
TOPIC: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
A. ) TYPE THEORIES OR CONSTITUTIONAL TYPE
-A type is simply a class of individuals said to share a
common collection of characteristics.” It means that
people are classified into categories according to
the characteristics they share in common.
Hippocrate’s Typology
- attempted to explain personality in terms of body
fluid or humors.
- He postulated that our body has four types of fluid;
- yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm. -Every
person is characterized by the prominence of one
type of fluid which determines the temperament of
the person concerned.
- Thus he classified people into four types which are
given below:
a) Choleric
– people with predominance of yellow bile are
irritable, restless and hot blooded.
b) Melancholic
– people with high black bile are sad, depressed and
devoid of hope in life
c) Sanguinary
– When blood content is high the person remains
cheerful, active and he is optimistic in life.
d) Phlegmatic
– predominance of phlegm makes a person calm and
quite and usually there behaviour is marked by
inactiveness.
Kretschmer’s Typology
- was a German psychiatrist who on the basis of his
observation of patients classified people into four
types.
-He used the physical constitution and temperament
for this purpose The four types he talked about
included:
(i) Pyknik type
(ii) Asthenic type
(iii) Athletic type
(iv) Dysplastic type.
Pyknic Type
– Such people are short in height with heavily built
body type. They have short, thick neck.
-Temperament wise they exhibit characteristics of
being social and cheerful.
-They are happy-go-lucky, they like to eat and sleep.
-Kretschmer called them “cycloid” as they have high
probability of falling prey to manic-depressive type
of psychopathology. Asthenic Type
– Such persons are tall and thin with
underdeveloped muscles.
-They are also underweight. They are irritable and
shirk away from responsibility.
-They have the habit of day dreaming and are lost in
the world of fantasy.
-Temperament wise they are categorized as
“schizoid” and may develop disorder of
schizophrenia.
Athletic Type
– These are muscular types and have well built
muscles and are neither tall nor short.
-They have stable and calm nature and are able to
adjust themselves to changes in the environment.
Dyspalstic Type
– This category includes people who do not exhibit
any of the characteristics mentioned above but are
mix of all three types. 1.2.3
Sheldon’s Typology
-heldon on the basis of physical constitution
categorised personality into somatotypes.
-For this he analysed nude photographs of 4000
students and classified their personality into three
basic types.
(i) Endomorphic
(ii) Ectomorphic
(iii) Mesomorphic.
i) Endomorphy
– Such persons are short and fatty with a round
shape of body.
- are similar to “pyknic” type mentioned by
Kretschmer.
-They like to eat and drink and make merry. -They
are gregarious by nature and have leisurely attitude
toward life. Temperament wise Sheldon termed
them “viscerotonia.”
ii) Mesomorphy
– These people are muscular types.
-Their muscles and bones are quite well developed
and they are physically well shaped.
- These people generally are considered to be
toughminded, risk taking, assertive and aggressive.
-They like to boss over others.
- Sheldon called these personalities as
“somatotonia”
iii) Ectomorphy
– Such people are tall but thin.
- Sheldon called them “cerebrotonia”.
-These people like to remain away from people.
Jung’s Typology
-Jung postulated personality theory based on
psychological characteristics.
-He divided people into two broad types i.e.
extroverts and introverts.
Extroverts
– Such people are socially oriented.
-They like to mix up with people, are fun loving,
optimistic.
-They are realistic in their approach towards life.
-Often such people exhibit leadership qualities.
Introverts
-They do not like to mingle with people.
-They have very few friends.
-They are self-centered and conservative. -Such
people are dogmatic in the sense that they follow
traditions and customs of the society without ever
giving thought to their justifiability.
Jung’s classification has been criticised on the
ground that it is not possible to divide people into
two watertight compartments because a significant
number of people do not fall in either of the
categories. They exhibit characteristics of both the
extrovert and introvert type. To compensate for
this psychologists placed such persons into another
category called ambiverts.
Spranger’s Typology
- in his book “Types Of Man” described six types of
man, taking into account their value torientation in
life.
-Thus he had
theoretical types,
economic types,
aesthetic types,
social type,
political type
religious type
Theoretical Type
-seekers of truth.
-try to understand and make sense of the world
around them through reason and logic.
-interested in finding answers to questions like
what is God? Is there any supreme power that
controls and regulates this universe?
Economic Type
-are basically utilitarian.
-view things form the point of view of practicality
and their economic value.
-For example, what would happen to a rose flower
if you give it to an economic type of man. Let me
give the answer, this man instead of praising the
rose for its fragrance or beauty will think how to
make practical use of it or how to profit from it
economically. He may make a bouquet of it and sell
it for some rupees thus making practical use of it
and minting money from it.
Aesthetic Type
 -are lovers of nature and beauty.
-lay emphasis on form and harmony and believe in
making life attractive and charming.
-example let us take help of rose flower once again.
Now imagine what would happen to rose if you
give it to an aesthetic type. Do you think he will
wrap it in sylphon paper, make a bouquet of it and
sell it for money. No, certainly he will not behave
like this. I think he will smell the fragrance of rose,
praise it’s beauty and enamoring form and would
like to preserve it in book to remind him of its
beauty and fragrance or he may make a lovely
arrangement of these flowers in his drawing room
and enjoy its very presence in the room.
Social type
– Such people are gregarious,
-like to mingle with people in social gatherings.
-reach out for help to people in distress. -often
enjoy good prestige in society.
-What a social type of person will do to the rose in
question. This type of person may greet friend’s
birthday by presenting him with beautiful flower
like rose. Political Type
-are persons who value power and influence. -Such
persons rank people on the basis of power they
yield.
-behaviour is oriented toward gaining power and
influence over others.
-a person of this type may make a garland of roses
and garland the powerful politician to win his
favour.
Religious Type
-lays emphasis on the unity of cosmos.
-have spiritual bent of mind and believe in God.
-A person may lay the rose on the feet of the God in
a church or a temple.
Holland’s Typology
-is the latest type theory put forth for the
explanation of personality.
-personality is a combination of interests, values
and competencies.
-classified people into six types:
i) Realistic Type
–practical person who can make things and operate
machinery and many complex instruments.
-These are engineers, technicians and others who do
highly skilled work in which they have been trained.
Such people design, create and operate equipments.
ii) Investigative Type
–scientists, researchers and such other highly
creative and innovative persons.
-people who gather data, analyse and interpret
them with a view to solve problem.
iii) Artistic Type
–artists, painters, designers and so on. -skilled in
designing, creating new and inn ovative structures,
artistic in their approach and they are excellent in
decoration and they are dramatists, actors and
entertainers.
iv) Social Type
–compassionate in their approach, they like to work
for others and bring relief to people in distress. To
give examples of such people, we can mention
social workers, disaster management persons and
related others.
iv) Enterprising Type
-want to contribute to the society or to their
business. They are the ones who take risks and are
ready to take a challenge. These people also are
such that they can wield influence and pressure on
others and mould their behaviour accordingly.
v) Conventional Type
–traditional in their approach. They go by rules and
regulations and will expect others also to follow the
same. Such persons codify and regulate things like
accountant
TOPIC: TRAIT THEORIES
GORDON ALLPORT’S TRAIT THEORY
-to be called a trait it must manifest consistency.
-the trait should remain manifest itself in the
person’s behaviour for long periods of time.
-mentioned two types of traits ; common traits and
personal traits.
Common Traits
–are the traits found in the majority of persons living
in a society or culture.
-Thus people of a society or culture can be compared
on that trait.
-For example. If X shows a trait of cooperativeness in
his behaviours in various situations, and if similar
behaviours are obtained in a large number of
persons from that community or culture, this trait
will be considered common Trait. -Common traits
thus are those which are reflected in the behaviour
of most of the persons in a society or a community
or culture.
Personal Traits
– This refers to the unique characteristics of a person
and not shared by other members of the society or
community or culture.
-Such a personal trait is not comparable with those
of others in that culture
-These traits are inculcated by a person more in the
process of socialization and
-thus many of do’s and don't s of the parents or
caregivers become part of the personality and these
traits are unique to this individual
-these traits are highly consistent and can be seen in
almost all behaviours of this individual irrespective
of the situation concerned
-To give an example, trait of parsimony, is something
which an individual will show in almost every aspect
of his behaviour whether he is at home or office or
school or anywhere. He will for example put off the
lights to economise on electricity consumption
whether at office or at home. Similarly he would be
very
careful not to waste paper and will use for rough
work one side pages in the office as well as at home.
Allport further divided personal traits into three
subcategories: a) cardinal dispositions, b) central
dispositions, and c) secondary dispositions.
a) Cardinal dispositions
-such traits have overriding and overwhelming
influence on the behaviour of a person in that they
manifest themselves in all that a person does and
guides the behaviour of that person.
-For example, Mahatma Gandhi had firm belief and
conviction in peace and non-violence. Message of
peace and nonviolence were explicitly seen in
whatever Mahatma Gandhi did in his life, whether at
home or abroad.
b) Central dispositions
-This is found in all persons and one can have 5 to 10
central dispositions. These are not equivalent to
cardinal traits but one can assess the personality of
an individual in terms of these traits.
-These traits define the personality of a person.
-a person who has the traits of honesty, punctuality,
parsimony, cleanliness and generosity. Such a person
will be always on time to the office, and keep the
scheduled meetings on time and never will waste
anyone’s time, will be always straight forward and
deal directly with his employer and employees, and
would ensure that nothing is wasted and will make
sure others do not waste anything and when ever
someone comes for help would be generous enough
to offer help and solve the problem.
c) Secondary dispositions
-These traits of a person are less consistent, less
explicit and less meaningful for the person and
hence are called secondary traits.
-These traits are of not much help in explaining the
personality. For example, hair style, dressing sense,
eating pattern or preferences etc
RAYMUND CATTELL’S TRAIT THEORY
-He divided traits into two categories,
surface traits
source traits
Surface Traits
– found on the periphery of personality
-reflected in the day to day interactions of the
person.
-expression is so explicit that it leaves no doubt
about their existence in the personality.
Source Traits
–represent the structure of personality.
-present in less number than surface traits.
-are not observable in day to day interactions of the
person.
- come to notice when some of the surface traits are
joined together.
-For example, sociability, unselfishness and humor
are surface traits which when joined together create
a source trait known as friendliness.
-Cattell mentioned two types of source traits
environmental mould traits
constitutional traits
environmental mould traits.
-In the development of some source traits
environmental factors play more important role than
genetic factors.
constitutional traits
- Source traits determined by genetic factors
Cattell also divided traits according to the behaviour
they are related to and these include the
dynamic traits
ability traits
Temperamental traits
Dynamic Traits
-are those which direct the behaviour of the person
in a particular direction.
-Attitude and sentiments are examples of dynamic
traits.
- For example, suppose a person feels strongly for
girls education / women’s education, then he may
join an NGO or an organization which is concerned
with spreading women’s education and offering
education to girls and women.
-This trait will be reflected in all his activities in terms
of writing articles in the newspapers and various
other magazines advancing the cause of women and
girls education.
Ability Traits
– traits that are instrumental in reaching to a goal
are called ability traits.
-For example, musical ability is a must for becoming
a musician.
Temperamental Traits
– These develop out of a person’s efforts to reach a
goal and relate to emotional state and energy of the
person
TOPIC: LEARNING THEORIES
KAREN HORNEY’S ANXIETY THEORY
- suggested that people possess a number of
neurotic needs that play a role in driving behavior.
- In her book "Self-Analysis," Horney outlined her
theory of neurosis
-describing different types of neurotic behavior as a
result of overusing coping strategies to deal with
basic anxiety.
-Neurosis is an inability to adapt and a tendency to
experience excessive negative or obsessive thoughts
and behaviors.
- While no longer a formal diagnosis, the term is still
often used informally to describe behaviors related
to stress and anxiety.
-is known for developing one of the best-known
theories of neurosis.
-believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety
caused by interpersonal relationships.
-theory proposed that strategies used to cope with
anxiety can be overused, causing them to take on
the appearance of needs.
- basic anxiety (and therefore neurosis) could result
from a variety of situations. She suggested that as
children, people often have experiences that
contribute to neuroticism, including:
 Excessive admiration
 Injustice and discrimination
 Isolation from other children
 Lack of respect for needs
 Lack of guidance
 Lack of warmth
 Over-protection
 Parental arguments or hostility in the home
 Too much or too little responsibility
 Unkept promises
Three Types of Neurotic Needs:
Needs that move people toward others
-cause individuals to seek affirmation and
acceptance from others.
-People with these needs are often described as
needy or clingy as they seek out approval and love.
Needs that move people away from others
-create hostility and antisocial behavior.
-described as cold, indifferent, and aloof.
Needs that move people against others
-result in hostility and a need to control other
people.
-described as difficult, domineering, and unkind.
Karen Horney's Theory of Personality
-The three broad categories of neurotic needs
describe the various ways that people can cope with
their social experiences.
- Horney believed that these coping strategies could
affect a person's personality and came up with three
types of personalities:
 Aggressive: Assumes that everyone is the
enemy and only looks out for themselves
 Compliant: Sensitive to the needs of others
and spontaneously works to meet others'
expectations
 Detached: Seeks to become self-sufficient,
creating emotional distance from others to
the point of alienation
-theory is rooted in social psychology
-contends that personality is affected by the way
people perceive and interact with their environment.
Horney's 10 Neurotic Needs
-Well-adjusted individuals use all three coping
strategies (toward, away, and against others),
-shifting focus depending on internal and external
factors.
- So what is it that makes these coping strategies
neurotic?
-According to Horney, it is the overuse of one or
more of these interpersonal styles.
1. The Need for Affection and Approval
-This need includes the desire to be liked, to please
other people, and meet the expectations of others.
-People with this type of need are extremely
sensitive to rejection and criticism and fear the anger
or hostility of others.
2. The Need for a Partner
-People with this need have an extreme fear of being
abandoned by their partner.
-these individuals place an exaggerated importance
on love and believe that having a partner will resolve
all of life’s troubles.
3. The Need to Restrict One’s Life
-need prefer to remain inconspicuous and
unnoticed. -They are undemanding and content with
little.
-They avoid wishing for material things, often making
their own needs secondary and undervaluing their
own talents and abilities.
4. The Need for Power
-need seek power for its own sake.
-They usually praise strength, despise weakness, and
will exploit or dominate other people.
- These people fear personal limitations,
helplessness, and uncontrollable situations.
5. The Need to Exploit Others
-view others in terms of what can be gained through
association with them.
-pride themselves on their ability to exploit other
people and are often focused on manipulating
others to obtain desired objectives, including such
things as ideas, power, money, or sex.
6. The Need for Prestige
-value themselves in terms of public recognition and
acclaim.
-Material possessions, personality characteristics,
professional accomplishments, and loved ones are
evaluated based on prestige value.
- These individuals often fear public embarrassment
and loss of social status.
7. The Need for Personal Admiration
-narcissistic and have an exaggerated self-
perception. -They want to be admired based on this
imagined self-view, not upon how they really are.
8. The Need for Personal Achievement
- achieve greater and greater things as a result of
basic insecurity.
-fear failure and feel a constant need to accomplish
more than other people and to top even their own
earlier successes.
9. The Need for Independence
-need for self-sufficiency and independence
-These individuals exhibit a “loner” mentality,
-distancing themselves from others in order to avoid
being tied down or dependent on other people.
10. The Need for Perfection
-strive for complete infallibility.
-searching for personal flaws in order to quickly
change or cover up these perceived imperfections.
How Neurotic Needs Affect Behavior
 Sometimes neurotic needs can lead to
behavior that is aggressive or antisocial.
-needs for power, prestige, or achievement may
engage in behaviors that can be aggressive
 At other times, neurotic needs may cause
people to withdraw.
-a need for independence, for example, might
turn away from others as a way to feel more self-
sufficient.
 In other cases, neurotic needs cause people
to behave in ways that are compliant.
-people who crave approval or affection may
engage in people-pleasing behaviors to ensure
that others like them.
-people who are high in neuroticism tend to be more
prone to negative emotions.
- This can contribute to a higher risk for feelings of
anxiety, self-consciousness, anger, irritability,
depression, and emotional instability.3
-Neuroticism has been associated with physical
health issues, including lower immunity, heart
problems, and an increased risk of death.
- It is also linked to lower marital satisfaction,
increased worry, work-related problems, and overall
lower quality of life.
-If you tend to be high in neuroticism or struggle
with some of the neurotic needs described by
Horney, finding ways to cope can be important for
both your physical and mental health.
Coping With Neurosis
-If you find yourself engaging in neurotic behavior
caused by some of the neurotic needs described by
Horney.
- While neuroticism is linked to a susceptibility to
negative emotions, finding ways to understand and
manage your emotions can help.
Notice the Effects of Neurotic Needs
- Spend some time thinking about how your life
might be affected by these tendencies.
Reframe Your Thinking
-When you find yourself feeling negative about a
situation or engaging in unhelpful behaviors, try to
step back and reassess how you think about the
situation.
-Purposely challenging your negative thoughts can
be helpful for creating a more positive perspective
and mindset.
Practice Mindfulness
-a practice that involves focusing on the present
moment.
- As you practice mindfulness, you become more
aware of how you are feeling and what you are
thinking.
-While you observe these feelings, you focus on
simply being aware of them without judging them or
acting upon them.
-Researchers have found that mindfulness might be
a useful approach for combating neurotic, negative
thoughts that contribute to worry, anxiety,6 and
relationship problems.
Focus on Relationships
-Social support is important for mental well-being
and can be helpful when you are dealing with
difficult emotions.
-Spend time working on strengthening your
relationships, but be aware of how neurotic needs
such as the need for affection, approval, power, or
other needs might affect your relationships.
Talk to a Professional
-A therapist can help you better understand
neuroticism and how it affects your behavior.
A Word From Verywell
Recognizing your own neurotic tendencies can help
you better understand your own behaviors. By
addressing these issues, people can often improve
their overall mental health and wellness.
Jung, Adler, and Horney were considered neo-
Freudians.
-All three developed their own theory of psychology.
Horney is often considered the founder of feminist
psychology.
-Jung developed an approach known as analytical
psychology
- while Adler founded an approach known as
individual psychology.
-Horney's perspective allowed her to recognize the
weaknesses in Freud's views of female psychology.
She not only vocally challenged the male-dominated
theories of the time, but she also turned Freud's own
ideas on themselves. She did this by suggesting that
it wasn't women to envied penises, but that it was
men who envied women's ability to bear children.
What part of Freud's theory did Karen Horney
disagree with?
-Her disagreements with Freud led to her being
expelled from the New York Psychoanalytic Institute
in 1941.
-she criticizes Freud’s heavy reliance on sexual
instinct as a determinant of human behavior and
instead emphasizes the importance of culture and
personal relationships in personality development.

TOPIC: ALFRED ADLER’S SUPERIORITY AND
COMPENSATION THEORY(INDIVIDUAL
PSYCHOLOGY)
-main motives of human thought and behavior are
particular man's striving for superiority and power
partly in compensation for his inferiority.
-every person has a sense of inferiority, and people
"strive for supremacy"
-motivation behind human behaviors, emotions, and
thoughts. Adler called his theory individual
psychology
-people are born with weak, inferior bodies, which
leads to feelings of inadequacy and, as a result,
reliance on others.
 The desire for achievement or dominance is
the driving factor behind people's activities.
 People's actions and personalities are shaped
by their subjective perceptions.
 The personality is coherent and self-
contained.
 The worth of all human action must be
viewed through the lens of social interest.
 A self-consistent personality structure forms a
person's living style.
 People's creative power shapes their way of
life.
Pursuing Success or Superiority
-The first principle of Adlerian philosophy states that
the only dynamic force driving people's conduct is a
desire for achievement or supremacy.
- Adler used the phrase masculine protest, which
connoted a desire for power or dominance over
others.
Subjective Beliefs
-According to Adler's second postulate, people's
subjective impressions impact their conduct and
personality.
-People strive for superiority or success to
compensate for emotions of inadequacy, but the
method they strive for is formed not by reality but
by their subjective conceptions of reality, that is, by
their future fiction.
Personality Unity and Self-Consistency
-Adlerian theory's third postulate is that personality
is unified and self-consistent.
-emphasize his idea that each individual is unique
and indivisible.
-Individual psychology thus insists on the essential
unity of personality and the absence of
contradictory conduct.
Social Issues
-Adler's fourth precept, the value of all human effort
must be evaluated through the prism of social
interest.
-According to Adler, the early social milieu's
consequences are tremendously essential. The bond
between a child and their parents is so strong that it
suffocates the consequences of genetics
- Adler felt that beyond the age of five, the effects of
inheritance are masked by the tremendous
influence of the child's social environment.
- By then, environmental impacts had altered or
sculpted practically every facet of a child's
personality.
Style of Lifestyle
-Adler developed the term "style of lifestyle" to
describe the flavor of a person's life.
It involves a person's objective, self-concept,
feelings towards others, and worldview.
-It results from the inheritance, environment, and
an individual's creative ability.
-The age of four or five firmly defines a person's
living style.
- After that, everything we do revolves around our
unified way of life.
- Although the end aim is unique, the way of life
does not have to be limited or inflexible. --
Psychologically sick people frequently lead very rigid
lifestyles characterized by an incapacity to find new
ways of reacting to their surroundings.
Creative Ability
-Adler thought that each person had the
opportunity to construct their way of life.
-everyone is responsible for who they are and how
they behave.
- Their creative power gives them control over their
lives, is accountable for their ultimate objective,
defines how they will achieve that aim, and
contributes to the growth of societal interest.
Conclusion
-People are born with weak, inferior bodies,
according to Adler, which leads to emotions of
inadequacy.
- All human conduct must be evaluated through the
prism of social interest.
- According to Adler's fourth precept, the worth of
every human activity must be assessed through the
lens of social interest.
-Everyone can create their way of life.

TOPIC: FRUSTRATION
-an emotional response to stress.
-Some people experience frustration in the short-
term — like a long wait in the grocery store — but
for others, frustration can be long-term.
The stressor can vary according to the individual, but
some common stressors that lead to frustration are:
 Stress at work
 Pursuing a goal that you cannot attain
 Trying to solve a problem and not finding a
solution
-frustration is the feeling of irritability or anger
because of the inability to achieve something.
-Being in a constant state of frustration can lead to
many problems in your life.
-If you continue pursuing a goal without any result,
the frustration you feel can lead to other emotions
that affect your well-being and mental health, such
as:
 Loss of confidence
 Stress
 Anger
 Aggressive behavior
 Irritability
 Depression
 someone doesn't qualify.
Types of Frustration
Internal frustration
-frustrated with yourself or your reaction.
-It can mean you’re unhappy with the way you
reacted in a situation.
External frustration
-stressors, or the thing that’s causing your
frustration, is outside of you.
-That can mean things like wasting time in traffic, or
barriers to something you want to achieve.
Examining the situation to determine where the
cause of frustration stems from can be a useful first
step in solving your dilemma.
This can happen if frustration is making you feel
incompetent. If your needs for fulfillment in your
daily life are not being met, that can also result in
poor sleep and nightmares.
Recognize what you can change and what you can’t.
Accepting the situation can relieve frustrated
feelings when you realize you don’t have control
over what happened.
TOPIC: AGRESSION
-People who experience large amounts of frustration
in their lives can also be prone to exhibiting
aggressive behavior.
-also lead to negative self-talk that induces a
negative spiral of thinking, leading to more
aggressive behavior.
-Being frustrated while driving can lead to aggressive
decisions on the road, endangering yourself and
others.
-refers to a range of behaviors that can result in both
physical and psychological harm to yourself, others,
or objects in the environment.
-when aggression becomes extreme, it may be a sign
of an underlying mental health condition, a
substance use disorder, or another medical issue.
Aggression can serve a number of different
purposes, including:
 Expressing anger or hostility
 Asserting dominance
 Intimidating or threatening
 Achieving a goal
 Expressing possession
 Responding to fear
 Reacting to pain
 Competing with others
Signs of Aggression
-aggressive behavior is intended to harm someone
who doesn't want to be harmed, it must involve
action—simply thinking about harming someone or
feeling angry isn't enough, and accidentally harming
Aggressive behaviors can be:
 Physical, like beating, hitting, kicking, or
stabbing another person. Damaging property
is also a form of physical aggression.
 Verbal, which may include mocking, name-
calling, and yelling.
 Relational, which is intended to harm
another person's relationships. This can
include spreading rumors and telling lies
about someone else.
 Passive-aggressive, like ignoring someone
during a social event or offering back-handed
compliments. Passive-aggressive behavior is
usually intended to allow harm to come to
someone, rather than causing harm directly.
Types of Aggression
Impulsive Aggression
-Also known as affective or reactive
aggression,characterized by strong emotions.
- when it's caused by anger, triggers the acute threat
response system in the brain, involving
the amygdala, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal
gray.
-is not planned and often takes place in the heat of
the moment.
- If another car cuts you off in traffic and you begin
yelling and berating the other driver, you're
experiencing impulsive aggression.
Instrumental Aggression
-Also known as predatory aggression
-marked by behaviors that are intended to achieve a
larger goal.
-often carefully planned and usually exists as a
means to an end.
-Hurting another person in a robbery is an example
of this type of aggression.
Biological Factors
-There may be genetic and hormonal factors that
influence aggression.
-Imbalances in certain hormones, like testosterone
and cortisol, and neurotransmitters, like serotonin
and dopamine, may be linked to aggression.
- These imbalances can occur for a number of
reasons, including genetics.
-Brain structure can also influence aggression.
People with structural abnormalities in the amygdala
tend to show more aggression than their peers.
Environmental Factors
-How you were raised may play a role in whether or
not you engage in aggressive behavior.
-People who grow up witnessing aggression may be
more likely to believe that violence and hostility are
socially acceptable.
-Experiencing trauma during childhood can also lead
to aggressive behavior in adulthood.
Childhood Trauma and Intermittent Explosive
Disorder
Psychologist Albert Bandura's famous Bobo doll
experiment demonstrated that observational
learning can also play a role in how aggression
develops. In this experiment, children who watched
a video clip where an adult model behaved
aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to
imitate those actions when given the opportunity.
Psychological Factors
Several mental health conditions can be associated
with aggressive behavior, including:
 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD)5
 Bipolar disorder6
 Borderline personality disorder (BPD)7
 Narcissism8
 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 9
Epilepsy, dementia, psychosis, substance use
disorder, and brain injuries or abnormalities can also
influence aggression.10
Impact of Aggression
-Aggression can affect your health and relationships.
Research suggests that there is a link between anger
and chronic inflammation, which can cause
secondary health problems like cardiovascular
issues.
-Experiencing aggression at the hands of a partner,
friend, or family member also has detrimental
effects.
-People who have been victims of physical or
psychological aggression view those experiences as
harmful, even when their aggressor doesn't. These
forms of aggression can ultimately lead to the end of
the relationship.
-Unchecked aggression can also make things more
difficult at work and strain friendships. That can lead
to more stress and feelings of alienation for the
aggressor, which may worsen the problem.
Help With Managing Aggression
- Developing an anger management plan ahead of
time can give you a roadmap to use when your
emotions feel out of control. That plan should
include ways to reduce your stress levels, like:
 Being mindful of your anger warning signs,
like clenching your jaw, a fast pulse, or
sweating
 Practicing relaxation techniques like deep
breathing, meditation, or progressive muscle
relaxation (PMR)
 Engaging with your senses by focusing on
things you can see, smell, hear, touch, or
taste
 Walking away from the situation
 Exercising to burn off excess energy
 Reaching out to a trusted friend or family
member for social support
 Distracting yourself with another activity
 Reframing negative thoughts
 Learning to explore and accept the
emotions underlying the aggression
-If someone in your life is behaving aggressively
toward you, it's important to protect your own
mental health and physical safety.
-Try to stay calm and avoid escalating the conflict,
and walk away if it's safe to do so.
- If you're facing aggression at the hands of an
intimate partner, look out for warning signs that the
relationship is becoming dangerous, and reach out
for help and support.
Frequently Asked Questions
Which part of the brain controls aggression?
- The amygdala, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal
gray are involved in recognizing an acute threat and
generating an emotional response, while the
prefrontal cortex plays a role in whether or not we
act based on those emotions.1
What is passive aggression?
- is a way to express aggression indirectly.
-intended to harm others, but it's often harder to
identify and address.
-Deliberately avoiding someone else or "forgetting"
to complete assigned tasks can be examples of
passive-aggressive behavior.
What is microaggression?
-Microaggressions are subtle behaviors that
discriminate against a marginalized group of people.
Microaggressions can be intentional or they may
reflect someone's implicit bias; either way, they can
have a cumulative, negative effect on the person
being targeted.
What is the goal of aggression?
-The goal of aggression is to harm someone who
doesn't want to be harmed.
TOPIC: CONFLICT
-any disagreement between two or more people and
groups.
Views On Conflict
The Traditional View
-all conflicts are harmful and avoidable.
-Conflict is viewed negatively and associated with
turbulence, agitation, destruction, irrationality, and
violence.
The Human Relations View
-it is a natural and inevitable outcome in any
organization and as such should be accepted.
-Conflicts are bound to arise in organizations
because an organization is composed of individuals
having different goals, values, and perceptions.
-So conflict is unavoidable and need not always be
harmful. Under certain conditions, it could lead to
more innovative solutions to problems.
The Internationalist View
-This is the modern view on conflicts.
-disagreement is regarded as not only inevitable but
also useful.
-if harmony, peace, and cooperativeness prevail in
an organization for a long time, the organization is
likely to become non-responsive to innovation and
change.
-A minimum level of conflict is required to enhance
competency and make it critical and creative.
-the emergence of fresh insights, alternative
solutions, and novel approaches to problem-solving.
Types of Conflict
Intra-Personal Conflict (Within an Individual)
Interpersonal Conflict (Between Individuals)
Inter-Group Conflict
-It occurs between two or more groups in the
organization.
-Many intergroup conflicts arise for organizational
causes rather than interpersonal causes.
Inter-Organizational Conflict
-Inter-organizational conflict is called when it arises
between two organizations.
- It is a result of business competition. Both
conflicting parties generally engage in providing
similar types of services or products. Both parties
become barriers to each other’s success.
Conflict Resolution Techniques
1. Problem-Solving
2. Accommodation
3. Compromising
4. Avoidance
TOPIC: RESTLESSNESS
-can take on both mental and physical characteristics
-can disrupt sleep and have a significant impact on
quality of life.
 feeling of uneasiness or nervousness
 Excessive fidgeting, inability to stay still
 Irritability
 Difficulty concentrating
 Racing thoughts
Home Management of restlessness
 Massaging affected areas
 Hot or cold compresses
 Taking a hot bath
 Taking a walk or doing a distracting activity
Lifestyle Changes
 Meditation and mindfulness exercises
 Ensuring you are getting quality sleep
 Eating a healthy, well-balanced diet
 Avoiding nicotine, alcohol, and recreational
drugs
 Regular exercise
 Finding support from family and/or friends
Complications Associated With Restlessness
-Restlessness can become problematic when it
interrupts sleep and causes insomnia.
- If you don’t get enough rest, your daytime brain
function is affected, meaning it's more difficult to
concentrate, learn, or remember.
- You’re also prone to depression and anxiety and
are more likely to get into accidents driving.
When to See a Healthcare Provider
 Restlessness is regularly interrupting sleep
and causing insomnia.
 You suspect symptoms are medication side
effects.
 You experience significant discomfort or pain.
 You’re experiencing symptoms of depression
and anxiety..
TOPIC: TENSION
-Tension is typically experienced in our bodies as
tightness or stiffness in our muscles.
-This kind of tension can be quite painful and can
sometimes severely restrict your ability to move.
The Role of Stress in Tension
-Our fears and anxieties don’t just occur in our
minds, they are expressed throughout our bodies as
well.
-Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is the
physiological component of our fight or flight
response. That is, our sympathetic nervous system is
responsible for preparing our bodies for action when
we feel as though we are in danger.
-Part of this preparation is the release of a
neurotransmitter, called acetylcholine, which is
responsible for making our muscles contract. Thus,
when we are stressed out, our bodies interpret that
stress as danger and activate our sympathetic
nervous system, which promotes the release of
acetylcholine, and ultimately leads to the
contraction of muscles, even when we don’t want it
to.
-Research has shown that stress-induced muscle
contractions, or muscle tension, are especially
prominent in the face, neck, and shoulders You
might notice this effect if you clench your jaw or
raise your shoulders when you are stressed.
-Given that muscle relaxation techniques have been
Tips To Reduce Tension
-Because tension lives in our bodies, even when it’s
born in our minds, the best way to reduce tension is
through processes of physical relaxation.
- Anything that makes you feel relaxed could help,
such as a walk with your dog, a conversation with a
dear friend, or a cup of hot cocoa. In addition to the
methods of relaxation that you know to be effective
for you, Progressive Muscle Relaxation, yoga, heat
therapy, cold therapy, and massage.
TOPIC: DESTRUCTIVENESS
-Self-destructive behaviors are those that are bound
to harm you physically or mentally.
- It may be unintentional. Or, it may be that you
know exactly what you’re doing, but the urge is too
strong to control.
-when you do something that’s sure to cause self-
harm, whether it’s emotional or physical. Some self-
destructive behavior is more obvious:
 attempting suicide
 binge eating
 compulsive activities like gambling, gaming,
or shopping
 impulsive and risky sexual behavior
 overusing alcohol and drugs
 self-injury, such as cutting, hair pulling,
burning
How is self-destructive behavior diagnosed?
-Self-destructive behavior can be a coping
mechanism that you didn’t realize you’d developed.
-As an example, you put yourself down at work. As a
result, you don’t get the promotion you wanted.
-That’s self-destructive. If you grew up in the
shadow of constant rejection, this could be your way
of doing it before someone else gets the chance.
-This doesn’t necessarily mean you have a mental
health disorder. Once you recognize it for what it is,
you can replace self-destructive behavior with
something that serves your own best interest.
How is self-destructive behavior treated?
The bottom line
-Self-destructive behavior is when you repeatedly do
things that will harm you physically, mentally, or
both. It can range from mild to life-threatening.
-If you think you’re engaging in self-destructive
behavior, you probably are. You don’t have to live
this way. You deserve better.
TOPIC: APATHY
-an absence of feeling or emotion.
-This indifference can affect your motivation and
leave you feeling detached from the world. You
might:
 stop caring about everyday tasks, hobbies, or
personal interests
 struggle to show interest and enthusiasm in
your personal relationships
 feel indifferent to spending time with others
 experience very little emotion or changes in
mood
-Most people experience apathetic feelings from
time to time, especially during times of stress.
-But persistent apathy can affect your relationships,
everyday life, and overall well-being.
-Apathy mainly involves a general indifference and
lack of motivation to do anything at all.
You might also notice:
 fatigue
 anhedonia, or a loss of passion or pleasure
for the things you usually enjoy
 trouble handling your usual responsibilities or
the activities of daily life
 difficulty feeling and expressing any emotions
 loss of interest in social activities or events
 a tendency to spend more time by yourself
 difficulty planning or solving problems
-Apathy can show up in all parts of your life. It can
also have something of a snowball effect.
-After surviving a disaster or other trauma, detaching
emotionally might seem like a helpful way to protect
your well-being and prevent further distress. As a
result, you might find it difficult to connect with
others or access and express your feelings.
-Burnout and emotional exhaustion can also
contribute to apathy.
-Teenagers trying to establish a sense of self and
narrow down their future goals might experience
apathy as they try out and discard identities and
interests that don’t feel quite right. This apathy can
relate to:
 frustration with not being able to make all of
their own choices
 boredom with a daily life that feels unexciting
-Shifting hormones and brain development can play
a part in teen moods and thought patterns, but long-
term emotional detachment and apathy can suggest
a more serious concern, just as it would for people of
any age.
Identify new sources of joy
When nothing in life seems to matter, it never hurts
to consider whether your interests and passions
have shifted.
People change over time, and apathy can happen
when the work or hobbies you used to enjoy no
longer challenge or stimulate you.
If your days pass by in a gray fog, consider adding
some color and vibrance by:
 visiting a new restaurant
 taking a long walk (or drive) somewhere
you’ve never visited
 spending time in nature
 trying a new type of physical activity, like
rollerblading, bicycling, or paddleboarding
Tip: Aim for smaller, manageable changes, rather
than trying to refresh your entire life at once.
TOPIC: FANTASY
- It is the capacity to create mental images and
scenarios as a way of making sense of our world.
-It our fantasies we link the past, present and future
and create links between where we are and where
we would like to be.
- In times of adversity our ability to imagination can
become an important source of strength and
comfort. It also allows us to create possibilities and
test them out allowing us to plan and organize.
-It is the power behind artistic and creative
expression and it is the internal screen onto which
we project our fears and desires.
- It is also plays an important role when we have
incomplete information. In such circumstances we
fill in the missing pieces with our imaginings.
Exploring fantasy
-In therapy examining our imaginings is important
for two reasons.
-Firstly they are like dreams in that they provide links
to our unconscious and to the long forgotten past.
-Like much of our internal life they are often on the
threshold of consciousness yet can pattern and
shape our lives in ways that are unhelpful to us
resulting in self sabotage. Bringing these fantasies
fully into conscious awareness allows us to be make
better choices.
-Fantasy can also sabotage us in another way. If life
is tough over prolonged period, particularly in
childhood, we may at times disengage from reality in
favour of our internal fantasy world. While short
term this may help us cope in the long term this may
create problems. The difference between our
internal and external worlds (fantasy and reality)
may become a barrier to us fully engaging in life and
relationships.
TOPIC: STEREOTYPE
- we infer that a person has a whole range of
characteristics and abilities that we assume all
members of that group have—for example, a “hells
angel” biker dressed in leather.
-One advantage of a stereotype is that it enables us
to respond rapidly to situations because we may
have had a similar experience before.
-One disadvantage is that it makes us ignore
differences between individuals; therefore, we think
things about people that might not be true (i.e.,
make generalizations).
Can stereotypes influence our behavior and
decision-making?
-Yes, stereotypes can influence our behavior and
decision-making. When we hold stereotypes about
certain groups, these beliefs can unconsciously
shape our perceptions, attitudes, and actions
towards individuals belonging to those groups.
-Stereotypes can impact how we interpret
information, how we interact with others, and even
our hiring and promotion decisions. They can lead to
unfair treatment, prejudice, and discrimination.
TOPIC: REGRESSION
-is a psychological defense mechanism in which an
individual copes with stressful or anxiety-provoking
relationships or situations by retreating to an earlier
developmental stage.
-Learn the history of this concept and how
regression manifests in children and adults. We also
discuss how you can overcome regression if you tend
to use this defense mechanism in your own life.
History of Regression
-Regression and other defense mechanisms were
proposed by Sigmund Freud in the 19th century as
part of his psychoanalytic theory.
-Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies
used to protect the ego from stress, fear, or trauma.
-According to Anna Freud, regression is an immature
defense mechanism because the individual who
regresses cannot cope in a more constructive, age-
appropriate way.
-Other people, however, may not show any signs of
fixation until something happens in their lives that
cause stress or trauma. It is only at this point when
the defense mechanism of regression will be used to
shield their ego, leading them to revert to an earlier
stage.
-For example, someone going through a tough
breakup who typically isn't fixated at the oral stage
may suddenly find eating brings them comfort.
- In these cases, regression is based on the strength
of the fixation.
- If the person's fixation on an earlier stage is
relatively weak
Regression in Children
-Young children develop new skills and abilities
rapidly, however, regression is also a common part
of their development.
-Regression is often a product of
being overwhelmed by the new developmental
milestone they've reached and the fact that it takes
them out of a previously established comfort zone.
-Parents and caregivers can help their
children through periods of regression by being
reassuring and supportive.
- Regression is a way for children to express their
feelings about their development, so caregivers
shouldn't ignore their behavior.
-However, they should set limits by suggesting
alternative ways of coping.
-For example, if a child has a temper tantrum every
time he's dropped off at school, a caregiver might
remind him of the fun he had last time he went and
reassure him that they will be there to pick him up as
Regression in Adults
-Like children, adults sometimes regress, often as a
temporary response to a traumatic or anxiety-
provoking situation.
- For example, a person stuck in traffic may
experience road rage, the kind of tantrum they'd
never have in their everyday life but helps them
cope with the stress of driving.
-Similarly, a college freshman who is about to take
their first test may stay up all night video chatting
with their best friend as they did in high school as a
way to calm their nerves.
-In these instances, the individual is regressing to a
stage in their development when they felt safer and
more secure, or when a caregiver could rescue them
from their insecurities.
How to Overcome Regression
-While regression is often a temporary response to
stress that won't lead to larger issues,
-in many cases the individual may be unaware their
behavior is regressive, even though to the outside
observer the immaturity of their actions may be
quite obvious.
-Often telling an adult that their behavior is
uncharacteristically childish or age-inappropriate will
enable them to recognize what they're doing and
determine how to respond to whatever is causing
them distress in a more productive way.
- regression can also be a sign of larger issues. A
reliance on regression can be a sign of poor coping
skills that may require the help of a counselor or
therapist to work through.
-If you notice you have trouble dealing constructively
with the stress of everyday life and tend to act
helpless or immature in the face of problems, this
may be a sign that you need to work with a
professional to improve your coping skills.
TOPIC: RETROGRESSION
-Retrogressive behavior refers to a return to an
older and worse state.
-It can also be described as regression, which is the
dynamic of backsliding or feeling stuck in an
immature thought or pattern of behavior.
- When you're regressing, you may feel like you're
acting childish, but you don't know how to stop.
s-Retrogressive can also mean going or directed
backward, declining from a better to a worse state,
or passing from a higher to a lower level of
organization
TOPIC: PRIMITIVATION
-Austrian psychoanalyst Enst Kris was the first to
theorize that, in traumatic neuroses, a subject's
higher ego functions like objective thinking are
replaced with primitive developmental concepts
like wish-fulfilling fantasy, hallucination and
other magical thinking. Basically, it is the adoption
by the subject of emergency coping using a
narcissistic fantasy.
PIMITIVE
-relating to, denoting, or preserving the character of
an early stage in the evolutionary or historical
development of something
-having a quality or style that offers an extremely
basic level of comfort, convenience, or efficiency
TOPIC: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
normative view
- which compares behavior to the norms or
standards of a society or culture.
-Behavior that deviates from the norms is
considered abnormal
statistical view
- of abnormality is based on how frequently or
infrequently a behavior occurs in a group of people.
Social viewpoint
-abnormal behavior is learned within a social
context and influenced by cultural variables.
-abnormal behavior is caused by the adverse
effects of society on the person, such as family
dynamics, cultural expectations, and societal
biases.
Generally speaking
-Abnormal behavior is a term that can have
different meanings depending on the context.
-Generally speaking, it can refer to behavior that is
atypical or statistically uncommon within a
particular culture or that is maladaptive or
detrimental to an individual or those around that
individual
-There are different ways to define and study
abnormal behavior, such as statistical infrequency,
deviation from social norms, personal distress, or
impairment of functioning
TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHONEUROSIS
ANXIETY REACTIONS
-are the physical and emotional responses that
people experience when they feel anxious or
worried
-They can include rapid breathing, increased heart
rate, sweating, trembling, feeling nervous, trouble
sleeping, and more
- Anxiety is a normal emotion that helps us cope with
challenges or threats, but sometimes it can become
excessive or irrational and interfere with our daily
lives
NEURASTHENIA
-is a condition of the nervous system that occurs due
to exhaustion from mental or physical stress. Some
of the symptoms are:
 Weakness and fatigue
 Anxiety and worry
 Headache and body pain
 Digestive problems
 Sleep disturbances
HYPOCONDRIASIS
-Illness anxiety disorder (IAD), formerly known as
hypochondriasis
-a condition marked by an excessive fear of having a
serious medical condition despite having few or no
symptoms.
-People who have IAD often go to doctors about
symptoms they believe are linked to a medical
problem or may believe that mild symptoms are
more serious than they really are.
-While there may not be a medical illness present,
the concerns that people with IAD have are very real,
and the anxiety they feel can cause serious
disruptions in normal daily functioning.
-most people who would have previously been
diagnosed with hypochondriasis now receive a
diagnosis of illness anxiety disorder or somatic
symptom disorder.
TOPIC: DISSOCIATIVE REACTIONS
AMNESIA
FUGUS STATES
-A fugue state is a type of memory loss that usually
happens after a severe trauma. People in a fugue
state may forget their identity, family, job and other
details of their life. They may also travel away from
their usual surroundings
MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES
-Multiple personality disorder is an outdated term
for dissociative identity disorder (DID), a mental
health condition that involves having two or more
distinct identities or personalities
- usually caused by past trauma and can affect a
person’s memory, perception and behavior
-The disorder is a way for someone to distance or
detach themselves from trauma.
Somnambulism
is another term for sleepwalking. It is a sleep
disorder that involves getting up and walking around
while in a state of sleep. It is more common in
 children than adults, and usually outgrown by the
teen years.
Some possible causes are:
 Lack of sleep or fatigue
 Stress or anxiety
 Fever or illness
 Medications or alcohol
 Genetic factors
Some possible treatments are:
 Improving sleep hygiene and habits
 Reducing stress and anxiety
 Treating any underlying medical conditions
TOPIC: CONVERSION REACTION
What is conversion disorder?
-Functional neurological symptom disorder — better
known as “conversion disorder” — is a mental health
condition that causes physical symptoms. The
symptoms happen because your brain “converts”
the effects of a mental health issue into disruptions
of your brain or nervous system. The symptoms are
real but don’t match up with recognized brain-
related conditions.
It’s important to know that conversion disorder is a
real mental health condition. It’s not faking or
attention-seeking. It isn't just something in a
person’s head or that they’ve imagined. While it’s a
mental health condition, the physical symptoms are
still real. A person with conversion disorder can’t
control the symptoms just by trying or thinking
about it.
TOPIC: PHOBIAS
-an anxiety disorder involving excessive and
persistent fear of a situation or object. Exposure to
the source of the fear triggers an immediate anxiety
response.
. Agoraphobia:
. -This phobia involves an irrational and
extreme fear of being in places where escape
is difficult.
. - It may involve a fear of crowded places or
even of leaving one's home.
 Angrophobia: Fear of anger
 Anthropophobia: Fear of people or society
 Ataxophobia: Fear of disorder or untidiness
 Atelophobia: Fear of imperfection
 Atychiphobia: Fear of failure
 Autophobia: Fear of being alone
 Decidophobia: Fear of making decisions
 Dendrophobia: Fear of trees
 Dentophobia: Fear of dentists
 Domatophobia: Fear of houses
 Dystychiphobia: Fear of accidents
 Gamophobia: Fear of marriage
 Glossophobia: Fear of speaking in public
 Lockiophobia: Fear of childbirth
 Necrophobia: Fear of death or dead things
 Nyctophobia: Fear of the dark
 Obesophobia: Fear of gaining weight
 Philophobia: Fear of love
 Scoptophobia: Fear of being stared at
 Sociophobia: Fear of social evaluation
 Somniphobia: Fear of sleep
Exposure Therapy
Exposure-based treatments are the first-line
approach in the treatment of phobias. In this type of
treatment, you are gradually and progressively
exposed to what you fear.
During this process, you'll also practice relaxation
techniques to help calm your body when your fear
response kicks in.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
(EMDR) therapy utilizes rhythmic eye movements to
help people process and recover from traumatic
experiences. It is frequently used in the treatment
of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but can also
be effective in the treatment of a variety of other
mental health conditions including phobias.8
TOPIC:OBSESSIVE- COMPULSIVE REACTION
-Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
-pattern of unwanted thoughts and fears
(obsessions) that lead you to do repetitive behaviors
(compulsions).
- These obsessions and compulsions interfere with
daily activities and cause significant distress.
-You may try to ignore or stop your obsessions, but
that only increases your distress and anxiety.
-Ultimately, you feel driven to perform compulsive
acts to try to ease your stress.
— for example, an excessive fear of getting
contaminated by germs. To ease your contamination
fears, you may compulsively wash your hands until
they're sore and chapped.
Obsession symptoms
-OCD obsessions are repeated, persistent and
unwanted thoughts, urges or images that are
intrusive and cause distress or anxiety.
-You might try to ignore them or get rid of them by
performing a compulsive behavior or ritual. These
obsessions typically intrude when you're trying to
think of or do other things.
Obsessions often have themes to them, such as:
 Fear of contamination or dirt
 Doubting and having difficulty tolerating
uncertainty
 Needing things orderly and symmetrical
 Aggressive or horrific thoughts about losing
control and harming yourself or others
 Unwanted thoughts, including aggression, or
sexual or religious subjects
Examples of obsession signs and symptoms include:
  Fear of being contaminated by touching
objects others have touched
 Doubts that you've locked the door or turned
off the stove
 Intense stress when objects aren't orderly or
facing a certain way
 Images of driving your car into a crowd of
people
 Thoughts about shouting obscenities or acting
inappropriately in public
 Unpleasant sexual images
 Avoidance of situations that can trigger
obsessions, such as shaking hands
Compulsion symptoms
-OCD compulsions are repetitive behaviors that you
feel driven to perform.
-These repetitive behaviors or mental acts are meant
to reduce anxiety related to your obsessions or
prevent something bad from happening.
- However, engaging in the compulsions brings no
pleasure and may offer only a temporary relief from
anxiety.
-You may make up rules or rituals to follow that help
control your anxiety when you're having obsessive
thoughts. These compulsions are excessive and often
are not realistically related to the problem they're
intended to fix.
As with obsessions, compulsions typically have
themes, such as:
 Washing and cleaning
 Checking
 Counting
 Orderliness
 Following a strict routine
 Demanding reassurance
Examples of compulsion signs and symptoms
include:
 Hand-washing until your skin becomes raw
 Checking doors repeatedly to make sure
they're locked
 Checking the stove repeatedly to make sure it's
off
 Counting in certain patterns
 Silently repeating a prayer, word or phrase
 Arranging your canned goods to face the same
way
Severity varies
OCD usually begins in the teen or young adult years,
but it can start in childhood. Symptoms usually begin
gradually and tend to vary in severity throughout
life. The types of obsessions and compulsions you
experience can also change over time. Symptoms
generally worsen when you experience greater
stress. OCD, usually considered a lifelong disorder,
can have mild to moderate symptoms or be so
severe and time-consuming that it becomes
disabling.
TOPIC: TYPE OF ADJUSTMENT MECHANISM
Regression
- people seem to return to an earlier developmental
stage. This tends to occur around periods of stress —
for example, an overwhelmed child may revert to
bedwetting or thumb-sucking. Regression may arise
from a desire to reduce anxiety and feel
psychologically safe.
Projection
-is a type of adjustment mechanism in psychology
where a person disowns their unwanted thoughts,
feelings or traits and attributes them to someone
else. For example, a person who is insecure may
bully another person for being insecure
identification
-which is the process of adopting the characteristics,
attitudes, or values of another person or
group. Identification can help people cope with
stress, increase self-esteem, or achieve a sense of
belonging.
Some examples of identification are:
 A child imitating their parents or role models
 A fan wearing the jersey of their favorite sports team
 A student joining a club or organization that shares
their interests
Reaction formation
- is a defense mechanism in which a person
unconsciously replaces an unwanted or anxiety-
provoking impulse with its opposite, often expressed
in an exaggerated or showy way For example, a
young boy who bullies a young girl because he is
attracted to her
Rationalization
- It means giving logical reasons to justify behavior
that is motivated by unconscious impulses or
emotions For example, a person who cheats on a
test might rationalize by saying that everyone else
does it
Compensation
- a person tries to make up for a weakness or
deficiency in one area by excelling in another area It
can also involve using alternative means to achieve a
goal when the original ones are lost or unavailable
people overachieve in one area to compensate for
failures in another. For example, individuals with
poor family lives may direct their energy into
excelling above and beyond what is required at
work.
Intellectualization
-people reason about a problem to avoid
uncomfortable or distressing emotions It is one of
the ways that people cope with anxiety, threats to
self-esteem, or unwanted thoughts or feelings
Some examples of intellectualization are:
 A person who is diagnosed with a serious illness
focuses on the statistics and treatment options
rather than their fear or sadness.
 A student who fails an exam rationalizes that the test
was unfair or irrelevant rather than acknowledging
their lack of preparation or understanding.
A person who is rejected by a romantic partner
analyzes the reasons for the breakup rather than
expressing their hurt or anger.
TOPIC: WITHDRAWAL OR ESCAPE RESPONSES
Withdrawal or escape responses are ways of coping
with stressful or challenging situations. They can be
either psychological or physical.
Psychological withdrawal is a defense mechanism
that involves avoiding or distancing oneself from
unpleasant feelings, thoughts, or realities1. It can
also be a symptom of depression, anxiety, or other
mental disorders.
Physical withdrawal is a reaction to the sudden
stoppage or reduction of a substance that one is
dependent on, such as alcohol, nicotine, or drugs. It
can cause various unpleasant symptoms, such as
anxiety, tremors, nausea, hallucinations, or seizures.
TOPIC: PSYCHOTHERAPY
type of treatment that involves talking with a mental
health professional to help you cope with emotional
or psychological problems
- It can help you change your thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors that cause you distress
-There are different types of psychotherapy, such as
cognitive-behavioral, interpersonal, and
psychodynamic
-Psychotherapy can be effective for various mental
health issues, such as depression, anxiety, trauma,
and addiction
TOPIC: MENTAL HEALTH
-a term that refers to the state of well-being of a
person’s emotional, psychological, and
social aspects. It affects how people feel, think, and
behave in different situations. It also influences
their abilities, learning, work, and relationships
- some common factors that contribute to mental
health include having a sense of purpose, belonging,
and self-worth, being able to cope with stress and
challenges, having positive relationships and
support networks, and having access to quality
health care and social services
-Mental health is not just the absence of mental
disorders or illnesses, but rather a dynamic and
fluctuating state that can change over time
depending on various factors.
-Mental health can be improved or maintained by
adopting healthy habits such as relaxing, learning,
being creative, spending time in nature, connecting
with others, looking after physical health, and
getting enough sleep
TOPIC: APPRAISAL TECHNIQUES
-Appraisal techniques are methods of evaluating the
performance of employees in an organization.
projective test
- is a type of personality test that uses ambiguous
stimuli, such as inkblots, pictures, or words, to elicit
responses that may reveal hidden aspects of the
person’s personality, such as conflicts, emotions, or
motives. Projective tests are often used in
psychotherapy or counseling to help diagnose or
treat mental disorders.
-Some examples of projective tests are the
Rorschach Inkblot Test, the Thematic Apperception
Test, and the Sentence Completion Test.
behavioral observation scale (BOS)
-is a performance appraisal method that measures
the frequency of specific behaviors related to job
performance
-A behavioral assessment is a psychological exam
that examines an individual’s patterns of behavior,
thoughts, emotions, and motivations
- It can be used by employers to evaluate a
prospective employee’s suitability for a role2.
Dream analysis
-is a technique that tries to understand the meaning
of dreams and how they relate to your unconscious
thoughts and feelings.
-It was developed by Sigmund Freud, who believed
that dreams were “the royal road” to the
unconscious
- Some psychotherapists use dream analysis to help
their clients with mental disorders such as
depression and anxiety
They may interpret the symbols, images, and
emotions in your dreams to reveal your hidden
conflicts and desires
Free association
- is a psychoanalytic technique where the client is
asked to say whatever comes to their mind without
inhibition, such as memories, words, images, and
daydreams
- It is used to investigate the psyche and uncover
unconscious thoughts or feelings
CASE HISTORY
RATING SCALE
TOPIC: PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCEDURES
CLIET CENTERED
-It is a non-directive form of talk therapy, meaning
that it allows the client to lead the conversation and
does not attempt to steer the client in any way.
- This approach rests on one vital
quality: unconditional positive regard. This means
that the therapist refrains from judging the client for
any reason, providing a source of complete
acceptance and support
There are three key qualities that make for a good
client-centered therapist:
 1. Unconditional Positive Regard:
2. Genuineness:
3. Empathetic Understanding:
Carl Rogers: The Founder of Client-Centered
Therapy
-the godfather of what are now known as
“humanistic”
The Rogerian Approach to Psychotherapy
-Rogers’ approach to therapy was a simpler one than
the earlier approaches in some ways. Instead of
requiring a therapist to dig deep into their patients’
unconscious mind, an inherently subjective process
littered with room for error, he based his approach
on the idea that perhaps the client’s conscious mind
was a better focus.
In Rogers’ own words:
“It is the client who knows what hurts,
what directions to go, what problems
are crucial, what experiences have
been deeply buried. It began to occur
to me that unless I had a need to
demonstrate my own cleverness and
learning, I would do better to rely
upon the client for the direction of
movement in the process.”
Carl Rogers
-This approach marked a significant shift from the
distant, hierarchical relationship between
psychiatrist and patient of psychoanalysis and other
early forms of therapy.
- No longer was the standard model of therapy one
expert and one layman – now, the model included
one expert in the theories and techniques of
therapy, and one expert in the experience of the
client (the client themselves!).
- Rogers saw the client’s own experience as the most
vital factor in the process.
 -Most of our current forms of therapy are
based on this idea that we take for granted
today: the client is a partner in the
therapeutic relationship rather than a
helpless patient, and their experiences hold
the key to personal growth and development
as a unique individual.
-The only technique recognized as effective and
applied in client-centered therapy is to listen
nonjudgmentally. That’s it!
LEARNING THEORY
 Behavioral learning theory
 Cognitive learning theory
 Constructivist learning theory
 Social learning theory
 Experiential learning theory
-During the early part of the twentieth century,
many psychologists became increasingly interested
in turning psychology into a more scientific
endeavor. These psychologists, known
as behaviorists, argued that psychology needed to
study only things that could be measured and
quantified to be more scientific.
Learning Through Association
-Classical conditioning suggests that learning occurs
when an association is formed between a previously
neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
-In experiments conducted by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov, a natural stimulus (food)
was paired with the sound of a bell. The dogs would
naturally salivate in response to food, but after
multiple associations, the dogs would salivate to the
sound of the bell alone.
In classical conditioning:
 Learning occurs by forming associations
between naturally occurring stimuli and a
previously neutral stimulus
 The neutral stimulus must occur immediately
before the naturally occurring one
 Focuses on automatic, naturally occurring
behaviors
What Is Classical Conditioning?
Learning Through Reinforcement
-Operant conditioning is a type of associative
learning that involves strengthening or weakening a
behavior by using reinforcement or punishment.
Operant conditioning was first described by the
behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner.
- Skinner believed that classical conditioning simply
could not account for all types of learning and was
more interested in learning how the consequences
of actions influence behaviors.
-Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning
relies on forming associations. In operant
conditioning, however, associations are made
between a behavior and the consequences of that
behavior.
In operant conditioning:
 Learning occurs when behaviors are followed
by either reinforcement or punishment
 The consequences must quickly follow the
behavior
 Focuses on voluntary behaviors
When a behavior leads to a desirable consequence,
it becomes more likely that the behavior will be
repeated in the future. The behavior becomes less
likely if the actions lead to a negative outcome.
Cognitive Learning Theories
-The cognitive approach to learning focuses on how
attention, memory, and information processing
contribute to the acquisition of knowledge. One of
the best-known cognitive learning theories
is Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Piaget
described four stages of intellectual development
that occur in childhood.1
These four stages explain how a child learns about
the world and processes information.
 Sensorimotor stage: During this period of
cognitive development, children learn about
the world primarily through their senses.
 Preoperational stage: This stage is marked by
the emergence of language and learning
through pretend play.
 Concrete operations stage: During this
period, kids begin to utilize logic but still think
about the world very concretely.
 Formal operations stage: At this point, kids
begin to use deductive reasoning and can
understand abstract, hypothetical ideas.
Constructivist Learning Theories
-The constructivist approach to learning
characterizes learners as active participants in the
process who play a role in constructing their
knowledge. Constructivist theories of learning were
influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky.
-Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stressed the
importance of collaboration and social interaction in
the learning process.
-Two important concepts of constructivist learning
theories are the more knowledgeable other and the
zone of proximal development:
 More knowledgeable other: Vygotsky
described the more knowledgeable other as
anyone with an understanding or ability level
higher than the learner. This can often be a
teacher or adult, but it can also refer to peers
with more knowledge about a specific
concept, task, or process.
 Zone of proximal development: Vygotsky
described the zone of proximal development
as the range of knowledge or ability that a
person can display with the help of the more
knowledgeable other, but that they are not
yet capable of performing independently.
Gradually expanding this zone is how people
can learn and improve their skills over time.
Social Learning Theories
Psychologist Albert Bandura suggested that much of
learning takes place through observation. Children
observe the actions of those around them,
particularly caregivers and siblings, and then imitate
these behaviors.
In social learning:
 Learning occurs through observation
 Observations can take place at any time
 Focuses on the give-and-take interaction
between social, cognitive, and environmental
influences
In his well-known Bobo doll experiment, Bandura
revealed just how easily children could be led to
imitate even negative actions. Children who watched
a video of an adult beating up a large inflatable doll
were likelier to copy those actions when given a
chance.
Bandura noted that learning something does not
necessarily result in a behavior change. Children
frequently learn new things through observation but
might not engage in such behaviors until they need
or are motivated to utilize the information.
Experiential Learning Theories
-This learning theory focuses on learning via hands-
on experience. The theory was formally introduced
by psychologist David Kolb but was influenced by
the work of other theorists, including Jean Piaget
and John Dewey.
According to Kolb, there are four
stages in experiential learning. The first two, abstract
conceptualization and concrete experience, relate to
how people grasp experiences. The final two, active
experimentation and reflective observation, refer to
how people transform experiences.3
Modern Views
Such theories are typically not used in isolation.
Instead, modern educators and psychologists draw
on information from a variety of theories to develop
effective educational strategies and psychological
interventions that help people acquire new skills and
knowledge. One of Counseling technique
-Ibalik ang question sa client
For example, teachers continue to use behavioral
strategies such as positive reinforcement and token Use of internet in finding jobs- rise of technology
economies to help shape the learning process. Freelance
- both online or offline not fixed
The goal of learning more about these learning Online jobs- online lang talaga
theories is to help adapt educational and therapeutic
interventions to best suit an individual's needs. Gig hustling- moonlighting
-you have other source of income
All learners are different, so drawing on various -aside from main job
approaches, such as incorporating behavioral,
constructivist, and experiential strategies can help Trends in Career guidance counseling
maximize learning opportunities and improve -implement different guidance services/specialist
educational outcomes. -to be a mental health proffessional
-you, as a career specialist
Types of Group Therapy
3 Paths of Counselor Role
Group therapy can be categorized into different Counselor practitioner
types depending on the mental health condition it is -nagcacounsel
intended to treat as well as the clinical method used Counselor Educator
during the therapy. The most common types of - already teaching
group therapy include: Counselor Supervisor
-All the functions you will supervise
 Cognitive behavioral groups, which center
on identifying and changing inaccurate Counselors can only do the counseling part
or distorted thinking patterns, emotional
responses, and behaviors Career Unpredictability
 Interpersonal groups, which focus on Fad Courses
interpersonal relationships and social - What’s in
interactions, including how much support Sunset Industries
you have from others and the impact these -palubog na
relationships have on mental health - advice maám dane, go with the flow don’t just be
 Psychoeducational groups, which focus on traditional, never stop learning, be advanced
educating clients about their disorders and
ways of coping; often based on the principles We we’re lost kasi andami pwedeng daanana, we
of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) need to take specific path, dapat makita natin na
 Skills development groups, which focus on useful ito for our future
improving social skills in people with mental
disorders or developmental disabilities Promote Guidance and Counseling Profession
 Support groups, which provide a wide range
of benefits for people with a variety of Lifetime Career
mental health conditions as well as their -e.g. teacher ka, forever teacher ka na
loved ones
Always shifting
- it became a problem when it affect area of a person
SUBJECT: CAREER GUIDANCE e.g. physical, mental, emotional, financial
This is where career counseling will come in
Guidance counseling should be evidence based-
hindi pwedeng tingin ko lang When a person went to guidance counseling 50%
okay na siya kasi he has the will.
KSAVE
- Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes, Values, and Ethics Psychoanalytic
-Freud, Ericson
LamBiLos -Looking at past, how it will affect your present and
- A Filipino Sensitive Approach future
- Lambing, Biro, Haplos
Cognitive Behavioral
Ethical Standards -you can change, hindi ka fixed
- it’s important to learn the basic
Humanistic
SOLER - to look at purpose
-Slowly, Open, Eye contact, Reflective
- to tap the strength of the person Self concept
-picture of the self
Multicultural
- respect your clinet’s values Havighurt’s Developmental Theory
-what’s important to them -stage 1- afiliation
- identification with a worker (5-10 y.o)
Adlerian Approcah - you admire parents kaya yun na work mo
-Since birth.. -stage 2-organize one’s time and energy
-acquiring the basic habit of the industry ( 10-15 y.o)
-e.g. when tito stop them form playing, gusto
Job tumulong sa bahay, napipigilan na pala sila sa career
-Specific work, task, duties identity nila
Occupation -expose.. extra curricular activities to explore
-group of similar jobs -Stage 3
-e.g. academe- maraming sanga, registrar, teaching… -Acquiring identity as a worker in the occupational
Work structure (15-25)
-set of activities with intended set of outcomes -Stage 4
Career -Becoming a productive person (25-40)
-passion, life long ambition -expose yourself!!

Career development
-there’s a progress/ development
Flow- no boredom, burn out, nameet yung IQ
-If you’re enjoying, there’s fulfillment
Your counseling approcah will reflect what’s inside
you, so make sure you’re okay too.
Linear
- teacher 1- principal
Expert/Steady
- From start to finish, same job
Spiral
- combination of linear and expert but promoted but
still in the same field
Transitory
- artista- doctor- enterp
Career Counseling
-Helping an individual come up with a career plan
- collect information then evaluate what’s best
career decision for the person, then identify
different steps how will the person be successful
Career coaching
-you have goal but short
Working alliance
-build positive rapport
-gather client’s info
-understand and hypothesize client’s behavior
- how is that making you feel right now?
- saan ka mas may satisfaction?
-try to rich out to your support system
Gadfredson’s Developmental theory of
occupational aspiration
-there’s a biological approach
-interaction of nature and nurture
-kahit gaano ka kagaling kung yung environment
mo..
-give alternatives, there’s a lot of options
-there are things that you like pero binibitawan mo
muna kasi it’s not available
David Tydeman’s Self Developmental theory
-emphasizes meaning
-career is lifetime achievement
David Tydeman’s self development theory is a career
development theory that emphasizes the
importance of ego development on career decision
making. According to this theory, healthy ego
development depends on how well an individual
manages the psychosocial crises outlined by Erik
Erikson’s theory of development1. The individual
also seeks to achieve a favorable view of the self in
different situational contexts, including the world of
work.
The theory proposes that career decision making
involves two processes: differentiation and
integration. Differentiation is the process of
exploring and identifying one’s interests, abilities,
values, and goals. Integration is the process of
synthesizing and reconciling one’s self-concept with
the reality of the environment. The theory identifies
seven stages of differentiation and integration:
exploration, crystallization, choice, clarification,
induction, reformation, and integration12.

Life Space Approach

By: Super Nancy Schlossberg
- self concept -Adult career development theory
-identify your certain coure (yung hindi nagbabago - social expectation that would be part of your
sayo) expectation
- iba ka pag ako kausap, iba ka pag siya kausap, pero Nancy Schlossberg’s transition theory is a framework
may soecific self concept ka that helps us understand how people cope with
changes and challenges in their lives. According to
 this theory, a transition is any event or non-event Parcimony
that results in changed relationships, routines, -if the client say na ang kaniyang case is multo, the
assumptions, and roles for an individual. The theory client’s knows best
also suggests that the way people experience and -multicultural approach
respond to transitions depends on the type, context,
and impact of the transition, as well as their personal Psychological Assessment is broader than
and social resources. Here are some key points from Psychological Testing
the web search results:
Psychological Testing
 There are three different types of transitions: - a tool for psychological assessment
anticipated, unanticipated, and non-events. Psychological Assessment
Anticipated transitions are those that occur - integration of data from various sources
predictably, such as graduation from college or
retirement. Unanticipated transitions are those that Why are we doing psych assessment?
are not planned or expected, such as divorce or -for intervention
sudden death of a loved one. Non-events are those -data gathering
that are expected to happen but do not, such as -evaluation purposes
failure to get a promotion or having a child1. -planning
 The context of a transition refers to one’s -prevention
relationship with the transition and the setting in -decision making
which it occurs. For example, the context may -cause vention (follow up)
include whether the transition is recent or not, -selection (for placement)
whether it is voluntary or imposed, whether it is
personal or professional, and whether it affects Individual inventory
other aspects of one’s life. -basic info of the client
-name, sex, acads
Ginzberg’s developmental theory is one of the -family background
earliest and most influential theories of career -medical history
choice and development. It proposes that
occupational choice is a lifelong process that occurs Selection
in three stages: fantasy, tentative, and realistic. Each -more on corporate
stage has sub-stages that reflect the individual’s Placement
interests, capacities, values, and opportunities. -saan la appropriate
Ginzberg also identified several factors that -where will you grow best
influence vocational choice, such as personality,
social class, family, education, and chance Reliability
events. Ginzberg’s theory has been criticized for -consistent, repeated
being too rigid, deterministic, and linear, but it also Validity
inspired many later theories and research on career -Appropriate, correct
development
All valid test are reliable
Abrenica’s Generational Template theory Not all reliable test are valid
- Career decisions are influenced by significant
people in their lives Types of Psychological tests
Objective test
-a test with right or wrong answer
-usually multiple choice
SUBJECT: PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING -measures knowledge, skills and ability with single
correct answer
-essay is an objective test
Beneficence -specific, direct to the point
- whatever is beneficial to the client -easy to interpret
None- Maleficence -but can’t explore and justify
- to do no harm Intelligence test
-time bounded, speed test
How to resolve ethical dillema -power test
-list down pros and cons - achievement test- measuring your previous
-beneficence and malificence learning
-ptitude test- measuring your potential (future)
-can I answer it using code of ethics? Personality test
-if can’t find, connect to different colleagues -typical performance test
-connect to PRB or PGCA -ocean- openness, consentiousness, extra,
agreeableness, neuroticism
-type based test -consistency is based on time
-projective test, behavioral observation - thematic -it should be same population
approach -consider the spacing (not too close) - recencyeffect
Projective test -3-6 months advisable
-still an objective test, you still have basis on how to
score Split half test
-to let a person respond to ambiguous stimulimalabo -e.g 1-50, 51-100 or odd/even scheme
Thematic apperception test -minsanang administration but 2 targets
-different pictures (can you make a story)
SECS Parallel Form test
-sentence completion test -same construct, same difficulty index
-e.g. my father is…
Neuropsychological test Charles Spearman
-tests brain function/disfunction - factors analysis
-e.g. draw a clock test- pag di na draw ng maayos How different variables relate
may problem -a person is good in one thing and is good at almost
-bender gestalt- pag hindi makopya possible na may everything
brain disfunction
Multiple intelligence - Howard Gardner
Correlation -Autisms has limited social skills but good in
-1 cognitive
- indicate a perfect negativecorrelation -people have different intelligence/abilities
+1
-perfect positive correlation Benefits of Emotional Intelligence
Validity - ability to delay gratification while pursuing long
Face validity term goals
-not a type of validity
Lewis Terman
Is this item appropriate- content validity - intelligence was unchanging and innate (genetic)
Does this item look like- face validity
Achievement test
Criterion validity -measure what ypu already have learned
-measures if your test can predict Aptitude
Concurrent -taking before college e.g. UPCAT
-correlate the scores that you developed teast to
your already existing scores Flynn Effect
-e.g. general average, IQ test, - tumataas ang IQ level ng tao so we have to do re-
- use the scores and wait for future score before standardization
correlate
Predictive Fluid intelligence
-e.g. mac board exam -ability to think quickly and abstractly

Aptitude test Crystallized intelligence

-ginagamit for concurrent and predictive (Positive -refers to accumulated wisdom, knowledge,
correlation) expertise etc.

Because if we will base on Psychodynamic

Dream Analysis
GPA HS and Admission test -list down all the males in life when you were
- strong negative correlation, no concurrent validity growing up

Construct Validity
Convergent PGCA
-correlate 2 scores with almost similar construct -professional responsibility
-e.g. you’re feeling stress- correlate with a tool with -focused on maintaining a hihg standard of
anxiety construct professionalism and recognizing the need of
Discriminant continuing education for the effectiveness of work
-Measuring a score definitely not related to the -counseling relationship
construct -confidenciality and privacy
-code of ethics 2021
Reliability
Test Re-test PRB
-you will administer the test and you will retest it
 - focused on the relationship with clients, assuring to
meet the client’s needs and also promoting
continuing professional development
- recognizing the responsibility to protect clients
- gaining the trust of client is important, respecting
confidentiality is important
-Manual of technical standards for regular and
licensed guidance counselors (Board resolution No.
1, series of 2009)
ACA
- focused in dealing with the public andother
professionals
-also promotes non-discriminatory manner
-participates in local sate and national associations
-understand the diverse cultural background of
clients
-code of ethics (2014)
ACA counseling is a term that refers to the
professional practice of counseling as defined by the
American Counseling Association (ACA). The ACA is
an educational, scientific, and professional
organization whose members work in various
settings and roles. ACA counseling is a relationship
that empowers diverse individuals, families, and
groups to accomplish mental health, wellness,
education, and career goals.
PGCA counseling is a term that refers to the services
and activities offered by the Philippine Guidance and
Counseling Association, Inc. (PGCA), a non-profit
organization that aims to promote the professional
development and ethical standards of guidance
counselors in the Philippines1. PGCA counseling
includes online information campaigns and group
support systems for healthcare workers, frontliners, 
and other people who are more often exposed to
the COVID-19 crisis23. PGCA counseling also involves
attending conferences, seminars, workshops, and
other events that enhance the knowledge and skills
of guidance counselors
RA 9258 is the Republic Act No. 9258, also known as
the Guidance and Counseling Act of 2004. It is a law 
that professionalizes the practice of guidance and
counseling in the Philippines by creating a
Professional Regulatory Board of Guidance and
Counseling, setting the qualifications and standards
for guidance counselors, and regulating their ethical
and professional conduct. The law also aims to
promote the improvement, advancement, and
protection of the guidance and counseling
profession by fostering continuing professional
development and ensuring world-class and
internationally recognized standards of practice and
service21.
Some of the main provisions of RA 9258 are:
 The creation of a Professional Regulatory Board of
Guidance and Counseling, composed of a chairman
and two members appointed by the President of the
Philippines from a list of nominees submitted by the
Commission and the accredited and integrated
organization of guidance counselors2.
 The qualifications for admission to the practice of
guidance and counseling, which include being a
citizen and resident of the Philippines, having good
moral character, having a master’s degree in
guidance and counseling or allied fields from a
recognized institution, having at least three years of
relevant experience in guidance and counseling, and
passing the licensure examination given by the
Board2.
 The scope of practice of guidance and counseling,
which includes counseling subjects, particularly
subjects given in the licensure examinations, and
other human development services such as
psychological testing, career development, research,
consultancy, advocacy, program development,
coordination, administration, training, supervision,
and accreditation2.
The code of ethics for guidance counselors, which
outlines the principles and standards of professional
conduct, responsibility, competence, confidentiality,
respect for human dignity and rights, social
responsibility, and professional development
SUBJECT: FOUNDATION OF GUIDANCE
TOPIC: HISTORY OF GUIDANCE
History of guidance work is a broad topic that covers
the origins and development of various forms of
guidance and counseling in different settings and
contexts. According to the web search results, some
of the main aspects of this topic are:
The history of guidance and counseling in the United
States, which began as a vocational guidance
movement in the early 20th century, led by Frank
Parsons, who is considered the father of
guidance. He stressed the scientific approach to
selecting a career based on self-understanding,
knowledge of occupations, and matching of the
two1234.
The history of guidance and counseling in the
Philippines, which was influenced by the American
model of guidance and counseling, but also adapted
to the local culture and needs. Sinforoso Padilla is
regarded as the father of guidance in the Philippines.
He established the first guidance office at the
University of the Philippines in 1932. In 2004, the
Guidance and Counseling Act was passed to promote
and protect the profession5.
TOPIC: BASIC GUIDANCE SERVICES
Basic guidance services are a group of services given
to individuals to assist them in making plans and
decisions, and in interpreting life. They include tools
and facilities to help individuals gain knowledge and
skills. Some examples of basic guidance services are:
 Counseling Service (CS): It is a service wherein
competent staff or trained peer counselors assist
individual students or a group toward better
understanding of themselves and their
environment. It encourages them to satisfactory
adjustment or acceptable resolution of problems
they encounter123.
 Individual Inventory Service (IIS): This service
pertains to the activity of gathering data about the
students to enable the counselors, professors and
administrators to understand the student better
before counseling is conducted. It is a cumulative
record of personal, family and educational data from
birth to present12.
 Psychological Testing Service (PTS): It refers to the
administration, scoring and interpretation of
psychological tests to individual or group of students
used to assess their behavioral
tendencies. Psychological tests are also used as tools
in counseling students12.
 Follow-up Service (FS): Follow up sessions are
conducted among students who are counseled,
referred by faculty, administrators and other
university staff. The follow-up service ensures that
the student has learned appropriate behaviors and
decisions regarding their problem or need12.
 Information Service (IS): This service makes
available to students certain kinds of information not
ordinarily provided through classroom instruction. It
enables the counselor to give important facts
concerning personal, social and educational
adjustment. It includes the orientation among
freshmen and incoming students, workshops,
seminars and community extension services12.
 Research and Evaluation Service (RES): A service
which consists of the conduct of researches on
student’s scores, psychological test results, values,
attitudes and the evaluation of the basic guidance
services at the end of the school year12.
TOPIC: ISSUES AND TRENDS IN THE GUIDANCE
WORK
There are many issues and trends in the guidance
work in the Philippines, such as:
 The implementation of the Republic Act No. 9258
or the Guidance and Counseling Act of 20041, which 
regulates the practice of guidance and counseling in
the country and sets the standards for the
profession2.
 The integration of guidance and counseling in the K
to 12 Basic Education Program1, which aims to
provide holistic and quality education for all Filipino
learners and prepare them for life, work, and
citizenship3.
 The development of competency standards for
guidance counselors, which define the knowledge,
skills, attitudes, and values that are expected from 
them in performing their roles and functions1.
 The promotion of mental health and well-being
among students, teachers, and other stakeholders,
especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic
and its impact on the education sector1 .
 The use of technology and innovation in delivering
guidance and counseling services, such as online
platforms, mobile applications, chatbots, artificial
intelligence, and virtual reality1 .
 The enhancement of professional development
and ethical standards for guidance counselors,
which include continuing education, accreditation,
certification, supervision, mentoring, and peer
support1 .
 The collaboration and networking among guidance
counselors, schools, communities, government
agencies, non-government organizations, and other
partners in addressing the needs and issues of
learners and society1 .
Topic: Methods in gathering data
School records
Autobiography
Other personal records
Inventories
-a complete list of items such as property, goods in
stock, or the contents of a building.
Sociometric techniques
-Sociometric techniques are methods of measuring
social relationships and preferences among group
members.
Interview
Observation
Anecdotal records
-Anecdotal records are a way of documenting
observations of a person’s behavior, actions, or skills
in a natural setting.
TOPIC: CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES OF
COUNSELING
 Psychodynamic counseling: This approach is based
on the idea that our behavior and emotions are
influenced by our unconscious thoughts, feelings,
and memories. Psychodynamic counselors help
clients explore their past experiences, especially
those related to their childhood and family, and
uncover the hidden meanings and conflicts that
affect their present situation. Psychodynamic
counseling can help clients understand themselves
better, resolve inner conflicts, and develop healthier
ways of relating to others1.
Humanistic counseling: This approach is based on
the idea that people have an innate tendency to
grow and fulfill their potential. Humanistic
counselors focus on the present moment and the
client’s subjective experience. They use a non-
directive style of interaction, which means they do
not give advice or tell the client what to do, but
rather listen empathically and reflect back what the
client says and feels. Humanistic counseling can help
clients develop self-awareness, self-acceptance, self-
expression, and personal growth2.
Behavioral counseling: This approach is based on
the idea that our behavior is learned and can be
changed by modifying the environmental factors
that reinforce or discourage it. Behavioral counselors
use techniques such as reinforcement, punishment,
 modeling, exposure, and contingency management
to help clients change their unwanted or
problematic behaviors. Behavioral counseling can
help clients overcome phobias, addictions, anxiety,
depression, and other issues that are related to their
behavior2.
 Cognitive counseling: This approach is based on the
idea that our thinking affects our emotions and
actions. Cognitive counselors help clients identify
and challenge their distorted or irrational thoughts
that cause them distress or interfere with their
functioning. Cognitive counseling can help clients
improve their mood, self-esteem, problem-solving
skills, and coping strategies2.
TOPIC: COUNSELING TECHNIQUES
Counseling techniques are methods and strategies
that counselors use to help their clients achieve their
goals and improve their well-being. There are many
different types of counseling techniques, depending 
on the theoretical orientation, the client’s needs,
and the counselor’s skills. Some of the most
common counseling techniques are:
 Active listening: This is the ability to listen
attentively and empathically to the client, without
interrupting, judging, or imposing solutions. Active
listening involves using verbal and nonverbal cues to
show interest, understanding, and respect for the
client’s feelings and experiences1.
 Reflection: This is the technique of mirroring back to 
the client what they have said or expressed, using
their own words or paraphrasing. Reflection helps
the client feel heard and validated, as well as
clarifying their thoughts and emotions1.
 Questioning: This is the technique of asking open-
ended, closed-ended, or clarifying questions to elicit
more information, explore deeper issues, or
challenge unhelpful beliefs. Questioning can help the
client gain new perspectives, identify goals, and
evaluate options1.
 Summarizing: This is the technique of providing a
brief overview of the main points or themes that
have emerged in a session or a segment of a
session. Summarizing helps the client organize their
thoughts, review their progress, and focus on the
next steps1.
 Reframing: This is the technique of presenting a
different or more positive way of looking at a
situation, problem, or behavior. Reframing can help
the client change their perspective, reduce negative
emotions, and enhance coping skills2.
 Feedback: This is the technique of giving
constructive and supportive comments or
suggestions to the client based on observation,
assessment, or evaluation. Feedback can help the
client increase their self-awareness, recognize their
strengths and areas for improvement, and motivate
them to change2.
 Goal setting: This is the technique of helping the
client identify specific, measurable, achievable,
realistic, and time-bound (SMART) goals that are
relevant to their needs and preferences. Goal setting
can help the client clarify their direction, plan their
actions, and monitor their progress2.
 Homework: This is the technique of assigning tasks
or activities for the client to complete between
sessions. Homework can help the client practice new
skills, apply new learning, or test new behaviors in
real-life situations2.
These are some of the basic counseling techniques
that can be used with a variety of clients and issues.
However, there are also more specialized counseling
techniques that are tailored to specific approaches
or populations. For example:
 Gestalt therapy techniques: These are methods that
aim to increase the client’s awareness of their
present experience, emotions, and bodily
sensations. Some examples are role-playing, empty
chair technique, two-chair technique, and
experiments12.
Humanistic methods: These are approaches that
emphasize the client’s inherent worth, potential, and
autonomy. Some examples are person-centered
therapy, existential therapy, motivational
interviewing, and solution-focused therapy12.
 Methods for group counseling: These are strategies
that facilitate interaction, communication, and
cohesion among group members who share similar
concerns or goals. Some examples are icebreakers,
group rules, feedback guidelines, and process
comments23.
Techniques for treating specific disorders: These are
interventions that target the symptoms or causes of
certain mental health conditions. Some examples are
cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety and
depression, exposure therapy for phobias and post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), dialectical behavior
therapy for borderline personality disorder (BPD),
and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
(EMDR) for trauma3.
TOPIC: COUNSELING TRAINING, COMPETENCE
AND QUALIFICATIONS
Counseling is a profession that requires specialized
training, competence, and qualifications to practice
effectively. Depending on the type of counseling you
want to pursue, the requirements may vary in terms
of education, experience, certification, and licensure.
Generally, counselors need to have a bachelor’s
degree in a related field, such as psychology,
sociology, or education. Some counseling positions
may require a master’s degree or higher in
counseling or a related discipline. For example, in
the United States, mental health counselors typically
need a master’s degree in counseling or clinical
psychology and at least two years of supervised
clinical experience1.
Counselors also need to demonstrate competence in
various areas of counseling practice, such as
assessment, diagnosis, treatment planning,
intervention, evaluation, ethics, and multicultural
 issues. Counselors may need to pass examinations or
complete continuing education courses to prove
their competence and stay updated on the latest
developments in the field. For example, in the
United States, school counselors need to pass state
content examinations for licensure in 30 states2.
Additionally, counselors may need to obtain
certification or licensure from professional
organizations or regulatory agencies to practice
legally and ethically. Certification is usually voluntary
and indicates that a counselor has met certain
standards of education, experience, and
competence. Licensure is mandatory and grants a
counselor the legal authority to practice in a specific
state or jurisdiction. The titles and requirements for
licensure may vary depending on the type of
counseling and the location. For example, some
common titles for licensed counselors in the United
States are3:

 licensed professional counselor (LPC)

 licensed clinical professional counselor (LCPC)
 licensed professional clinical counselor of mental
health (LPCC)
 licensed clinical mental health counselor (LCMHC)
 licensed mental health practitioner (LMHP)

To obtain certification or licensure, counselors

usually need to complete an accredited educational
program, pass a national or state examination, and
complete a certain number of supervised clinical
hours. Counselors may also need to adhere to a code
of ethics and follow the laws and regulations of their
profession.