SCIENCE

Assignment

REGISTRATION NO:
F20-BED-1028

F20-BED-1009

F20-BED-1013

F20-BED-1020

F20-BED-1022

Course Instructor:
Maam Iqra

Group:

04
Lances:

Lenses are commonly used to form images by refraction

All is a result of Snell’s law and can be derived from that

 Lenses are used in optical instruments

 Cameras
 Telescopes
 Microscopes

Image Formation:

Spherical lenses are lenses formed by connecting two spherical transparent surfaces. In general,
there are two types of spherical lenses. So, lenses formed by binding two spherical surfaces
bulging outward are known as convex lenses, while the lenses formed by binding two spherical
surfaces such that they are curved inward are known as concave lenses. This is one of the
basic difference between concave and convex lenses.

Convex lenses are also known as converging lenses since the rays converge after falling on the
convex lens. The concave lenses are known as diverging lenses, as the rays diverge after falling
on the concave lens. In this article, we will learn about image formation by concave and convex
lenses.

G
uidelines for rays falling on the concave and convex lenses
  When a ray strikes concave or convex lenses obliquely at its optical centre, it continues to
follow its path.
 When a ray, parallel to the principal axis strikes concave or convex lenses, the reflected
ray passes through a focus on the principal axis.
 When a ray, passing through focus strikes concave or convex lenses, the reflected ray will
pass parallel to the principal axis.

Image Formation by Concave and Convex Lenses:

Convex Lenses:

 When an object is placed at infinity, the real image is formed at the focus. The size of the
image is highly diminished and point size.

 When an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature, the real image is formed
between the centre of curvature and focus. The image size will not be the same as the
object. It will be diminished in size..
 When an object is at the centre of curvature, the real image is formed at the other centre
of curvature. The size of the image is the same as compared to that of the object.

 When an object is placed in between the centre of curvature and focus, the real image is
formed behind the centre of curvature. The size of the image is larger than that of the
object.
 When an object is placed at the focus, a real image is formed at infinity. The size of the
image is much larger than that of the object.
  When an object is placed in between focus and optical centre, a virtual image is formed.

The size of the image is larger than that of the object.

Concave Lenses:

 When an object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at the focus. The size of
the image is highly diminished and point size.
  When an object is placed at a finite distance from the lens, a virtual image is formed
between the optical centre and the focus of the convex lens. The size of the image is

smaller than that of the object.

Summary of Image Formation by Concave and Convex Lens

Image formation by Concave Lens

Image
Object Location Image Location Image Size
Nature

Virtual and Highly diminished,

Infinity At F1
Erect point-sized

Beyond Infinity and Between Focus (F1) and Optical Virtual and
Diminished
Optical Centre center (O) Erect
 Image formation by Convex Lens

Object location Image location Image nature Image size

Infinity At F2 Real and Inverted Diminished, point sized

Between 2F2 and

Beyond 2 F1 Real and Inverted Diminished
F2

Between 2F1 and F1 Beyond 2F2 Real and Inverted Enlarged

Infinitely large or highly

At F1 At infinity Real and Inverted
enlarged

At 2 F1 At 2F2 Real and Inverted Same size

On the same side as

Between F1 and 0 Virtual and Erect Enlarged
the object

Camera:
The photographic camera is a simple optical instrument

 Components – Light-tight chamber – Converging lens • Produces a real image – Film

behind the lens
 Receives the image
 The lens, therefore f is constant:
 Adjust q to change p.

Structure and Function of the Eyes

The structures and functions of the eyes are complex. Each eye constantly adjusts the amount of
light it lets in, focuses on objects near and far, and produces continuous images that are instantly
transmitted to the brain.

 The orbit is the bony cavity that contains the eyeball, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels,
as well as the structures that produce and drain tears. Each orbit is a pear-shaped structure
that is formed by several bones.
 The outer covering of the eyeball consists of a relatively tough, white layer called the
sclera (or white of the eye).
 Near the front of the eye, in the area protected by the eyelids, the sclera is covered by a
thin, transparent membrane (conjunctiva), which runs to the edge of the cornea. The
conjunctiva also covers the moist back surface of the eyelids and eyeballs.

 Light enters the eye through the cornea, the clear, curved layer in front of the iris and
pupil. The cornea serves as a protective covering for the front of the eye and also helps
focus light on the retina at the back of the eye.
 After passing through the cornea, light travels through the pupil (the black dot in the
middle of the eye).
 The iris—the circular, colored area of the eye that surrounds the pupil—controls the
amount of light that enters the eye. The iris allows more light into the eye (enlarging or
dilating the pupil) when the environment is dark and allows less light into the eye
(shrinking or constricting the pupil) when the environment is bright. Thus, the pupil
dilates and constricts like the aperture of a camera lens as the amount of light in the
immediate surroundings changes. The size of the pupil is controlled by the action of the
pupillary sphincter muscle and dilator muscle.
 Behind the iris sits the lens. By changing its shape, the lens focuses light onto the retina.
Through the action of small muscles (called the ciliary muscles), the lens becomes thicker
to focus on nearby objects and thinner to focus on distant objects.
 The retina contains the cells that sense light (photoreceptors) and the blood vessels that
nourish them. The most sensitive part of the retina is a small area called the macula,
which has millions of tightly packed photoreceptors (the type called cones). The high
 density of cones in the macula makes the visual image detailed, just as a high-resolution
digital camera has more megapixels.
 Each photoreceptor is linked to a nerve fiber. The nerve fibers from the photoreceptors
are bundled together to form the optic nerve. The optic disk, the first of the optic nerve is
at the back of the eye.
 The photoreceptors in the retina convert the image into electrical signals, which are
carried to the brain by the optic nerve. There are two main types of photoreceptors: cones
and rods.
 Cones are responsible for sharp, detailed central vision and color vision and are clustered
mainly in the macula.
 Rods are responsible for night and peripheral (side) vision. Rods are more numerous than
cones and much more sensitive to light, but they do not register color or contribute to
detailed central vision as the cones do. Rods are grouped mainly in the peripheral areas of
the retina.
 The eyeball is divided into two sections, each of which is filled with fluid. The pressure
generated by these fluids fills out the eyeball and helps maintain its shape.
 The front section (anterior segment) extends from the inside of the cornea to the front
surface of the filled with a fluid called the aqueous humor, which nourishes the internal
structures. The anterior segment is divided into two chambers. The front (anterior)
chamber extends from the cornea to the iris. The back (posterior) chamber extends from
the iris to the lens. Normally, the aqueous humor is produced in the posterior chamber,
flows slowly through the pupil into the anterior chamber, and then drains out of the
eyeball through outflow channels located where the iris meets the cornea.
 The back section (posterior segment) extends from the back surface of the lens to the
retina. It contains a called viteoir humors.