Understanding the Self

Lessons 1-6
John Ercel Lozada

Lesson 1 – Philosophical Views and the Self

Philosophy - is defined as the "love of wisdom." In broad terms, philosophy refers to the pursuit of
fundamental truths about oneself, the world in which one lives, and one's relationships to both the
world and other people.

Philosophy can be explained by:

Science (Systematic)

Natural Light of Reason (Natural Capacity to Think)

Study of all Things (Generalized)

Examples: (Systematic)

Kant's philosophy is distinguished by its methodical approach to both metaphysics and epistemology
(the study of the essence of reality). Kant attempts to bring rationalism and empiricism together in
his "Critique of Pure Reason," which also offers a thorough framework for comprehending human
knowledge and the nature of reality.

Kant makes a distinction between a posteriori knowledge, which is knowledge obtained from
experience, and a priori knowledge, which is knowledge independent of experience. He challenges
conventional ideas of knowledge acquisition by methodically examining how synthetic a priori
judgments are conceivable.

Examples: (Natural Capacity to Think)

Children often engage in philosophical thinking naturally as they explore fundamental questions
about the world, existence, and ethics. Their curiosity and unfiltered approach to these questions
can demonstrate that philosophical thinking is an inherent aspect of human cognition.

Sample Scenario

Imagine a child sitting in a park, observing a caterpillar crawling on a leaf. The child might start asking
questions like, "Why is the caterpillar here?" "How did it become a caterpillar?" "Who am I
compared to the caterpillar?"

In this scenario, the child's contemplation mirrors philosophical thought. The child is grappling with
questions of existence, transformation, and identity. These questions reflect natural curiosity about
the world and a desire to understand one's place within it. The child's inquiries demonstrate that
philosophy, at its core, involves the basic human capacity to wonder, question, and reflect on
fundamental aspects of reality.

Children's philosophical ponderings often lack the formal language and structure that mature
philosophical discourse employs, but they share the same essence of probing deep questions and
seeking understanding.

Examples: (Generalized)

In ancient Greece, philosophy emerged as a comprehensive inquiry into fundamental aspects of

existence, knowledge, ethics, and more. Early Greek philosophers, often referred to as
"Presocratics”.

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Understanding the Self
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John Ercel Lozada

Cosmology and Metaphysics: Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus delved into questions about the
nature of the cosmos, the fundamental substance of the universe, and the underlying principles
governing reality.

Ethics and Politics: Socrates, one of the most influential figures in Western philosophy, focused on
ethics, moral principles, and the nature of virtue.

Epistemology and Logic: Plato's dialogues explored the nature of knowledge, the process of
learning, and the role of reason.

Metaphysics and Reality: Aristotle, a student of Plato, delved into metaphysics, studying the nature
of existence, causation, and reality.

Sophist

A sophist was a particular educator, orator, and philosopher who flourished in ancient Greece,
especially in the fifth century BCE. Sophists were renowned for their knowledge of rhetoric (the art
of persuasion) and for imparting a variety of valuable talents, such as debate, public speaking, and
persuasion. However, Their approaches and teachings were frequently criticized for being excessively
preoccupied with persuasion and manipulation rather than pursuing the unchanging truth.

Big Three of Philosophy

Socrates (469-399 BCE):

Socrates is known for his method of questioning, known as the Socratic method, which aimed to
stimulate critical thinking and self-discovery in his interlocutors. He did not write any philosophical
texts himself; his ideas are primarily known through the writings of his student, Plato.

Plato (427-347 BCE):

Plato was a student of Socrates and the founder of the Academy in Athens. He wrote numerous
dialogues in which Socrates is often the main character.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE):

Aristotle was a student of Plato and later became the tutor of Alexander the Great. His contributions
span various fields including ethics, metaphysics, logic, biology, and politics. Aristotle's systematic
approach to categorizing knowledge, his emphasis on empirical observation, and his work on logic
and syllogisms have had a lasting impact on Western thought.

Different Perspectives of Ancient and Modern Philosophers about self

 Socrates  Hume
 Plato  Kant
 St. Augustine of Hippo  Freud
 Rene Descartes  Ryle
 John Locke

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Understanding the Self
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John Ercel Lozada

Socrates

Socrates’ view of oneself:

Self-Examination: Socrates emphasized the importance of self-examination and introspection. He

believed that individuals should engage in an ongoing process of questioning and self-discovery to
gain a deeper understanding of their beliefs, values, and actions.

Knowledge and Ignorance: Socrates famously declared, "I know that I am intelligent because I know
that I know nothing." He acknowledged his own ignorance and believed that true wisdom came
from recognizing the limits of one's knowledge and being open to learning from others.

Virtue and Ethics: Socrates believed that virtue was the highest good and that the pursuit of virtue
was closely tied to self-awareness and self-improvement. He engaged in discussions about the nature
of virtues like courage, justice, and wisdom, seeking to understand their essence and how they relate
to human behavior.

Socrates' Views on Human Nature:

Innate Knowledge: Socrates suggested that individuals possess innate knowledge, particularly when
it comes to ethical matters. He believed that people inherently know what is right and just, but this
knowledge might be obscured by societal influences or a lack of self-awareness.

Desire for the Good: Socrates believed that every individual naturally desires the good, which he
understood as virtue and moral excellence. He thought that people's actions were driven by their
pursuit of what they perceived as good, even if they might not always make the best choices.

Education and Moral Improvement: Socrates thought that human nature could be improved through
education and philosophical inquiry. He believed that engaging in thoughtful conversations and
examining one's beliefs could lead to personal and moral growth.

Socratic Method

The philosophical teaching and inquiry method known as the Socratic method—also referred to as
Socratic questioning—is credited to the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. It entails conversing
with people in order to foster critical thinking, promote self-discovery, and reach a deeper
comprehension of intricate ideas, concepts, and ethical principles.

Example:

Socrates: Ercel, you mentioned that wealth is the most important factor for achieving happiness.
Could you explain why you believe that?

Ercel: Well, Socrates, with wealth, people can afford all the comforts and pleasures of life, which
ultimately lead to happiness.

Socrates: I see. So, are all wealthy people happy?

Ercel: Well, not all, but wealth provides the means to access things that make people happy.

Socrates: Interesting. Let's think about this further. Can you give me an example of a wealthy person
who isn't happy?

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John Ercel Lozada
Ercel: I guess some wealthy individuals might be unhappy due to personal problems or other
reasons.

Socrates: So, it seems that wealth alone doesn't guarantee happiness. Would you agree that
happiness is more complex than just having material possessions?

Ercel: Yes, I suppose so.

Socrates: Let's consider this: What if someone has strong friendships, a fulfilling career, and a sense
of purpose, but lacks excessive wealth? Could they still be happy?

Ercel: Yes, I think that's possible.

Socrates: It appears that there are other factors contributing to happiness beyond wealth. If wealth
isn't a sufficient condition for happiness, how can we determine its true importance in the grand
scheme of things?

Explanation:

Socrates uses the Socratic method to engage Ercel in a thoughtful exploration of the belief that
wealth is the most important factor for happiness. By asking a series of questions and challenging
Ercel's initial assertion, Socrates guides the conversation to reveal complexities and potential
contradictions in the idea. Through this process, Socrates encourages Ercel to critically examine his
beliefs and consider alternative perspectives on happiness.

Plato

Plato’s real name is Aristocles, born in Athens (428 – 348 BCE). He believed that Philosophy is more
than an analysis but is a way of life.

Plato’s Theory of Forms

Plato's theory of Forms (also known as Ideas) is a central and influential aspect of his philosophy. It
presents a metaphysical framework that posits the existence of an abstract realm of perfect and
unchanging forms, distinct from the imperfect and changing physical world that we perceive with our
senses.

Elements of Forms

Two Realms: Plato distinguishes between two realms: the realm of the Forms and the realm of the
physical world. The physical world is characterized by imperfection, change, and sensory
experiences, while the realm of Forms is eternal, unchanging, and the source of true reality.

Existence of Forms: According to Plato, every concept or quality in the physical world (such as
beauty, justice, and equality) corresponds to an eternal and perfect Form in the realm of Forms.
These Forms are the ultimate reality and serve as the "blueprints" for the imperfect instances we
encounter in the physical world.

Imitation and Particulars: Plato suggests that the physical world is a realm of imperfect copies or
imitations of the Forms. For example, a beautiful object in the physical world is beautiful because it
partakes in the Form of Beauty.

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Understanding the Self
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John Ercel Lozada
Participation: Plato introduces the concept of "participation," which means that physical objects and
concepts participate in the Forms. This participation is what gives them their qualities and makes
them recognizable.

Epistemology: Plato's theory of Forms has implications for his theory of knowledge. He believed that
true knowledge (episteme) is knowledge of the Forms, as they provide the unchanging and eternal
reality behind the changing appearances of the physical world.

Reality and Appearance: Plato's allegory of the cave in "The Republic" illustrates the difference
between the realm of Forms and the world of appearances. People in the cave are chained and see
only shadows of objects projected on the wall. The shadows represent the world of appearances,
while the true objects casting the shadows are the Forms.

Form of the Good: Plato's theory culminates in the Form of the Good, which represents the ultimate
source of truth, beauty, and moral value. The Form of the Good illuminates all other Forms and
provides a basis for understanding reality and ethics.

Allegory of the Cave

Socrates describes a group of prisoners who have been confined in a cave since birth. These
prisoners are chained in such a way that they can only see the wall in front of them. Behind the
prisoners, there is a fire, and between the fire and the prisoners, objects, and figures are carried,
casting shadows on the cave wall that the prisoners can see. These shadows are the only reality the
prisoners know, as they have never seen the outside world or the objects cr eating the shadows.

One day, a prisoner is freed and forced to turn around and look at the fire and the objects that cast
the shadows. Initially, the prisoner is confused and overwhelmed by the new reality, but as they
gradually adjust, they begin to see the objects as they truly are. The prisoner is then led out of the
cave into the sunlight and experiences the outside world, which is even more real and dazzling than
the shadows and fire in the cave.

Upon seeing the truth of the outside world, the prisoner is filled with awe and realizes that the
shadows in the cave were mere illusions. The prisoner understands that the world inside the cave is a
distorted representation of reality. The prisoner's initial return to the cave to free the other prisoners
is met with skepticism and resistance. The other prisoners are accustomed to the shadows and are
wary of anything beyond their familiar reality.

Interpretation

The allegory of the cave is a symbolic representation of Plato's theory of Forms and his view of
human understanding. The cave represents the physical world that we perceive with our senses,
where the shadows on the wall correspond to the world of appearances and the changing, imperfect
physical reality.

The journey of the freed prisoner represents the philosopher's pursuit of knowledge and wisdom.
The process of turning away from the shadows toward the fire and, eventually, the sun symbolizes
the philosopher's journey from the world of appearances to the realm of Forms—the eternal and
unchanging reality behind the changing physical world.

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Understanding the Self
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John Ercel Lozada
The allegory emphasizes the difficulty of transitioning from ignorance to knowledge and the
challenges faced by those who seek to share their insights with others who are still trapped in
ignorance. The allegory invites readers to question their assumptions, consider the nature of reality,
and explore the role of education and philosophical inquiry in attaining a deeper understanding of
the world.

Plato’s view on oneself:

Plato's views on the self are deeply intertwined with his metaphysical and epistemological ideas,
particularly his theory of Forms. Plato believed that the true self was not the physical body or the
temporary experiences of the individual, but rather the immortal soul and its connection to the
eternal realm of Forms.

Immortality of the Soul: He thought that the soul was eternal and preexisted before birth, and it
continued to exist after death. The soul's journey through different lives (reincarnation) was
influenced by its level of understanding and virtue.

Three Parts of the Soul: In Plato's dialogue "Phaedrus" and "Republic," he described the soul as
having three parts: the rational (intellectual) part, the spirited (emotional) part, and the appetitive
(desiring) part. These parts often conflict with each other, and the goal of a virtuous life is to
harmonize and prioritize these aspects.

Recollection and Reminiscence: Plato's theory of recollection posits that learning is actually a
process of remembering. He believed that the soul had prior knowledge of the Forms before being
born and that learning involved recollecting this knowledge through experience and education.

Relationship to the Forms: Plato believed that the soul's true connection was with the eternal and
unchanging realm of Forms. The soul's participation in the Forms allowed it to recognize beauty,
justice, and other qualities in the physical world, even though they were only imperfect copies of the
true Forms.

Self-Examination and Philosophy: Plato's philosophy encouraged self-examination and reflection. He

believed that individuals should strive to know themselves and the true nature of reality. This
pursuit of self-knowledge was a means of connecting with the higher truths of the Forms.

Eros and the Soul's Ascent: He suggested that the love between humans was a reflection of the
soul's innate longing for union with the divine and the eternal.

In Plato's theory of Forms, the term "Forms" refers to abstract, perfect, and eternal concepts or
ideas that represent the true essence of things. These Forms exist in a non-physical realm that
transcends the imperfect and changing world of the senses. The physical objects and phenomena we
encounter in the material world are merely imperfect copies or reflections of these ideal Forms.

Real-Life Example:

Imagine you encounter a breathtaking sunset that you find incredibly beautiful. According to Plato's
theory of Forms:

The beauty of the sunset you see is a manifestation of the imperfect copy of the Form of Beauty.

The Form of Beauty itself is the ultimate standard of beauty, and it's beyond any specific sunset or
physical object.

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Understanding the Self
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John Ercel Lozada
St. Augustine of Hippo

Saint Augustine of Hippo, a prominent Christian theologian and philosopher of the late Roman
Empire, had complex and influential views on the self, human nature, and the relationship between
the individual and God. Plato and the other Greek Philosopher see man as basically good and
becomes evil through ignorance of what is good. Christianity, on the other hand, sees men as
sinners who reject/go against a loving God’s commands.

Sin and Fallen Nature: Augustine believed in the concept of original sin, which he interpreted from
the story of Adam and Eve in the Bible. He argued that humanity inherited a fallen nature due to
Adam's sin, leading to a separation from God and a state of moral and spiritual decay.

Inner Conflicts and the Search for God: Augustine's "Confessions" is a significant work where he
chronicles his own struggles with his sinful desires and his search for spiritual fulfillment. He
described his journey from a life of worldly pursuits to a deep longing for God and a quest for truth.

Self-Knowledge and God's Grace: Augustine emphasized the importance of self-awareness and self-
examination as part of the process of coming to know God. He believed that acknowledging one's
sinful nature and turning to God's grace were essential steps toward achieving spiritual redemption
and salvation.

Restless Heart and God's Presence: Augustine famously wrote, "You have made us for yourself, O
Lord and our heart is restless until it rests in you." He believed that human beings have an innate
longing for God and that genuine happiness and fulfillment could only be found in a deep
relationship with God.

Unity of Body and Soul: Augustine held a view of the unity of body and soul, influenced by his
Christian faith. He believed that the soul and body are distinct but interconnected and that the state
of one could affect the other.

Free Will and Divine Providence: Augustine grappled with the concepts of free will and divine
providence. He believed that while humans have the capacity to make choices, God's divine plan
and grace ultimately guide and shape human destinies.

Love and the Ordering of Desires: Augustine's concept of love played a significant role in his
philosophy. He categorized love into different types, with the highest form being the love of God. He
believed that aligning one's desires with God's love was crucial for spiritual growth and salvation.

The Role of Love

St. Augustine stated that real happiness can only be found in God. For God is love and he created
humans for them to also love. Problems arises because of the object humans choose to love. He
furtherly explains: Love of physical objects leads to the sin of greed 1. Love for the people is not lasting
and excessive for them is the sin of jealousy 2. Love for the self leads to the sin of pride 3. Love for God
is the supreme virtue and only through loving God can man find real happiness 4.

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Rene Descartes

The father of modern philosophy, Rene Descartes was born on 1596. He introduced the famous
“Cartesian Method” and invented analytic geometry.

“Is there anything I can know with certainty?”

His views on the self are central to his philosophy, and he is famously known for the statement
"Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).

Descartes’ view on human nature:

Methodical Doubt: Descartes began his philosophical project with a method of doubt. He sought to
doubt or reject any belief that could be doubted, in order to find a solid foundation for knowledge
that was certain and indubitable. This process of doubt extended even to sensory perceptions and
external reality.

Cogito, Ergo Sum: From his methodical doubt, Descartes arrived at the famous conclusion "Cogito,
ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am). He argued that while everything could be doubted, the very act
of doubt itself required a thinking self. This self-awareness provided an indubitable foundation for
knowledge.

Dualism: Descartes' philosophy is characterized by mind-body dualism, which posits a distinction

between the mind (or soul) and the body. The mind is a non-material, thinking substance, while the
body is a material, extended substance. This dualism raises questions about how these two distinct
substances interact.

Innate Ideas and Clear and Distinct Perception: Descartes believed that certain ideas were innate to
the mind, meaning they were present from birth and not derived from sensory experience. He
argued that clear and distinct ideas, those that are evident and beyond doubt, provide a foundation
for true knowledge.

Epistemology and Method of Analysis: Descartes developed a method of analysis, where complex
problems are broken down into simpler components to reach a clearer understanding. This method
of breaking problems into smaller parts contributed to the development of his mathematical and
scientific work as well.

Mechanistic Philosophy: Descartes adopted a mechanistic view of the physical world. He believed
that the universe operated like a machine, governed by mathematical laws. This view influenced his
understanding of the body as a machine-like entity and contributed to his rejection of final causes in
favor of efficient causes.

God as a Guarantor of Truth: Descartes argued that the existence of God was necessary to provide
a foundation for the reliability of our cognitive faculties and the external world. He proposed that a
benevolent and non-deceptive God would not allow us to be systematically deceived.

John Locke

The significant ideas of English philosopher John Locke, who lived in the 17th century, on human
nature, identity, and the boundaries of knowledge are well recognized.

Tabula Rasa and Empiricism - He believed that at birth, the human mind is like a blank slate, devoid
of innate ideas. Knowledge is acquired through sensory experience and reflection on those
experiences.

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Personal Identity and Consciousness - He argued that personal identity consists of the continuity of
consciousness. A person's identity persists as long as they can remember their past experiences and
link them to their current thoughts and actions.

Primary and Secondary Qualities - Locke distinguished between the primary and secondary qualities
of objects. Primary qualities, such as size and shape, exist in the objects themselves and are related
to their essential nature. Secondary qualities, like color and taste, are perceived by the senses and
depend on the perceiver's sensory experiences.

Limited Knowledge and Skepticism - He believed that our knowledge is constrained by the reliability
of our senses and the limitations of our understanding. He expressed skepticism about the possibility
of attaining certain knowledge about the ultimate nature of reality.

Natural Rights and Social Contract - Locke's political philosophy emphasized natural rights, including
life, liberty, and property. He believed that individuals possessed these rights in a state of nature. To
secure these rights and avoid potential conflicts, individuals enter into a social contract, forming a
civil society governed by laws and a limited government.

Toleration and Religious Freedom - Locke advocated for religious toleration and freedom of
conscience. He argued that religious beliefs should be matters of personal conviction and should not
be coerced by the state. He believed in separating religious authority from political authority.

Three Laws

1. Law of Opinion - where actions that are praiseworthy are called virtues and those that are not
called vice.
2. Civil Law - where right actions are enforced by people in authority.
3. Divine Law – Set by God on the actions of man.

David Hume
Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist David Hume is well known for his
philosophical skepticism and empiricism. According to Hume, philosophy is an experimental,
inductive study of human nature. He also relied on the scientific method, believing that it could
analyze human nature and explain the workings of the mind.
Hume’s view on Human Nature
Empiricism and Impressions - Hume's philosophy is rooted in empiricism, which holds that all
knowledge is derived from sensory experience. He distinguished between "impressions," which are
direct and vivid sensory experiences, and "ideas," which are less vivid copies of impressions. He
believed that all complex ideas are composed of simpler ones derived from impressions.
Causation and Induction - He argued that our belief in cause-and-effect relationships is not based on
inherent necessity but rather on repeated observations. Similarly, he questioned the validity of
inductive reasoning, which involves drawing general conclusions from specific instances.
Association of Ideas: Hume explored how ideas become associated in the mind based on patterns of
experience. David proposed that our minds associate ideas through contiguity (when ideas are

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John Ercel Lozada
frequently experienced together) and resemblance (when one idea reminds us of another).

Immanuel Kant
He synthesized early modern rationalism and empiricism, set the terms for much of nineteenth and
twentieth-century philosophy, and continues to exercise a significant influence today in metaphysics,
epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, aesthetics, and other fields
Kant’s views on Human Nature and Oneself
Epistemology and Critique of Pure Reason - Kant's magnum opus, "Critique of Pure Reason,"
explores the nature and limits of human knowledge. He introduced the distinction between
"phenomena" (things as they appear to us) and "noumena" (things as they are in themselves,
beyond human perception). Kant argued that human knowledge is limited to phenomena, and we
can't make claims about the ultimate nature of reality (noumena).
Transcendental Idealism - He believed that while we can't know things as they are in themselves, our
experience is shaped by the structures of our own minds, which he called "categories" and "forms of
intuition."
Categorical Imperative and Ethics - Kant's ethical philosophy is centered around the notion of the
"categorical imperative," a principle that dictates moral actions should be guided by rules that could
be universally applied without contradiction. He believed in treating individuals as ends in
themselves, rather than as means to an end.
Aesthetics and Judgment - In "Critique of Judgment," Kant explored aesthetics and the nature of
judgment, particularly focusing on the concept of "aesthetic judgment" as distinct from practical or
theoretical judgments. He discussed the nature of beauty and the role of taste.
Limits of Metaphysics and Religion - Kant believed that traditional metaphysical questions, such as
the existence of God, the nature of the soul, and the afterlife, were beyond the scope of human
knowledge. He argued that these questions were matters of faith and not subject to rational
demonstration.

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