Practical Research

1
Midterm

Name: ____________________
Grade & Section: ___________
Teacher: Ms. Caroline de Taza

UNIT 3
 Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
 Choose appropriate quantitative research designs;
 Describe sampling procedures and derivation of sample size
 Construct instruments in gathering data

Choosing Appropriate Quantitative Research Design

To start writing a research paper you have to plan the research design of your study. The research design is your
overall concept or strategy to put together the components of your study in a logical manner. Additionally, the design
ensures that the research problem is appropriately addressed. The research problem and questions shall determine the
type of research design you should use.
The choice of a correct research design is important prior to obtaining information relevant to your research stuffy.
You can review and synthesize literature of studies that have used the same research design and which are relevant to your
research study.
Types of Quantitative Research Designs

Research problems vary. Although every research problem is unique there are certain similarities relating to
situational variables like personal characteristics, areas of significance, among others.

Basic quantitative research designs can be used to address or match given problems and objectives.
The three (3) traditional categories of research designs are exploratory, descriptive and causal.
Exploratory Research Design

An exploratory research design is often used to establish an initial understanding and background information about
a research study of interest, often with very few or no earlier related studies found relevant to the research study.

This research design is described as an informal or unstructured way of investigating available sources. You may
conduct library search, secondary data analysis, experience surveys, opinionnaire, case analysis, focus groups, projective
techniques and Internet searches. Secondary data include information which you may gather from books, journals,
proceedings, newsletters, magazines, annual reports and many others. Experience surveys refer to gathering data from key
informants about a research topic. In case analysis, you may review past experiences or situations that may have some
similarities with the present research problem. You can also gather small groups of people and conduct focus group
discussions. Through an unstructured discussion, you can gain information relevant to the research study that you plan to
undertake.

If the sample size in the exploratory studies is small, the results of the study cannot be generalized for a population.

Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used to gather information on current situations and conditions. It helps provide
answers to the questions of who, what, when where and the how of a particular research study. Descriptive research
studies provide accurate data after subjecting them to a rigorous procedure and using large amounts of data from large
numbers of samples. This design leads to logical conclusions and pertinent degree on data collection instrumentation for
the measurement of data and analysis.

According to Polit and Hungles (1999), the following research designs are classified as descriptive design:

 Survey

The survey research design is usually used in securing opinions and trends through the use of questionnaires and
interviews. A survey is used in gathering data from institutions, government and businesses to help in decision-making
regarding change strategies, improving practices, analyzing views on choice of products or market research. Surveys can
be conducted face-to-face or online. Online surveys are widely used because gathering data from the target respondents or
completing of questionnaires is fast using the Internet.

 Correlation Research
 Correlation research design is used for research studies aimed to determine the existence of a relationship between two
or more variables and to determine the degree of the relationship. Examples of correlational research involving two (2)
quantitative variables that can be correlated are: mental ability and grade in math; gender and math performance;
advertising costs and sales; and income and expenses.

 Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is conducted to elicit useful feedback from a variety of respondents from various fields to aid in
decision making or policy formulation.

Commonly used types of evaluation based on the purpose of the study are Formative and Summative evaluation.

Formative evaluation is used to determine the quality of implementation of a project, the efficiency and effectiveness of
a program, assessment of organizational processes such as procedures, policies, guidelines, human resource development
and the like.

On the other hand, Summative evaluation is done after the implementation of the program. It examines the outcomes,
products or effects of the program.

Here are some examples of formative evaluation:

 Needs Assessment
Evaluates need for the program or project. For example, how great is the need for a remedial program mathematics?
Who needs the program? Who needs the program? When can the program start? Where or in what college will the program
be implemented and what are needed to implement the program?

 Process Evaluation

Evaluates the process of implementation of a program. For example, you may want to conduct a study on the
implementation of the Student Information System (SIS) in your school. Some questions would be: how will students and
teachers assess the efficiency of the current process of the SIS? Is it working well? What suggestions may be implemented
to improve the program? When will the recommendations from teachers and students be implemented to improve the
program considering the cost and other technicalities?

 Implementation Evaluation

Evaluates the eddiciency or effectiveness of a project or program. For example, how effective is the scholarship
program in your school? Are the criteria followed? How many students availed themselves of said scholarships and how
many students graduated successfully?

 Program Monitoring

Evaluates the performance and implementation of an unfinished program. The evaluation is done prior to the
completion of the program. It helps improve implementation and achieve best results. The initial implementation of the K-12
program is a very good topic for evaluation under this type of research design. Whatever evaluation is to be done will be a
part of a monitoring program for the K-12 implementation.

Here are some examples of summative evaluation:

 Secondary Data Analysis

You may examine existing data for analysis. For example, you may want to find out the influence of gender and mental
ability in the results of the National Achievement Test (NAT) In your school or in your region.

 Impact Evaluation

This is used to evaluate overall effect of the program in its entirety. For example, you may want to determine the effect
of remedial classes on the performance of students in mathematics in your school.
 Outcome Evaluation

This is done to determine if the program has caused useful effects based on target outcomes. For example, you may
want to determine if a leadership training program for officers of effects of student organizations of a certain public
secondary school have enhanced the leadership skills of the participants.

 Cost-effectiveness Evaluation

Also called cost-benefit analysis, it compares the relative costs to the outcomes or results of some courses of action.
For example, you may conduct a study on the value for money returns of a company brought about by an intensive training
investment for employees in the Sales department.

Causal Research Design

Causal research design is used to measure the impact that an independent variable (causing effect) has on another
variable (being affected) or why certain results are obtained. A valid conclusion may be derived when an association
between the independent variable and the dependent variable is obtained. It can also be used to identity the extent and
nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can help businesses determine how decisions may affect
operations. A restaurant owner may want to find out why he/she has fewer customers than their neighboring restauran ts
that resulted in decline in sales. So management may conduct his/her study on the quality of the food, the price of the food,
cleanliness or the quality of services accorded to the customers. Thus, the purpose of the research study is to find out the
factors that cause the decline in the number of customers in the said restaurant.

In addition to the discussion on the characteristics of the three main categories of quantitative research designs,
Table 1 outlines other points of comparison of their characteristics:

Points of Comparison Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research

Research Approach Unstructured and flexible Formal and structured Highly structured
Degree of problem Not well-defined Variables are defined Variables and relationships
Identification are defined
When to use? Initial research Often a follow-up to Late stage of decision-
exploratory research making
Goal and Objectives Provides insights on a Describe situations Explains the cause and
problem effect relationship between
variables
Sample size Small non-representative Large representative Large representative
sample sample sample
Types of hypothesis Research questions only Hypothesis is nondirectional Hypothesis is directional
Data management and Data may not be statistically Data are statistically Data are statistically
measurements measurable measurable measurable
Describing Sample Size and Sampling
Determining the correct sample size and how the samples are selected are crucial in ensuring the accuracy and
precision of an estimate leading to valid research findings. Sampling is securing some of the elements of a population. An
element is a member of population who can provide information for the population. A population consists of the total
elements about which you can make inferences based on the data gathered from a determined sample size.

Sample Size Determination

A Sample (n). is a selection of respondents for a research study to represent the total population (N). Making a
decision about sample size for a survey is important. Too large a sample may mean a waste of resources, both human and
financial. On the other hand, too small a sample decreases the utilization of the results.

The following are some reasons for the use of samples:

1. A sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which requires more time.
2. A sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a complete census.

3. A sample allows more particular attention to be given to a number of elements than when doing a census.

4. There is a greater error in reporting results of a census caused by inexperienced interviewers. There is less sampling
error in a survey.

5. Some research studies in the industry may only be performed on a sample of items. For example, testing the length of
time a battery will last.

SLOVIN'S Formula in Determining the Sample Size

The following information is needed to be able to determine the sample size using the Slovin's formula.

 Population (N) consists of members of a group that a researcher is interested in studying the members or a group that
usually have common or similar characteristics.

 Margin of error is the allowable error margin in research. A confidence interval of 95% gives a margin of error of 5%, a
98% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99% confidence interval gives a 1% margin of error.

The sample size can be obtained by the formula:

35,000
n= 2
1+ ( 35,000 )( .05 )

35,000
n=
1+ ( 35,000 )( .0025 )

Sampling Procedures

Sampling is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup called a sample from a population to participate in
research study. The subgroup shall be the representative of the large group from where they were selected. To create a
sample, you may follow any of the following categories of sampling techniques: probability sampling and non-probability
sampling schemes.

Probability Sampling Procedures

The most important characteristics of probability sampling procedure is the random selection of the samples.
Specifically, each sample (n) or element from the population (N) has an equal chance of selection under a given sampling
technique. Four (4) probability sampling procedures are described below:

 Simple Random Sampling

This is the most frequently used type of probability sampling technique. This is characterized by the idea that the
chance of selection is the same for every member of the population.
 For example, assume that you want to conduct a survey of 100 senior high school students in a certain private school.
to get the desired sample size of 100, you can do the selection process, either manually or electronically, ensuring that each
student in the population has an equal chance of being drawn from the total population of senior high school students in that
school.

 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling follows specific steps and procedures in doing the random selection of the samples. It
requires a list of the elements and every nth element in the list is drawn for inclusion in the sample. If for instance, you have
a list of 5,000 persons and you need a sample of 500, here are the steps to follow:

Divide the number of elements in the population by the desired sample size. In this case, you divide 5,000 by 500 which
gives a value of 10.

Choose a random number between one and the value you obtained from Step 1. In this example, you choose a number
between 1 and 10, let's say you choose 5.

Starting with the number you picked which is 5, you take every tenth (10 th) (from Step 1) and you use 5 as your starting
point. Thus, you have to select the samples whose numbers are 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 and so on until you reach the desired
sample size of 500.

 Stratified Random Sampling

In this type of probability sampling procedure, the population is first divided into two or more mutually exclusive
categories based on your variables of interest in the research study. The population is organized into homogeneous subsets
before drawing the samples. With stratified random sampling, the population is divided into subpopulation called strata. If
your variable of interest is economic status based on the family combined income level, you can divide the population into
strata of different income levels (low, average, high income with specific numerical value of annual family income per level).
When these have been determined, you may draw a sample from each stratum with a separate draw from each of the
different strata. The sample sizes within the strata can now be determined.

The primary advantage of this technique is that cases from each stratum of the population are given importance, as in
the other groupings.

To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability sampling technique- suppose you're interested in how
frequent internet use varies by level among junior school students. To explore this inquiry, rather than taking simple random
samples from the school's population of junior high school students, you need ensure that an appropriate number of
students are drawn from all levels of the junior high school track.

In this case, you have to stratify by level (first year, second year, third year and fourth year). When these have been
determined, you may draw a sample from each stratum with a separate draw from each of the different strata. The sample
sizes within the strata should be pre-determined.

The primary advantage of this technique is to ensure that cases from each stratum of the population are given
importance as in the other groupings.

To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability sampling, suppose you are interested in how frequent
Internet use varies by level among junior high school students. To explore this inquiry, rather than taking a simple random
sample from the school population you need to ensure that appropriate number of students are drawn from each level in
proportion to the percentage of the population as a whole.

In this example, if there are 1,200 junior high school students, here are the steps to follow:

1. Get the population of junior high school students per level. In this case, the following data were recorded:

First year 350

Second year 300
Third year 280
Fourth year 270
 TOTAL 1,200

2. Divide each number of students per level by the total population of 1200 and then multiply by the desired sample size of
300.

In this case,

First year 350/1200 X 300 ≅ 88

Second year 300/1200 X 300 = 75
Third year 280/1200 X 300 = 70
Fourth year 270/1200 X 300 = 67.5 ≅ 67
TOTAL 300

You can now randomly draw out of 88 from first year level, 75 samples from second year, 70 from third year and 67
from the fourth-year level of junior high school students. This gives a sample that represents the whole proportionately per
level.
Stratified random sampling is preferred by researchers who want to study subpopulations where categorization of
homogeneous characteristics of each stratum is being considered.

 Cluster Sampling

Most large-scale surveys are cluster sampling method. Cluster sampling is used when the target respondents in
research study is spread across a geographical location. In this method, the population is divided into groups called clusters
which are heterogenous in nature and are mutually exclusive. A random sampling technique is used on relevant clusters to
be included in the study.

Cluster sampling may be classified as either single-stage, two stage cluster sampling or there also exist multi-stage
cluster sampling. In single stage cluster sampling, all the members from each of the selected cluster are used in sampling
process. In two stage cluster sampling, a subset of elements within each selected cluster is randomly selected for inclusion
in the sample. In multi stage sampling, more than two steps are taken in selecting clusters from clusters. Examples are
those which consider geographical clustering as provinces, towns or cities. Thus, multi-stage sampling takes a large
population into account.

Non-Probability Sampling Procedures

There are situations when the researcher cannot employ random selection. In cases where probability sampling is not
applicable, you may consider some non-probability sampling alternatives.

 Convenience Sampling

This is a method of selecting samples that are available and are capable of participating in research study on a
current issue. This method is sometimes called haphazard or availability sampling. An example would be conducting a
survey or interview on a captive audience inside a mall or park or school to obtain a quick response of public opinion on
an issue about election of public officials.

 Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is a technique where the researcher identifies a key informant about a research of interest and
then ask that respondent to refer or identify another respondent who can participate in the study. The identification of
the samples follows a multiplier effect, that is, one person is asked to refer the researcher to another respondent and so
on. This technique is applicable when researchers find difficulty in locating special numbers of a population. The chain
referral procedure allows the researcher to reach the desired samples. For example, an ethnographic research of the
indigenous groups called Mangyans who are living in the island of Mindoro used snowball sampling to locate
respondents. Based on this unpublished research study, the total population of the eight (8) ethnic groups called
Mangyans may be around 100,000 according to official records. But according to the researcher, they are difficult to
locate because of distance (remote areas) and some have little contact with lowlanders or the outside world.
 Purposive Sampling

Purposive sampling sometimes called judgmental or subjective sampling employs a procedure in which
samples are chosen for a special purpose. It may involve members of a limited group of population. For example, you
may want to conduct a study on why Grade 11 students chose the Voc-Tech track over the Academic track. You,
therefore, find your samples and your first question would be "Are you planning to go to the university?" Those who will
say "No" would not be included in the study.

 Quota Sampling

Quota Sampling is gathering a representative sample from a group based on certain characteristics of the
population chosen by the researcher. Usually the population is divided into specific groups. If the specific condition, for
example, is for both genders, males and females are to be represented equally in the sample group, then if 60
representatives are needed, then you get 30 males and 30 females from each group. The main difference between
stratified random sampling and quota sampling can be explained in a way that in quota sampling, you use non-random
selection.

Designing the Questionnaire and Establishing Validity and Reliability

In everyday life, you measure several features of objects and variables of interest i n research using measurement tools. It
may be easy to determine personality attributes, such as age, gender, weight, height, grade level, but in actual prac tice the
procedure and requirements is more intricate and complicated.

Designing the Questionnaire

A questionnaire is an instrument for collecting data. It consists of a series of questions that respondents provide answers to
a research study. A step-by-step approach is discussed in this section with the hope that you, the researcher will produce a
valid and reliable instrument for gathering data.

Step 1 - Background

You do a basic research on the background of the chosen variable or construct. Choose a construct that you can
use to craft the purpose and objective of the questionnaire. In research, the term construct refers to a trait or characteristic
that you like to evaluate or measure. Some examples of constructs are weight, height, intelligence levels, levels of
satisfaction, aggression, skills, academic achievement or work performance. After identifying the construct, you can easily
state the purpose and objective of the questionnaire and the research questions as well; only then can you frame the
hypothesis of the study.

There are five (5) main types of variables:

 Dependent variables

These are variables that you are trying to explain. An example is student academic achievement in mathematics.

 Independent or explanatory variables

These are variables that cause, influence or explain a change in the dependent variable. There may be one or more
independent variables in a research study. For example, some variables which may influence a student’s academic
achievement in mathematics are: mental ability, age, gender, seating arrangement or educational qualification of parents.

 Control variables

These are variables that are used to test for a possible erroneous relationship between the identified independent
and dependent variables. It is possible that the observed relationship between the dependent and independent variable may
be explained by the presence of another variable.

 Continuous variables
 These are variables defined on a continuous scale. Examples are time, weight, length, or money.

 Discrete variables

These are variables which can also be counted but must be a whole number. Some variables are continuous but
reported as discrete when they are rounded of.

Step 2- Questionnaire Conceptualization

Choose the response scale to use. This is how you want your respondents to answer the questions in your study.
You can choose from the following response scales:

 Yes/No

 Yes/No/Don't Know

This type of response scale allows the respondent to select only one answer

The "don't know" answer is the neutral response.

 Likert Scale

Likert Scale is a very popular rating scale used by researchers to measure behaviors and attitudes quantitatively. It
consists of choices that range from one extreme to another from where respondents choose a degree of their opinions. It is
the best tool for measuring the level of opinions.

Here are some Likert-Scale sample ratings:

 Frequency of Occurrence Frequency of Use

Very frequently Always
Frequently Often
Occasionally Sometimes
Rarely Rarely
Very rarely Never
Degree of Importance Quality
Very important Strongly agree
Important Agree
Moderately important Undecided
Of little importance Disagree
Not important Strongly disagree
Level of Satisfaction Agreement
Very satisfied Strongly agree
Satisfied Agree
Undecided Undecided
Unsatisfied Disagree
Very unsatisfied Strongly disagree

Generate the items or questions of the questionnaire based on the purpose and objectives of the research study.

Once you have decided on the construct and the response scale you will use, you may develop the questions for your
questionnaire using the following guidelines in mind:

 The questions should be clear, concise and simple using minimum number of words. Avoid lengthy and
confusing lay-out

 Classify your questions under each statement based on your problem statement

 Questions should be consistent within the needs of the study.

 Avoid sensitive or highly debatable question.

 Choose the types of questions in developing the statements. The types of questions may be one of the following:

 Dichotomous question

This is a "Yes/No" or "Like/Dislike" question where only two (2) choices are provided. Male/Female and Good/Bad
are also examples of dichotomous choices.

 Open-ended question

This type of question usually answers the question "why". It allows the respondents to give their ideas and insights on a
particular issue. This type of question gives additional challenge to the researcher who must review each response before
assigning codes and analyzing the data.

Example 1:

What are your favorite movies? (Please specify their titles)

Example 2:

What do you like most about your school?

 Closed questions.

These are also called multiple-choice questions. These questions may consist of three or more mutually exclusive
questions with different categories.

Example 1: How often do you watch TV at home?

Never ………………………………………………………………………… 1
1 or 2 times a week ………………………………………………………………………… 2
3 or 4 times a week ………………………………………………………………………… 3
Nearly everyday ………………………………………………………………………… 4

Example 2: What is the highest level of education that your mother has completed? (Please put a check mark () on one
box only)
Elementary School
High School
College
Don't know
Rank-order scale questions

 Rank-order scale questions.

Respondents are asked to rank their choices on each statement or item.

Ranking requires that a set of items be ranked in order to compare each item to all others.

Example 3: Please rank the following activities in order of importance in your work as a senior high school student.
(Please use "5 as the most important activity, "1" is the least important activity)
Importance Ranking
a. Doing homeroom activities

b. Going to the library

c. Using the computer

 d. Joining academic organizations

e. Doing home works/ assignments

 Rating scale question

You construct a scale the like those examples given for Likert scale ratings.

Step 3 - Establish the Validity of the Questionnaire

Validity is traditionally defined as "degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring"
(Brown, 1996).

A questionnaire undergoes a validation procedure to make sure that it accurately measures what it aims to do. A valid
questionnaire helps to collect reliable and accurate data.

Here are ways to assess the validity of a set of measurements.

 Face validity

This is a superficial or subjective assessment. The questionnaire appears to measure the construct or variable that
the research study is supposed to measure.

 Content validity

Content validity is most often measured by experts or people who are familiar with the construct being measured.
The experts are asked to provide feedback on how well each question measures the variable or construct under study. The
experts make judgements about the degree to which the test items or statements match the test objectives or specifications.

 Criterion-related validity

This type of validity measures the relationship between a measure and an outcome.

Criterion-related validity can be further divided into concurrent and predictive validity.

 Concurrent validity

This type of validity measures how well the results of an evaluation assessment correlate with other assessments
measuring the same variables or constructs.

 Predictive validity

This measures how well the results of an assessment can predict relationship between the construct being measured and
future behavior. For example, the academic performance of a student in Grade 11 Math may be predicted by his/her math
performance in junior high school.

 Construct validity

This is concerned with the extent to which a measure is related to other measures as specified in a theory or previous
research. It is an experimental demonstration that a test is measuring the construct it claims to be measuring.

Step 4 - Establish the Reliability of the Questionnaire

Reliability indicates the accuracy or precision of the measuring instrument (Norland, 1990). It refers to a condition
where measurement process yields consistent responses over repeated measurements. To apply this concept in research,
you need a questionnaire that is reliable. You need questions that yield consistent scores when asked repeatedly.

Here are some ways to assess the reliability of a questionnaire:

 Test-retest reliability
 This is the simplest method of assessing reliability. The same test or questionnaire is administered twice and
correlation between the two sets of scores is computed.

 Split-half method

This method is also called equivalent or parallel forms, In this method, two different tests covering the same topics
are used and the correlation between the two sets of scores is calculated.

 Internal consistency

This method is used in assessing reliability of questions measured on an interval or ratio Scale. The reliability
estimate is based on a single form of test administered on a single occasion. One popular formula to measure internal
consistency Is called Cronbach 's alpha. This can be computed using manual and electronic computations such as the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. Cronbach alpha can range from 0 (poor reliability) to 1 (perfect reliability).
Anything above .70 is considered sufficiently reliable.

Step 5-Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire

Pre-testing or pilot testing a questionnaire is important before you use it to collect data. Through this process, you
can identify questions or Statements which are not clear to the participants or there might be some problems with the
relevance of the questionnaire to the current study.

After designing the questionnaire, you may find 10-15 people from your target group to pre-test the questionnaire.
You design or provide spaces where the testers can freely indicate their remarks. Such remarks may be any of the
following:

 “Delete this statement. I don't understand the question/statement."

 “Revise the question/statement. Indicate the specific variables to be measured."

 "Retain the question/statement. This is good."

 “There are missing options in the list of choices."

 "The question is so long. It's getting boring."

Step 6- Revise the Questionnaire

After identifying the problem areas in your questionnaire, revise the instrument as needed based on the feedback
provided during the pre-testing or pilot-testing. The best questionnaire is one that is edited and refined towards producing
clear questions arranged logically and in sequential order. The questionnaire should match with the research objectives.

Source: Practical Research 2 Senior High School Quantitative by Nelia G. Prieto, Ph.D., Victoria C. Naval, DEM, Teresita G.
Carey, D.A.L.L
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ______________________________

Grade & Section: ___________________________ Teacher: T. Caroline de Taza

Chapter 3: Methodology

A. Research Design
Write the research design and method that you will use in your research. Explain the choice of the design and method.
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B. Population and Sample

1. Describe the population of the study to which you will make generalizations and conclusions.
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2. Who will be the respondents of your study?

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3. Describe the characteristics of the respondents of your study.

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C. Instrumentation
1. Instrument
List down the instrument that you will use for your study.
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2. Validation Process
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3. Reliability
Discuss the measures you will use to ensure the reliability or consistency of your instrument.
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