Origin of the universe

Tuesday, September 01, 2020 3:24 PM

Astronomy
→ Studies the composition and distribution of
celestial objects and phenomena.
Brief History
→ A multidisciplinary science as it is related to Vesto Slipher
physics, chemistry, mathematics computer • Observe the spectra of spiral in galaxy in 1912
science, geology, and biology • He observed that almost all galaxies were "Red
Ancient Astronomy shifted" which means they are all moving away
→ It started when ancient people began to from us
wonder about observable phenomena in the George Lemaitre
sky(day, night, seasons, eclipses, stars, and • He first suggested the big bang theory in
their color etc.) 1920's
Astrophysics • He theorized that the universe is expanding
→ Involves the study of the physics of
which explains why galaxies appeared to be
astronomy and focuses on the behaviour
rushing away from us
properties and motion of object in space
Edwin Hubble
Cosmology
• Observe the variable of stars in Andromeda
→ A branch of astronomy that studies the
galaxy and other galaxy Slipher did and
past, present, and future of the universe
measured.
→ NASA defines cosmology as "the scientific
study of the large scale property of the • He found out that the farther away the galaxy
universe as a whole was, the faster it appeared to be moving away
→ It is a highly theoretical science but one on from us and it has been proven at present
which the foundation of astronomy all rest. Fred Hoyle
Universe • First to use the big bang theory
→ It refers to all matter and energy in space, • Developed the steady state theory (1948),
known or unknown to man which said that as the universe expanded
Space new matter was formed to fill void left by
→ It is a thing in which matter and energy the expansion
exists, can be bent by mass creating gravity
and expands causing the universe to expands
carrying along the galaxies with it.
Modern Cosmology
→ Based on big bang theory
→ Developed in the mid-20th century, it is still
the most successful explaination for the
observe properties of the universe and laws
of theoritical physics
Limitation of Cosmology
→ Ability to conduct experiments on the
universe
→ The only universe that can be studied is our
own, so there are no universe to compare
Features of universe are explained by theories
→ Fixed of speed of light
→ The universe is expanding
→ The uniform distribution of matter through
the cosmos

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 1

 The big bang theory
10:13 AM

• Traces the expansion of the universe and creation of

all matter back to violent explosion 13.7 billion years
ago
• Accounts for many features of present day universe,
and the evidence in the favor is that the entire sky is
still glowing with faint radiation left from the initial
explosion
• It is currently the best model of how universe began
• About 13.8 billion years ago the universe came into
being in a violent explosion
• The theory doesn't and can't attempt to explain
what came "before" because time and space did not
exist
• Infinitely small, dense and not as it came to being.
• For the first 10-43 seconds , the so called plank
time, the normal law of physics did not apply

• The density of the energy was so high that the particles could form and decay
spontaneously
• George Gamow(1904-1968)
○ He help to explain how different particles formed in a hot big bang
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
• Heat left over from the early universe
• Observes have all characteristics expected from the big bang theories
• Accidentally discovered by German-born American physicist Arno Penzias and American
Physicist Robert Woodrow Wilson
Inflammation theory reinforces the bigbang
1970 -Astronomers discovered that the galaxies were distributed very evenly through
the original big bang theories suggested that matter would evenly distributed

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 2

 More origin of the Universe
Tuesday, October 20, 2020 11:58 AM

• Galaxies- is a collection of stars gasses

and other matter bound together by the • velocity of light-Hubble analyzed the
force of gravity wavelength of light from distant pulsating
• Milky way galaxy- is one of the billions of stars and noted that the wavelength were
galaxies entrenched in the much larger typically longer and closer to the red end of
universe the spectrum when compared to the light
• Hubble telescope were used by the from closer stars.
astronomers to catalog thousands of • Measuring Distances in Light Years. One
other galaxies in relatively small section light year is the distance that light can
of deep space travel in 1 year and is equivalent to 9500
• 13.8 billion years- current model billion km or 9.5 trillion km. So even though
suggested age of the universe it is a light year it is actually and measure of
• 93 light years observable universe is distance not time.
currently believe Proxima Centauri is 4.3 light years away nearest
How is the age of the universe determined star to our sun
• Astronomers estimate the age of the
universe:
○ By looking for the oldest stars
○ By measuring the rate of expansion
of the universe and predicting back
to the big bang
WMAP- Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
• It help to determine the age of the
universe
• Detailed structure of the cosmic
microwave depends on the current density
of the universe, the composition of the
universe, and its expansion rate.
13.77-+ 0.59 billion years- scientist estimated
age of the universe
Einstein's General Relativity
• Can be used to compute how fast the
universe has been expanding in the past.
How is the size of the universe determined?
• Brightness and luminosity. The brightness
of a star depends on the distance to the
star and amount of light energy it
radiates (luminosity).
• The Doppler Effect. If you know the
frequency of the siren that produced the
sound and measured the frequency of an
approaching siren, you could calculate the
speed of the emergency vehicle. The same
effect occurs with light, and Hubble used
the Doppler Effect on light to estimate
the earth's distance from far away stars.

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 3

 Theories on the Formation of the Solar
System
Wednesday, October 21, 2020 9:16 PM
Terms:
• Planetesimal- an object formed from
dust, rock and other material
• Protoplanet- a large planetary embryo
that originated within photoplanetary
disk
• Accretion- process growth/increase in
by size by gradual accumulation of
additional layers of matter
• Angular Momentum- the momentum that
a body has due to its rotation about an
axis
Solar System 101
• It is one over 500 known solar system in
the milky way galaxy
• It came into being about 4.5 billion
years ago, when a cloud of interstellar
gas and dust collapsed, resulting in a
solar nebula, swirling disc of material
that collided to form the solar system.
• It is located in Milky way's Orion Star
cluster. Only 15% of stars in the galaxy
host planetary systems, and one of
those is the SUN.
○ Revolving around the sun is 8
planets
• Terrestrial Planet
○ Made of rocky materials
○ Surface are solid
○ Don’t have rings
○ Very few moons
○ Relatively small
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 4
• Jovian Planet
○ Multiple moons
○ No solid surface
○ Support ring system
○ Immerse size
• Mercury- Smallest planet
Shortest orbit(about 3 earth months)
• Venus- hottest planet, with temperatures of up to
867 F, due to an atmosphere of carbon Dioxide
and extensive lava flow
• Earth- world of water
Water help create only known
environment to sustain life
• Mars- might have also supported life about 3.7
billion years ago
• Jupiter -largest planet
• Saturn- second largest
It's rings are wide enough to fit
between earth and moon
• Uranus- rotating on its side
• Neptune- the coldest
Asteroid belt
• Orbiting the terrestrial planets
• A flat disc of rocky objects full of remnants from
the solar system's formation.
○ Ceres- largest object
Dwarf planet
Kuiper Belt
• Home to draft planet, such as Pluto
• Birthplace of many comets
Oort Cloud
• A vast, spherical collection of icy debris
• Edge of the solar system
 Solar System
Wednesday, October 21, 2020 9:46 PM

Nicolaus Copernicus
Advantage of Encounter Hypothesis
• He described in 1543 the heliocentric
• Explaining why the planets all revolve in the
theory of sun-centered system of
same direction
planetary motion
• Also provide explanation for why the inner
What is a Hypothesis?
world are denser than outer world
• Either suggested explanation for an
Disadvantage of encounter hypothesis
observable phenomenon, or a reasoned
• hot gas expands, not contracts. So lumps of
prediction
hot gas would not form planets.
What is a theory?
• encounters between stars are extremely
• A tested, well-sustained, unifying
rare, so rare as to be improbable in the
explanation for a set of verified proven
lifetime of the Universe (15 billion years).
factors and always backed with evidence
GLL de Buffon (1749)
Encounter Hypothesis
• Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to
• One of the earliest theories for the
form planet
formation of the planets
James Jean(1917)
• In this scenario, a rogue star passes close
• Sun-star encounter that would have drawn
to the Sun about 5 billion years ago.
from the sun matter that would condense to
Material, in the form of hot gas, is tidally
planet
stripped from the Sun and the rogue
star.
Nebular hypothesis
• the whole Solar System starts as a large
○ This material fragments into smaller
cloud of gas that contracts under self-
lumps which form the planets. This
gravity.
hypothesis has the advantage of
• Conservation of angular momentum requires
explaining why the planets all revolve
that a rotating disk form with a large
in the same direction (from the
concentration at the center (the proto-Sun).
encounter geometry) and also
Within the disk, planets form.
provides an explanation for why the
inner worlds are denser than the
outer worlds.

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 5

Wednesday, October 21, 2020 10:18 PM

• It was first proposed in 1794 by Swedish

scientist and theologian Emmanual
Swedenborg
• Immanuel Kent developed the theory
further and published it in his universal
natural history and theory of the heavens
(1755)
○ He argued that gaseous clouds
(nebulae) slowly rotate, gradually
collapsing and flattening due to gravity
and forming stars and planet
• Problem:
○ Titled axes
○ Majority of the angular momentum in
the solar system is held by the outer
planets
Protoplanet Hypothesis
• The current working model for the
formation of the Solar System is called the
protoplanet hypothesis. It incorporates
many of the components of the nebular
hypothesis, but adds some new aspects
from modern knowledge of fluids and states
of matter.

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 6

Earth's characteristic that support

life
Wednesday, October 21, 2020 10:29 PM

Liquid water • Life-sustaining gases

• Water is essential for life where there is ○ Earth's biosphere control the gases in
water on earth life is present too. the atmosphere to make it more
• Average temperature is 15 degree to habitable of life
make it possible for water to exist as ○ Vegetation(photosynthesis) it absorbs
liquid carbon dioxide and produces oxygen
• Earth has relatively mild temperature that essential for animal life
because of: ○ Greenhouse gases; such as carbon
○ Distance dioxide and water vapor absorbs and
○ Presence of the atmosphere trap heats radiated in the atmosphere
○ Magnetic field increasing the temperature at earth's
Gravity and a protective atmosphere surface by 33 degree
• Earth is held together by gravity • Strong Magnetic Field
• Gravity ○ Earth's magnetic field is produced by
○ Holds its layer of atmospheric gases the convection in earth's outer space
close to its surface  Convection-is the transfer of
• Protective atmosphere heat thru hot material
○ Protective it comets and meteorites
and absorbs harmful radiation from
the sun
○ Atmosphere also blocks, intercepts
and absorbs short-wavelength solar
radiation such as x-ray, gamma rays
and ultra-violet radiation that would
be extremely harmful to living
organism
○ Responsible for energy
redistribution and insulation form
the extreme cold space
 Mutation can cause cancer

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 7

 Earth's Subsystem and their

interaction
Thursday, October 22, 2020 11:01 AM
The earth system is an integrated system
that subdivided into four subsystem/spheres:
• Lithosphere- solid earth
• Atmosphere- gases
• Hydrosphere- all water
• Biosphere-all life
Atmosphere
• envelope of gas, mostly nitrogen and
oxygen along with less abundant gases
like water vapor, ozone, carbon dioxide,
and argon, that surrounds the Earth
essential to life in the biosphere
• Keeps the heat in a temperature enough
for living organisms to live
• protects the Earth from harmful solar
radiation
• provides oxygen for breathing and
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
• absorbs water from the hydrosphere
thru evaporation
• Provides climatic conditions/weather
phenomena
BIOSPHERE
• part of the Earth where life exists,
including every living being
• contains diverse organisms, including
fungi and other microorganisms,
plants, and animals
• most living organisms require nutrients
and resources from other three
spheres
• Overlaps the other three spheres
because living things are adapted to
inhabit one or more of the other
three spheres: within a shallow
surface layer encompassing the lower
part of the atmosphere (plants,
animals and microorganisms, the
surface of the crust (soil, rocks) and
approximately the upper 100 metres
of the ocean.
HYDROSPHERE
• is essential for the existence and
maintenance of life on earth
• Provides habitat for aquatic and
freshwater organisms, both plants and
animals
LITHOSPHERE
• earth’s crust and upper part of mantle:
first 60 miles of solid material from
the surface of Earth, constantly
changes due to movement of tectonic
plates (segment of the earth’s crust
that moves relative to other segments
and is characterized by volcanic or
seismic activity around its margins)
• parts where the processes of erosion,
weathering and transport, tectonic
forces and volcanic activity occur
• includes all the rocks that make up
Earth, from the partially melted rock
under the crust, rocks under the
oceans,to mountains, and grains of
sand on a beach

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 8

Thursday, October 22, 2020 11:24 AM
THE EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS ARE
INTERCONNECTED.
• What affects one system can affect another.
• A change in one system can cause change in
one or more of the other subsystems
SAMPLE INTERACTION BETWEEN BIOSPHERE
AND ATMOSPHERE:
• Atmosphere: Source of carbon dioxide
(carbon sink)
• Biosphere: Plants absorb Carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere through photosynthesis
to produce oxygen for the atmosphere
MATTER FLOWS IN THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS
• The 4 subsystems are interconnected by flows
(and biosphere. pathways or fluxes) of energy
and materials.
• Biogeochemical cycles- natural pathways for
the circulation of elements that are essential
for life: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
phosphorous and sulphur.
• Matter is transferred continually between the
lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 9
CARBON CYCLE
• Green plants (biosphere) absorb carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and
produce carbon-containing sugars through
photosynthesis.
• Animals eat plants (biosphere) to obtain
the energy trapped during photosynthesis
and break down the carbohydrates in the
plant tissue, releasing CO₂ through
respiration.
• When dead plants and animals (biosphere)
slowly decay under high pressure and high
temperatures, they may eventually form
pools of energy known as fossil fuels.
Carbon is stored in fossil fuels (fuel
formed from pre-historic organisms
buried for millions of years) that are in
fossil fuel reserves in the lithosphere.
• C goes to the atmosphere through
decomposition of organic materials and
forest fires and burning of fossil fuels
• CO₂ is exchanged between the atmosphere
and the ocean hydrosphere. Calcium
carbonate (CO₃) is a component of shells of
ocean organisms like oysters and clams and
other microorganisms.
• When the skeletons and shells (made of
CO₃) are buried and compacted, limestone
(a sedimentary rock) is formed in the
oceans (lithosphere). Most rocks remain in
the lithosphere for millions of years.
ENERGY FLOWS IN THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS
Thursday, October 22, 2020 11:31 AM

• The Earth is driven by two sources of

energy: an internal source (the decay of
radioactive elements in the lithosphere,
which generates geothermal heat) and an
external source (the solar radiation
received from the Sun.
• As the energy flows (and cycles) through
the subsystems, they are changed from
one form to another.
• Solar radiation heats Earth’s surface
unevenly causing the air in the atmosphere
to move. This movement of air distributes
energy throughout the atmosphere. The
transfer of energy, especially heat, due to
the movement of matter, such as air, is
called convection.
The sun’s energy heats ocean water
(hydrosphere) unevenly causing changes in
its temperature: warmer at the
equator and colder to freezing at the
poles.
The temperature of ocean water also
decreases with depth. Differences in
temperature cause differences in density
which in turn cause the water to move by
convection. Convection current is the
movement of matter caused by
differences in density and can
distribute energy in the ocean.
• Energy enters the biosphere as sunlight.
Plants change light energy into chemical
energy through the process of
photosynthesis. Then, chemical energy is
passed to organisms that eat the plants.
Energy and matter is also passed between
organisms when they eat one another.
• The transfer of energy in the biosphere
does not stop when a living thing dies.
Dead organisms are consumed by
decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi.
• In the lithosphere, energy from inside the
Earth is responsible for internal
processes such as volcanism and plate
movements/tectonics.

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 10

ROCK FORMING MINERALS
Thursday, October 22, 2020 11:42 AM

Physical Properties of Minerals used

MINERALS
to Identify them:
• are naturally occurring inorganic solids of
CRYSTAL FORM
one or more elements that have a definite
• The shape of the crystal that a mineral
chemical composition with an orderly
forms when it is free to grow
internal arrangement of atoms.
unhampered. The shape of a mineral is
• The consistent arrangement of atoms means
related to the way chemical bonds form.
that the mineral has a uniform chemical
• Shapes maybe prism, pyramids, needles,
composition
cubes and sheets
• Minerals are interesting Earth materials
that surround us.
• More than 4,000 minerals are known
• Around 50–100 new minerals are discovered
annually
• Minerals make up rocks but not that many
of minerals are found in rocks
Mineral Characteristics/Criteria:
SOLID
• A state of matter that can maintain its
shape indefinitely
• Minerals are solids, not liquids or gases.
INORGANIC
• Not made from living things or not living
things
• Do not have carbon-hydrogen bonds
NATURALLY OCCURRING
• Formed geologically
• Found in nature
• Not man-made
HAVE DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
CRYSTAL CLEAVAGE
• Have defined chemical formula
• Property of a mineral to break along one
• Quartz- SiO₂
or more cleavage planes (parts of the
• Calcite-CaCO₃
mineral where ions are connected by
HAVE SPECIFIC ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT
relatively weak ionic bonds; the cleavage
Atoms in a mineral are arranged in a specific
produces flat, shiny surfaces
order or structure

HAVE SPECIFIC ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT

• The physical properties of minerals
(hardness, shape) are due to the internal
arrangement of their atoms

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 11

Thursday, October 22, 2020 11:51 AM

COLOR
• Part of visible light that is not absorbed
by a mineral
• Used with care when identifying mineral
because some minerals can exist in a wide
range of colors e.g. quartz (clear, white,
yellow, pink, purple, gray, etc.)
• Minerals can change in color when exposed
to changing natural conditions (e.g. heat)
on or near the surface of the Earth
• Common dark-colored minerals (black, dark
brown, dark green): amphibole, olivine,
pyroxene LUSTER
• Common light-colored minerals (white, pink, • How light is reflected from a mineral
gray, translucent): quartz, feldspar, • Could be metallic (looks like a metal)
gypsum, halite, calcite. or nonmetallic (silky, glassy, pearly,
dull etc.)

STREAK
• The mark formed when a mineral is
scratched across an unglazed piece
of porcelain

HARDNESS
• Measures the resistance of a mineral to
scratching.
• Derives the strength of atomic bonds.
• Hardness of a mineral is compared to the
Mohs scale for hardness - hierarchy of
scratch ability (Friedrich Mohs)
•

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 12

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Thursday, October 22, 2020 11:57 AM
Igneous Rocks
• Rocks formed from cooling and
crystallization of magma
• Has two types based on where they
were formed: intrusive (plutonic)
or extrusive (volcanic)
What is Magma
• Magma is the completely or partially
molten material, which on cooling
PLUTONIC (INTRUSIVE) IGNEOUS ROCKS
solidifies to form an igneous rock
• Igneous rocks that cool below the
• Once it is formed it rises towards the Earth’s surface
surface through pipes or fractures in
• Have big mineral crystals that form with
the Earth’s crust because it is less
plenty of time to grow into large crystals
dense than the surrounding rocks.
as the magma cools slowly below the
• Magma that reaches the earth’s surface
surface
is known as Lava
• Coarse-grained texture
VOLCANIC (EXTRUSIVE) IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Igneous rocks that form when magma in
Earth’s interior rises to the surface
through pipes or fractures in the
Earth’s crust
• Cool rapidly at the surface because they
undergo a rapid temperature drop of at
least 700⁰C upon reaching the surface

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLUTONIC AND

VOLCANIC ROCKS
• Texture or the size and arrangement of
their mineral grains which depends on
how fast the magma cools and solidifies.
• Color which represents their chemical
composition or silica content.
• Light-colored igneous rocks such as
VOLCANIC (EXTRUSIVE) IGNEOUS ROCKS
rhyolite and granite are formed from
• Individual mineral crystals are small
silica-rich (felsic) magmas and contain
because do not have much time to grow
abundant white, pink or translucent
when magma cools rapidly
silica-rich minerals
• Fine-grained texture
• Dark-colored igneous rocks such as
basalt and gabbro are formed from
silica-poor (mafic) magmas and are
dominated by olivine and pyroxene , dark-
colored minerals

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 13

 Metamorphic Rocks
Sunday, October 18, 2020 9:57 PM

Meta- change • Types of rocks formed by Regional

Morphe- form ○ Folliation
Metamorphosis -change Types of Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphism- change in the mineral • Foliated- have foliation
composition/texture(grain size) of a - Have parallel layers of
pre-existing rocks metamorphic rocks
• Chemical Reaction- can caused Example
chemical change in the composition of * Gneiss
rocks * Phyllite
• Factors that can change rocks: * Schist
○ Increased of temp • Non-foliated - don’t have foliation and
○ Increased of pressure parallel layers
○ Presence of Fluids * Quartzite
• 200 c- 1100 c - temperature range for * Marble
most mineral rocks near the earth's
surface to melt
• Foliation- alignment of minerals into
sheets/ creating of alternating light
and dark bands cause by the pressure
on the rocks
Contact Metamorphism
• Occurs when rocks come in contact
with a source of heat(e.g magma body)
that cause change in the texture of
the rock
Example
○ Marble- its pre-existing rock is
limestone that had been heated
to high temperature(limestone
and marble have same composition
but marble has larger grains)
• Features of rock formed by contact:
○ Stronger that pre-existing rock
○ More resistant to erosion than
pre-existing rocks
Regional Metamorphism
• Occurs when rocks at depths of 7-8
kilometers undergo increase temp. and
pressure usually due to collision of
tectonic plates at convergent
bounderies resulting to growth of
some specific minerals

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 14

 Sedimentary Rocks
Monday, October 19, 2020 12:22 PM
• Form layers like the pages of the books
• The layers record a history of ancient
environment
• The layers occurs only in the upper part of
the crust
• Cover underlying basement rocks
Key words
• Sediment
○ Consist of rocks/materials; shells and
shell fragments; or mineral crystals
that precipitate directly from water
• Bed
○ Layers of sedimentary rocks
• Clast
○ Loose fragment of many sediment
materials
○ Come in varies of sizes ranging from
too small to see even with a
microscope, to car-sized, or even
larger
Sedimentary rock
• A rock that forms at/near surface of the
earth in one of the ff ways:
○ Compacting/cementing together of
loose fragments produced by
weathering of pre-existing rocks;
○ Growth of shell masses by cementing
together of shells and shell
fragments
○ Accumulation of and alternation of
organic matter left after the death
of plants and planktons
○ Precipitation of minerals directly
from water solution
• Where do sedimentary rocks came from?
○ Stream Channel
○ Floor of the deep ocean
• It occurs only in the upper part of the
crust and effectively form a cover that
buries underlying basement of igneous and
metamorphic rocks
• Physical and chemical weathering provide
the raw material for all sedimentary rocks
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 15
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
- Composed of sediment rocks and
minerals that form when rocks break
apart at near earth's surface
- Formed form one-separated grains
that have been packed together and
then cemented to one another
- Makes up the majority of all the
sedimentary rocks
- It was formed by
 Weathering- generation of loose
clstivia rpck disintegration
 Erosion- Removal of sediment
grains from the parent rock
 Transportation disperal by
gravity, wind, water and ice.
 Desposition- settling out the
transporting fluids
 Lithification- transformation into
solid rock.
- Examples
 Congolmerate
 Breccia
 Red sandstone
 Gray Sandstone
 Shale
• Chemical Sedimentary
- Rock that crystallized from
solution(sea water) as a result of
changing condition
- Formed by different/direct
precipitation of minerals from water
solution
- Commonly have a crystalline texture
 Table Salt- Halite mineral that
forms when sea water evaporate
- Examples
Gypsum Rocksalt

Travertine chert
Monday, October 19, 2020 1:20 PM

• Biochemical Sedimentary rocks

- Form by the actions of living
organism/ composed of
remains of dead organism
- Sediment derived from the
shells of living organism
- Example
 Coquina
 Limestone

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 16

 Minerals important to the Society
Monday, October 19, 2020 1:24 PM

Mineral
• Wolframite
• Naturally occurring substance
(element/compound) that is mined in ○ Source of tungsten- used to make
pen nibs
the ground
• Graphite
• A substance that occurs naturally
from the rocks ○ Used in batteries, lubricant,
electric motors, nuclear reactors,
Mineral Ore
carbon fibers, pencil leads
• Mineral from which metal is extracted
Why are minerals important • Mica
○ Electrical Insulator, heating
• They are used everywhere
element
• They have uses in many areas of
human life • Diamond
○ Gem, abrasive, cutting tools,
○ Foods
dental
○ Shelter
○ Cosmetics
Metallic Minerals
○ Transportation
• Copper
○ Communication
○ Electrical wires, electronics, pipes
○ Electronics
• Silver
Minerals and their uses: ○ Coins, jewelry, photography,
• Magnetite and Goethite battery
○ Contain a lot of iron to used in
• Zinc
making steel, iron nails
○ Galvanize steel(carbon and iron)
• Kaolinite alloys(mixture of 2 or more metal)
○ Clay material used to make brass (Zinc and copper)
crockery
• Lead
○ Used for medicine and lotion
○ Batteries
• Quartz
• Tin
○ Used to make glasses, electronics
○ Electrical, cans, construction
and gems
• Gold
• Fluorite
○ Jewelry, arts, electronics, dental,
○ Source of fluorine used in making medical (pacemaker)
non-stick pans
• Platinum
• Calcite
○ Catalyst for chemical reaction,
○ Chemical Name: Calcium electronics, glass, jewelry
Carbonate
• Nickel
○ Used in making cement, plaster
○ Important alloy in steel,
for wounds
electroplanting vehicle
• Gypsum
• Iron ore
○ Used in making cement, plaster
○ Main ingredients in steel
products in medicine and even
• Cobalt
fertilizer
○ Airplane engine metal, chemical
• Bornite and Chalcopyrite
• Titanium
○ Mineral source of copper
○ White pigment, metal in airplane
• Chromite and human joint replacement
○ Source of chromium- used to coat
other metal to stop from rusting

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 17

Monday, October 19, 2020 4:34 PM

• Aluminum
○ Cans, airplane, building, electrical
• Phosphate rock
Fertilizer, animal feed supplement
• Lithium
○ Ceramic, glass, lithium ion
batteries and electric car
(rechargeable)

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 18

 Finding, mining and processing ORE MINERALS
Monday, October 19, 2020 4:37 PM
ORE
• It's a deposit in deposit in earth's crust
of one/more valuable minerals
• The most valuable ore deposits contain
metals crucial to industry and trade, like
copper, gold and iron
• It is naturally occurring mineral from
which metal can be profitable extracted
Example
Aluminum is found in bauxite.
• Some ore-forming environment involve
hot/deep processes and other involve low-
temperature process typical of near-
surface environment
Surficial Process
• Weathering Enrichment (mineral is
leached from rocks by weathering then
deposited elsewhere)
• Formation by weathering(accumulation of
residual materials as other chemical
elements are leached away by weathering)
• Mechanical Concentration(sorting and
concentration of mineral as they are
transported by rivers and waves)
• Low-temperature Precipitation(deposition
of valuable minerals by evaporating
sea/lake water )
How are ore mineral found?
• Mineral exploration
○ Finds out deposits of mineral and
rocks that can be used to meet the
resource needs to society.
• Mineral Exploration
○ Searching for new mineral prospect
and evaluation of the property for
economic mining
○ The process of searching for
evidence any mineralization hosted in
the surrounding rocks
• Geologist
○ Study geological formations and then
test the physical and chemical
properties of soil and rocks
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 19
○ Concentration of mineral is only
called an ore deposit if it is
profitable to mine
• Geoscientist and exploration geologist
conduct survey across potential
exploration targets using several
geophysical techniques
• After finding a mineral, geologist
determine its size. The deposit is
outlined and the surrounding geology on a
geologic map
• The amount of valuable minerals miners
think they will get from the deposit is
calculated
Surface Mining
• Allows extraction of ores that are closes
to earth's surface
• Overlying is blasted and the rock that
contains the valuable minerals is placed in
a truck and taken to refinery
• Includes open-pit mining and strip mining-
mountain top removal
Underground Mining
• used to recover ores that are deeper
into earth's surface
• Blast and tunnel into rock to gain access
to the ores
• Very expensive and dangerous
How are minerals processed?
• Rocks are crushed so that the valuable
minerals can be separated from waste
rocks
○ Mineral Processing- mineral are
separated out of the ore by various
operation known collectively
• Methods for Extracting Ores:
○ Heap leaching- addition of chemicals
such as cyanide/acid to remove ore
○ Flotation - addition of compound
that attaches to the valuable
mineral and floats
○
Tuesday, October 20, 2020 9:27 AM

○ Smelting- roasting rock, causing it to segregate into layers so minerals can

be extracted
• Electrolysis
○ Acid and electricity are used to separate a metal from its ore

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 20

 Formation of the Fossil Fuels
Tuesday, October 20, 2020 3:11 PM
• Burying and Covering of Source Rocks
What is Fossil Fuel? ○ Overtime, source rocks can be buried
• Coal, oil or natural gas by more sedimentary rocks, becoming
• Non-renewable resources from remains of plants heated by temperature increase with
and animals that have been buried in the ground depth.
for millions of years ○ When heated to 60⁰C to 120⁰C, long
What is petroleum? hydrocarbon chains in kerogen break
• Naturally-occurring petroleum is an organic down into heavy and light oils
substances largely composed of carbon chemically ○ When heated to 200⁰C, the oily
bonded with hydrogen and small amounts of other hydrocarbons change into natural gas
elements
• This is why oil and natural gas are hydrocarbons
• Naturally form when sediment rich in organic
material is deposited, buried and heated to
slightly increased temperature
• Once formed , petroleum can escape to the
surface or be trapped at depth, where it can be
discovered by geologist and extracted through
drilling
What are the sources of organic material in petroleum?
• Reefs with microscopic and macroscopic
organisms contribute organic material to deep-
ocean sediment
• plants when buried can change to make coal and
methane gas
• Most petroleum comes from microorganisms that
occur in great variety and abundance in seas and
lakes settles when they die
What processes turn organic material into oil and
natural gas?
• Accumulation of organic material
○ Occurs in a layer of dark, organic-rich mud • What is coal?
○ Source rock contains enough organic ○ Coal is a carbon-based resource
material to produce petroleum. formed from buried and compacted
○ Accumulated organic material still retains plants
the structure of the animals or plants from • How does coal form?
which the material was derived 1. Accumulation of plant matter and organic
• Preservation of Organic Material materials
○ The organic material is deposited in oxygen- - This happens in swamps and other
poor conditions and buried under the layers wetlands
of sediment before decomposing. When  Formation of Organic Material
buried to shallow depths and heated to less - This starts when the organic material
than about 60⁰C, the organic starting starts as compressed and partially
material is converted into kerogen (a thick decomposed plant matter including peat
substance composedof long chains of (water-soaked mass of relatively
hydrocarbons). unconsolidated plant remains found in
bogs)

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 21

Thursday, October 22, 2020 12:26 PM

• Formation of Lignite
○ The pressure that accompanies rapid burial of plant matter
squeezes water and other impurities out, changing it to low-
quality coal called lignite, has less carbon than other coals
• Formation of Bituminous Coals
○ Compaction and increased temperature convert lignite to
subbituminous and then bituminous coal both of which
contain more carbon and less water than lignite
• Maturation
- The process by which coal changes as it
is buried
• Formation of Organic Material
○ This starts when the organic material starts as compressed
and partially decomposed plant matter including peat (water-
soaked mass of relatively unconsolidated plant remains
found in bogs)
• Formation of Lignite
○ The pressure that accompanies rapid burial of plant matter
squeezes water and other impurities out, changing it to low-
quality coal called lignite, has less carbon than other coals

1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 22