ENITV 12D

Intervention for
Calculus -
Drafting

Section 1
Algebra
After this lecture, students are
expected to:
• Identify the different subsets of real numbers;
• Plot numbers on the real number line and their
notations;
• Define the absolute value and perform
operations involving them;
• Use the laws of exponents to simplify exponential
expressions;
• Perform algebraic operations on polynomial
expressions;
• Factor polynomial expressions.

2
History of
Algebra
Algebra was invented by Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn
Musa al-Khwarizmi, a mathematician, astronomer,
and geographer, who was born about 780 in
Baghdad.

Outline
al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr waʾl-
muqabala

“The Compendious Book on Calculation by

Completion and Balancing”

4
"...what is easiest and most useful in
arithmetic, such as men constantly require
in cases of inheritance, legacies, partition,
lawsuits, and trade, and in all their dealings
with one another, or where the measuring
of lands, the digging of canals, geometrical
Outline
computations, and other objects of various
sorts and kinds are concerned."

-Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

5
Topics
• The Real Number System
• Integer Exponents
• Polynomial Expressions
• Factoring Polynomials
• Rational Expressions
 The Real Number
System
• The Set of Real Numbers and its Subsets
• Properties of Real Numbers
• The Real Number Line
• Absolute Value
• Fundamental Operations on Real Numbers
The Set of Real Numbers (ℝ)
Non- -52
ℕ,1ℤ+ -8/5 -17
integer
2
Natural -1/2 -8 -52
Rational
18
Numbers 0 7/8 -8/5 -17
𝕎 Numbers ℚ
1 -1/2 -8
Whole Rational
2 0 -8/5
Numbers Numbers
18 7/8 − 2
-52 1
0
Zero
-17 2
ℝ
-1/2
0
-8
ℤ
18 Real Numbers
7/8
0 1
Integers
1 2
-52
ℤ- 2 −ℍ2
π
-17
Negative 18 π
Irrational
17
-8
Integers Numbers
17
18

8
 ℤ+

Subsets of • ℤ-

the Set of
Real
Numbers
 • Every real number can be written in
Rational vs. decimal form.
Irrational Number
• A rational number is either
terminating or a nonterminating but
repeating decimal.

• An irrational number is a
nonterminating and nonrepeating
decimal.
10
Rational 1
Numbers 1. 4
= 0.25
13
with 2. 5
= 2.6
Terminating 3.
1986
23
= 86.34782609
Decimals
Rational
Numbers with 1.
2
= 0.666666666 … = 0. 6ത
Nonterminating 3
442
but Repeating 2. − = −9.82222 … = −9.82ത
45
Decimals
Rational Express the following rational numbers as a
Numbers with ratio of two integers.
Nonterminating
but Repeating 1. 0.11111111 …
Decimals 2. 0.58585858 …
Rational Express the following rational numbers as a
Numbers with ratio of two integers.
Nonterminating
but Repeating 1. 0.11111111 …
Decimals 2. 0.58585858 …
 An irrational number is a nonterminating and
nonrepeating decimal.
Irrational
numbers 1. 𝜋 = 3.141592654 …
2. 𝑒 = 2.718281828459 …
3. 7 = 2.6557513 …
Properties of Real • Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. The following basic properties of
Numbers real numbers hold for addition and
multiplication.

1. Closure
• 𝑎+𝑏 ∈ℝ
Properties of • 𝑎⋅𝑏 ∈ℝ
Real Numbers 2. Commutative
• 𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎
• 𝑎⋅𝑏 =𝑏⋅𝑎
3. Associative
• 𝑎+ 𝑏+𝑐 = 𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐
• 𝑎⋅ 𝑏⋅𝑐 = 𝑎⋅𝑏 ⋅𝑐
 • Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. The following basic properties of
Properties of Real real numbers hold for addition and
multiplication.
Numbers
4. Distributive
• 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
5. Identity
Properties of • 𝑎+0=𝑎
Real Numbers • 𝟎 is the identity element for addition
• 𝑎⋅1=𝑎
• 𝟏 is the identity element for multiplication
6. Inverse
• 𝑎 + −𝑎 = 0
• −𝒂 is the additive inverse of 𝒂
1
• 𝑎 = 1, 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎
𝟏
• is the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of 𝒂
𝒂
Subtraction and
Division • Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. The following operations are
defined as follows.

• Subtraction
• 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 + −𝑏

• Division
𝑎 1
• =𝑎⋅ , 𝑏≠0
𝑏 𝑏
 • Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ

Properties of 1. − 𝑎 = −𝑎
Negative Real 2. − −𝑎 = 𝑎
3. −𝑎 𝑏 = − 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 −𝑏
Numbers 4. −𝑎 −𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏
5. − 𝑎 + 𝑏 = −𝑎 + (−𝑏)
 • Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. The following properties
of equality hold.

1. Reflexive Property
• 𝑎=𝑎
Properties of Equality of 2. Symmetric Property
Real Numbers • If 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑏 = 𝑎
3. Transitive Property
• If 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑏 = 𝑐, then 𝑎 = 𝑐
4. Substitution Property
• If 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑎 can be replaced by 𝑏
in any statement involving 𝑎
• Two important consequences of • The converse of these two rules
the substitution property are the is called the Cancellation Laws
following: for addition and multiplication,
respectively.
1. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑐
2. If 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐 1. If 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑐, then 𝑎 = 𝑏
2. If 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐, then 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑐 ≠ 0
Properties of Order of
• Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. The following properties of order hold.
Real Numbers
Properties of
Order 1. Trichotomy Property of Order
• Only one is true:
(Inequality) • 𝑎<𝑏
of Real • 𝑎>𝑏
• 𝑎=𝑏
Numbers 2. Transitive Property of Order
• If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑏 < 𝑐, then 𝑎 < 𝑐
3. Addition Property of Order
• If 𝑎 < 𝑏 then 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐
4. Multiplication Property of Order
• If 𝑎 < 𝑏, and 𝑐 > 0, then 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐
• If 𝑎 < 𝑏, and 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐
The Real Number Line

-5/2 -2 -3/2 -1 -1/2 0 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2

 Absolute Value
Definition
Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. The absolute value of 𝑥, written as |𝑥|,
is defined as:
• Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0 • 𝑥 ≥0
𝑥 = ቐ 0 if 𝑥 = 0
• −𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥 if 𝑥 > 0
• 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦
The absolute value can also be interpreted as the 𝑥 𝑥
distance from the point corresponding to 0
• = ,𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑦 𝑦
(origin).

24
Distance Between Real
Numbers
• For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ,
• 𝑎−𝑏 ≥0
• 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0 if and
Definition only if 𝑎 = 𝑏
• Triangle Inequality
• 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎 + |𝑏|
Let a, b ∈ ℝ. The distance between a and b is:

𝑑 = a − b = |b − a|

25
 • The Real Number System
• Integer Exponents
• Polynomial Expressions
Outline • Factoring Polynomials
• Rational Expressions

26
Integer Exponents

Definition
Let 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ. The nth power of 𝑎, is written as 𝑎𝑛 .

• If 𝑛 > 0, then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ ∙∙∙ ∙ 𝑎 (𝑛 times)

1
• If 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝑎0 = 1 and 𝑎−1 =
𝑎
1
• If 𝑛 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝑎−𝑛 =
𝑎𝑛

27
 Definition
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℤ, then

Laws of • Product Law: 𝑎𝑛 ∙ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚

Exponents • Power Raised to a Power Law: (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚
• Power of a Product Law: 𝑎𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛
𝑎𝑛
• Quotient Law: = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 , 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑚
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛
• Power of a Quotient Law: = , 𝑏≠0
𝑏 𝑏𝑛
• Simplify each of the following expressions.

22
1. 25
2. −2𝑥 3
3. 𝑥 6 𝑦 5 ⋅ 𝑥 3 𝑦 7
5
3𝑤 3 𝑧
4. 3𝑤 7 𝑧 4 2
𝑎9 4𝑏7 𝑐 3 𝑑 8
5. − 11 11 0
2𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎5
• Simplify each of the following expressions.

22
1. 25
2. −2𝑥 3
3. 𝑥 6 𝑦 5 ⋅ 𝑥 3 𝑦 7
5
3𝑤 3 𝑧
4. 3𝑤 7 𝑧 4 2
𝑎9 4𝑏7 𝑐 3 𝑑 8
5. − 11 11 0
2𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎5
 • The Real Number System
• Integer Exponents
• Polynomial Expressions
Outline • Factoring Polynomials
• Rational Expressions

31
Polynomials
• A polynomial is an algebraic expression of one or
more terms each of which is a product of
constants and variables, where each variable is
raised to a positive integral exponent including
zero.
• monomial – a polynomial of one term
• binomial – a polynomial of two terms
• trinomial – a polynomial of three terms
Polynomials

• The degree of a monomial is the sum of the

exponents of its literal coefficients.
• The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of
its monomial terms.

1. −5 is a monomial of degree 0
2. 3𝑎4 is a monomial of degree 4
3. 2𝑥𝑦 − 1 is a binomial of degree 2
4. 2𝑎3 + 5𝑎𝑏 2 − 7𝑏 3 is a trinomial of degree 3
Polynomials

• The standard form of a polynomial in one variable is given by

𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎 𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers (𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0) and 𝑛 is a nonnegative

integer. Also, 𝑎𝑛 is called the leading coefficient and 𝑎0 the constant term.
Operations on Polynomials

Combining Addition and

Similar Terms Subtraction

Multiplication Division
Operations on Polynomials
• Combining Similar Terms
• Rules in Simplifying Polynomials Involving
Grouping Symbols
1. Remove the grouping symbols by applying
the distributive property of multiplication
over addition.
2. In case a pair of grouping symbols encloses
other grouping symbols, remove the
innermost symbols first and work from the
inside out.
3. Collect similar terms as they appear.
Operations on Polynomials
• Addition and Subtraction
1. Arrange similar terms in column
2. Find the sum or difference of the terms in
each column
• Add the following polynomials

1. 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 7𝑧,
7𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 2𝑧,
−3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 8𝑧

2. 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 5𝑥𝑦 + 3,
−𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥,
7𝑦 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 1
• Add the following polynomials

1. 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 7𝑧,
7𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 2𝑧,
−3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 8𝑧

2. 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 5𝑥𝑦 + 3,
−𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥,
7𝑦 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 1
• Subtract the first polynomial from the second polynomial

1. 7𝑎𝑏2 + 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎2 𝑏,
10𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 3𝑎2 𝑏

2. 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 5𝑥𝑦 2 + 3,
11𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
• Subtract the first polynomial from the second polynomial

1. 7𝑎𝑏2 + 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎2 𝑏,
10𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 3𝑎2 𝑏

2. 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 5𝑥𝑦 2 + 3,
11𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
 Operations on
Polynomials
• Multiplication
1. Arrange the terms of both
polynomials in descending
powers of one variable
2. Multiply each term of one
polynomial by all the terms
of the other polynomial.
3. Combine similar terms.
ENITV 12D
Intervention for
Calculus -
Drafting

Section 1
Algebra
Operations on Polynomials
• Division of a polynomial by a monomial
• Divide each term of the polynomial by
applying the rules for signed numbers and the
laws of exponents
Operations on Polynomials
• Division of a polynomial by another polynomial
• Long Division
1. Arrange each polynomial in descending order of
one variable
2. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first
term of the divisor
3. Multiply this quotient to the entire divisor
4. Subtract this quotient from dividend
5. Repeat until the last term of the dividend is used
Operations on Polynomials
• Division of a polynomial by a binomial of the form
𝑎𝑥 − 𝑟
• Synthetic Division
1. Arrange the polynomial in descending order of
one variable
2. Write the coefficients of the polynomial
• Write 0 for missing powers of the variable
3. Divide the first coefficient by 𝑎
4. Multiply this quotient to 𝑟
5. Add this product to the next coefficient
6. Repeat the division, multiplication, and addition
until the constant term
Special Products
1. Product of Two Binomials
• 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑥 +
𝑏𝑑

2. Product of a Sum and a Difference

• 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2

3. Square of a Binomial
• 𝑥 ± 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 ± 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
Special Products
4. Cube of a Binomial
• 𝑥 ± 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 3 ± 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 ± 𝑦 3

5. Product of a Binomial and a Trinomial

• 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3
• 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3

6. Square of a Trinomial
• 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑑
𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
𝑥 ± 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 ± 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 ± 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 3 ± 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 ± 𝑦 3
𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3
𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑑
𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
𝑥 ± 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 ± 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 ± 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 3 ± 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 ± 𝑦 3
𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3
𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧