WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

Philosophy is the pursuit of independent thought, addressing fundamental questions about truth,
knowledge, morality, and the mind-body relationship. It emerges when individuals engage in critical, self-
driven reflection.

THE SUBJECTS OF PHILOSOPHY

This section gives a thumbnail sketch of the subjects of philosophy discussed in this book. The book is
not exhaustive of philosophy, but it can fairly be said that all the core areas are covered here.

1. Epistemology
The subject here is the nature of knowledge, and given that nature, what it can be truly said that
we can know, as opposed to just having beliefs and opinions about. Can we counter views of
sceptics who would claim that strictly speaking we cannot know as much as we claim to, or
indeed anything at all?
2. Metaphysics
What sorts of things ultimately exist and how do they connect to each other and how things
appear to us? Are all the things that appear to us real, or are they derived from something more
fundamental? And what do we say about the existence of things that do not in the usual sense
‘exist’ but to which we nevertheless refer, such as unicorns or numbers.
3. Logic
This is concerned with the nature and identification of good inferences: those circumstances in
which one statement is said to follow from another. It seeks to understand and classify the cases
where statements, if true, justify to whatever degree the truth of other statements.
4. Ethics
This is concerned with values (normative as opposed to factual matters) with respect to human
actions. What is it for something we do to be counted good or bad? What is it to say we ought to
do or not do something? It is not enough to talk of what we do, we need to address what we
should do and what saying this means.

5. Ancient philosophy
This field focuses on the study of Greek and Roman philosophy, primarily concentrating on Greek
thinkers from c. 624 BC (birth of Thales, the first Presocratic philosopher) to 322 BC (death of
Aristotle). Key figures include Plato and Aristotle, with some extensions to encompass the
Roman era.
6. Modern philosophy: the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
It may seem strange to call philosophy done in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
‘modern philosophy’. It indicates a period of astonishing fecundity in philosophical thought and a
new way of doing philosophy that was a significant break from what had gone before.
7. Philosophy of mind
What kind of entity are we referring to when we talk about the ‘mind’? How does talk of the
mind relate to talk of what we normally call our bodies? Are the mind and the body one or is the
mind non-physical? How can conscious awareness and understanding whereby we refer to
things arise from inert matter? What do we mean by, and can it justify, saying that someone is
the same person throughout his life?
8. Philosophy of science
What defines a law of nature? How does it differ from other claims about the world? How if at
all are scientific theories justified by evidence? How can we know that our laws of nature
describe features of the world that will persist next time we examine it?
9. Political philosophy
How ought society to be organised? What justifies the existence of the state that can rightly
usurp power from people? How should the state be controlled? What justifies private property,
if anything? How do people acquire rights that cannot be transgressed apart from exceptional
circumstances, if at all? Philosophy of arts Can what a work of art is be defined? What do we
mean when we say some work has a certain aesthetic quality, such as beauty?
10. Philosophy of religion
How good are the arguments justifying the existence of God? Are arguments for the existence of
God required, or is faith enough? What is the nature of God and how does that relate to the sort
of creatures we are? Continental philosophy It is controversial to claim that the group of
philosophers often brought together under this title can be done so coherently, and the chapter
here deals mainly with this matter.
11. Aesthetics
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, appreciation, and critique of
beauty, art, and taste. It explores questions about the nature of beauty, the criteria for judging
artistic creations, and the relationship between aesthetics and other areas of philosophy such as
ethics and metaphysics.
12. The Future Of Philosophy
Philosophy will go on just as long as some people hold the view that thinking things through for
themselves is important. It is hard to say what philosophical concerns will be the center of
people’s attention in the future. But it looks as if there will always be someone trying to struggle
with the deepest questions and unwilling to take on trust the answers that happen to be around.
SOCRATES
Background

1. Intellectual Context: Socrates emerged in ancient Greece during a period of

intellectual ferment, engaging with prominent thinkers like the Sophists. His
philosophical journey unfolded against the backdrop of diverse philosophical
perspectives, contributing to the rich tapestry of Athenian thought.
2. Sophistic Influence: Socrates' interactions with the Sophists, known for their
rhetorical skills and relativistic views, played a crucial role in shaping his own
approach to philosophy. While differing in fundamental beliefs, Socrates
borrowed debating techniques from the Sophists, blending their methods with
his distinctive philosophical inquiries.

Introduction

1. Philosophical Legacy: Introducing Socrates as a pivotal figure in the history of

philosophy, known for his profound impact on moral philosophy, epistemology,
and the enduring influence of his teachings through the works of his disciple,
Plato.
2. Challenges in Interpretation: Acknowledging the complexities in understanding
Socrates due to the lack of his own written records and the reliance on Plato's
writings, which present evolving perspectives of Socrates over time.

Personal Life

1. Unconventional Appearance: Describing Socrates as an unassuming figure, often

depicted as ugly, seedy, and penniless, challenging societal norms and
expectations of physical aesthetics.
2. Influence on Youth: Highlighting Socrates' ability to captivate and influence the
youth of Athens, despite his unconventional appearance, emphasizing the
personal connections that contributed to his philosophical engagements.

Contribution to Philosophy
 1. Moral Philosophy: Exploring Socrates' contributions to moral philosophy,
emphasizing his unique views on virtue, self-knowledge, and the pursuit of an
examined life.
2. Plato's Interpretation: Discussing how Plato, Socrates' disciple, continued and
potentially transformed Socrates' teachings, as evidenced in the evolving
portrayals of Socrates in Plato's dialogues.

Socratic Problem
1. Getting Socrates Right: Figuring out what Socrates truly believed is tricky because Plato,
who wrote about him, gave different versions. Scholars argue about which one is more
accurate.
2. Plato's Impact on Socrates: Looking at how much Plato, Socrates' student, affected the
way we see Socrates. Did Plato's own ideas become more important than Socrates',
making it hard to separate the two?
Socratic Method

1. Elenchus and Self-Reflection: Digging into how Socrates liked to question people (called
elenchus) to show them they didn't know as much as they thought. This made them think more
about themselves and what they really knew.
2. Defining Ideas Together: Talking about how Socrates used his questioning method in
discussions, like in Laches, Charmides, and Euthyphro. He got people to think deeply and realize
their own mistakes during these conversations.

Socratic Method Today

1. Educational Relevance: Discussing the continued application of the Socratic

method in contemporary education, particularly its role in fostering critical
thinking, encouraging active participation, and facilitating a deeper
understanding of complex topics.
2. Philosophical and Pedagogical Practices: Reflecting on how the Socratic method
continues to influence philosophical discourse, pedagogical approaches, and its
incorporation into various fields beyond philosophy, emphasizing its enduring
impact on intellectual inquiry.
PLATO
**Introduction**

1.Founding Figure: Plato stands as one of the foundational figures in Western philosophy, significantly
shaping the course of philosophical inquiry and providing a framework for subsequent generations of
thinkers.

2. Dialogical Form: Plato's choice of the dialogue form for his philosophical writings is distinctive. This
method of presenting ideas through conversations between characters, primarily Socrates, allows for
dynamic engagement and the exploration of various perspectives.

.. Background ..

1. Engagement with Sophists: Plato's philosophical journey was influenced by his interactions with the
.. ..

Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers in ancient Greece. These encounters played a role in shaping his
views and methods of philosophical inquiry.

2. Cultural Context: Understanding the cultural and intellectual context of ancient Greece, including the
.. ..

vibrant intellectual atmosphere, political dynamics, and the emergence of various philosophical schools,
provides a backdrop for comprehending Plato's philosophical contributions.

.. Personal Life ..

1. Historical Limitations: Limited historical information is available about Plato's personal life, creating
.. ..

challenges in constructing a detailed biography. This scarcity of biographical data contributes to the
enigmatic nature of Plato as an individual.
2. Influence of Socrates: Plato's personal life is intricately connected to his mentor-disciple relationship
.. ..

with Socrates. This influence is evident in Plato's philosophical writings, where Socrates often serves as
the central figure engaging in dialogues.

.. Contribution to Philosophy ..

1. Theory of Forms: One of Plato's most significant contributions is the development of the theory of
.. ..

Forms. The idea that abstract, unchanging entities exist as the true reality behind the imperfect,
changing world of appearances profoundly influenced metaphysics and epistemology.

2. Socratic Method: Plato's incorporation of the Socratic method, characterized by questioning and
.. ..

dialogue, into his philosophical writings became a hallmark of his contributions. This method aimed at
eliciting deeper insights and encouraging self-examination.
ARISTOTLE

.. Introduction: ..

Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a prominent ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. Born in Stagira,
Macedonia, he became a student of Plato and later tutored Alexander the Great. Aristotle's influence
extends across various fields, including philosophy, science, ethics, politics, and more.

.. Personal Life: ..

Aristotle spent a considerable portion of his life in Athens, where he studied at Plato's Academy. After
Plato's death, Aristotle ventured on his own intellectual pursuits. His association with Alexander the
Great led to opportunities, and he returned to Athens to establish the Lyceum, a school where he
lectured and conducted research. Aristotle's personal life reflects a blend of scholarly pursuits, teaching,
and interactions with influential figures of his time.

.. Philosophy Contribution: ..

Aristotle's philosophical contributions are vast and have had a profound impact on Western thought. His
major contributions include:

1. Metaphysics: Aristotle delved into metaphysics, exploring the nature of existence, being, and reality.
.. ..

He critically examined the concept of substance, introducing ideas like matter and form to understand
the underlying structure of entities.

2. Epistemology: Aristotle contributed to epistemology, investigating knowledge and the processes of

.. ..

acquiring it. He emphasized empirical observation and categorization of information as essential

elements of understanding.

3. Ethics and Virtue Theory: Aristotle's ethical philosophy focuses on virtue ethics. In works like
.. ..

"Nicomachean Ethics," he explored the concept of eudaimonia (human flourishing) achieved through
virtuous living. Virtue, according to Aristotle, lies in finding the mean between extremes.
4. Politics: In "Politics," Aristotle examined governance and the ideal state. He introduced the concept of
.. ..

polity, a mixed form of government, and discussed the best conditions for citizens to attain a good life
through active participation in the political community.

5. Natural Sciences: Aristotle made significant contributions to natural sciences. His work in biology,
.. ..

zoology, and botany involved classifying and categorizing living organisms. His "Physics" explored
fundamental principles of motion, causality, and the structure of the physical world.

.. Key Theories: ..

Aristotle's key theories include:

1. Ways of Being: Aristotle categorized entities into ten ways of being, including substance, quality,
.. ..

quantity, relation, time, and more, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding existence.

2. Four Causes: Aristotle's theory of explanation involved four causes—material, formal, efficient, and
.. ..

final causes. These causes elucidate the factors contributing to the existence and development of
entities.

3. Teleology: Aristotle's teleological perspective emphasizes purpose and end goals in understanding
.. ..

natural phenomena, ethics, and politics. Entities are viewed in terms of their ultimate purpose or
function.

4. Substance and Accidents: In his exploration of substance, Aristotle distinguished between substances
.. ..

(individual entities) and accidents (properties or qualities). This distinction played a crucial role in his
discussions on change and identity.

Aristotle's philosophical legacy endures, shaping diverse disciplines and contributing to the development
of Western philosophical thought.
Uses of Philosophy
1. Personal Use

Philosophy plays a significant role in personal development and well-being:

Critical Thinking Skills: Studying philosophy enhances critical thinking, logical reasoning, and problem-
solving abilities. Individuals can analyze situations, evaluate arguments, and make informed decisions.

Values and Beliefs: Philosophy helps individuals reflect on their values and beliefs, leading to a deeper
understanding of personal principles. It provides a framework for ethical decision-making and moral
reasoning.

Self-Reflection: Philosophical inquiry encourages self-reflection, helping individuals explore questions

related to identity, purpose, and the meaning of life. This introspection contributes to personal growth
and a more meaningful existence.

2. Vocational Use

Philosophical skills find applications in various vocational pursuits:

Law and Ethics: Philosophical ethics are foundational to legal systems. Philosophical training aids in legal
reasoning, understanding ethical implications, and navigating complex moral dilemmas.

Teaching and Education: Philosophy fosters effective communication and critical analysis, making it
valuable for educators. Teachers equipped with philosophical skills can engage students in discussions
that promote critical thinking.

Journalism and Media: Journalists benefit from philosophical reasoning to investigate and present
information ethically. Analytical skills honed through philosophy aid in dissecting complex societal issues.

3. Business Use

Philosophy contributes to strategic thinking and ethical practices in the business world:

Ethical Decision-Making: Business leaders equipped with philosophical ethics can make ethically sound
decisions. Understanding the moral implications of actions contributes to corporate responsibility.

Strategic Planning: Philosophical methods of analysis assist in strategic planning. Examining long-term
goals, ethical considerations, and the consequences of business decisions contributes to sustainable
practices.

Leadership and Communication: Philosophical skills enhance leadership qualities, including effective
communication, conflict resolution, and the ability to navigate diverse perspectives within a team.

4. Health Care

Philosophy intersects with healthcare in various ways, influencing both practitioners and patients:
Medical Ethics: Philosophical principles guide ethical decision-making in healthcare. Issues such as
patient autonomy, end-of-life care, and medical research ethics often require philosophical analysis.

Bioethics and Policy: Philosophical inquiry contributes to the development of bioethical principles and
healthcare policies. Examining the moral implications of medical practices ensures responsible
advancements.

Patient-Centered Care: Philosophical perspectives on empathy, compassion, and the doctor-patient

relationship contribute to the practice of patient-centered care, emphasizing holistic well-being.

Philosophy's applications extend beyond academia, enriching personal lives, influencing various
professions, shaping ethical business practices, and contributing to the ethical foundation of healthcare.
Al-Ghazali (1058-1111): Islamic Philosopher and
Theologian
1. Early Life and Education:

Born in Tus, Persia (modern-day Iran), in 1058.

Studied Islamic jurisprudence and theology, becoming a prominent scholar in the Islamic world.

2. Crisis of Certainty:

 Underwent a personal crisis that led him to question the foundations of his knowledge and faith.
 Suffered from a spiritual and intellectual struggle, which influenced his later philosophical and
theological works.

3. The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut al-Falasifah):

 Authored this influential work, criticizing the compatibility of Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic
theology.
 Argued against the philosophers' views on causality, eternity of the world, and the nature of
God.
 Asserted the importance of revelation and divine intervention in understanding the world.

4. Renewal of Religious Sciences (Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din):

 Wrote this monumental work, addressing the revitalization of Islamic spirituality, ethics, and
theology.
 Explored various aspects of Islamic life, including jurisprudence, theology, mysticism, and
morality.
 Emphasized the purification of the soul and the significance of sincere devotion to God.

5. Mystic Journey and Sufism:

 Al-Ghazali experienced a transformative journey, leaving his prestigious academic position to

seek spiritual enlightenment.
 Studied and practiced Sufism, a form of Islamic mysticism, emphasizing the inner, experiential
dimension of faith.
 Integrated mysticism with his philosophical and theological insights in later works.

6. Legacy:

 Al-Ghazali's writings had a profound impact on Islamic philosophy, theology, and mysticism.
 Revered as the "Proof of Islam" (Hujjat al-Islam) for his defense of Islamic orthodoxy.
 Influenced both Sunni and Shia traditions, leaving a lasting imprint on Islamic thought.