General Biology

Bio 110

Chapter 8
Animal
Contents:
PART V Microbiology Chapter 6

PART VI Plant Chapter 7

PART VII Animal Chapter 8
PART IX Genetic Basis of Life
a. Cell Cycle and Genetic Disorders Chapter 9
b. Classical Genetics and Modern Chapter 10
Biotechnology
Part VII

Animal
 Part VII a-Tissues and Organization

8.1 There are four types of animal tissues:

1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue
 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues:
 Animals begin life as a single cell, the fertilized egg or zygote.
 The zygote undergoes cell division, and the cells differentiate into a variety
of tissues that go on to become parts of organs.
 Several organs are found in an organ system.
 A tissue is composed of specialized cells of the same type that perform a
common function in the body.
 The tissues of the human body can be categorized into four major types:
 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines body cavities and forms
glands.
 Connective tissue binds and supports body parts.
 Muscular tissue moves the body and its parts.
 Nervous tissue receives stimuli and transmits nerve impulses.
8.1 Types of Animal Tissues

A diagram showing examples of the four major types of animal

tissues in the human body.
https://www.nagwa.com/en/explainers/578126727416/
 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues

a. Epithelial tissue:
 Epithelial tissue consists of tightly
packed cells with a protective function,
but it can also be modified to carry out
secretion, absorption, excretion and
filtration.
 Epithelial cells are exposed to the
environment on one side, but on the
other side they have a basement
internal membrane.
 They may be connected to one another
by three types of junctions composed of
proteins (Figure 8.1).
 The first type; adhesion junctions allow
epithelial cells to stretch and bend as in
the skin (Figure 8.1a).
Figure 8.1 Types of junctions of epithelial cells.
 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
a. Epithelial tissue (continued):
 Regions where proteins join cells
together are called tight junctions.
 In the kidneys, the urine stays within
kidney tubules because epithelial cells
are joined by tight junctions (Figure
8.1b).
 Gap junctions, the third type, are protein
channels that permit the passage of
molecules between two adjacent cells
(Figure 8.1c).

Figure 8.1 Types of junctions of epithelial cells.

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
b. Connective tissue:
 Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue
in complex animals.
 It is quite diverse in structure and function
with three components (Figure 8.2):
 specialized cells (ex., adipose cell)
 protein fibers
 ground substance
 Adipose tissue serves as the body’s energy
reservoir.
 The ground substance is a non-cellular
material that separates the cells and varies in
consistency from solid to semi-fluid to fluid.

Figure 8.2 Components of

connective tissues.
 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
b. Connective tissue (continued): a.

 The protein fibers are of three types:

 Collagen fibers contain collagen; a protein
that gives tissue flexibility and strength.
 Reticular fibers; highly-branched, thin collagen
fibers.
 Elastic fibers contain elastin; a protein that is
not as strong as collagen but is more elastic.
 Connective tissue is classified into three types b.

(Figure 8.3):
c.
I. Fibrous
II. Supportive
III. Fluid

Figure 8.3 Types of connective tissues.

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
b. Connective tissue (continued):
I. Fibrous: connective tissues form a protective
covering enclosing many internal organs, such as
muscles, blood vessels and nerves (Figure 8.3a).

II. Supportive: bones are examples of the most rigid

supportive tissues (Figure 8.3b) and a bone consists
of an extremely hard matrix of inorganic salts; calcium
salts, deposited around protein fibers.
 The inorganic salts give bones rigidity, and the
protein fibers provide elasticity and strength, much
as steel rods do in reinforced concrete.
 A bone consists of cylindrical structural units
called osteons.
 Central canal of each osteon is surrounded by
rings of hard matrix.

Figure 8.3 Types of connective tissues.

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
b. Connective tissue (continued):
 Bone cells are located in a space called lacuna
between the rings of matrix.
 Blood vessels in the central canal carry nutrients
that allow bone to renew itself.
 Small canals of bone cells within canaliculi connect
the cells to each other and to the central canal.

III. Fluid: blood is the fluid connective tissue located in

blood vessels (Figure 8.3c) and consists of formed
elements and plasma.
 The production of blood cells occurs in the red
bone marrow.
 Blood transports nutrients and
oxygen to tissue fluid and removes
CO2 and other wastes.
Figure 8.3 Types of connective tissues ( blood).
 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues

b. Connective tissue- blood- (continued):

 It helps distribute heat and also plays a role in ion and pH balance.
 Red blood cells are small, disk-shaped cells without nuclei.
 The presence of the red pigment hemoglobin makes them red.
 Hemoglobin has a complex iron-containing structure called heme.
 The iron forms an association with oxygen and in this way red blood
cells transport oxygen to different tissues.
 White blood cells are larger than red blood cells.

Figure 8.3 Types of connective tissues ( blood).

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues

 White blood cells have a nucleus that fight infection by engulfing

pathogens or by the production of antibodies, molecules that
combine with foreign substances to inactivate them.
 Platelets are incomplete cells; fragments of giant cells present only
in bone marrow.
 When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets form a plug that seals
the vessel and injured tissues release molecules that help the
clotting process.

Figure 8.3 Types of connective tissues ( blood).

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
c. Muscular tissue (Figure 8.4):
 Muscular (contractile) tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibers.
 They contain actin and myosin filaments, whose interaction accounts
for movement.
 The muscles are also important in the generation of body heat.

Figure 8.4 Muscular tissues.

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
 There are three distinct types of muscle tissue (Figure 8.4) differing in
appearance, physiology and function:
 Skeletal
 Smooth
 Cardiac

Figure 8.4 Muscular tissues.

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
1- Skeletal muscle (Figure 8.4a), also called voluntary muscle, is attached
by tendons to bones of the skeleton and when it contracts, body parts
move.
 Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical and quite long.
 They are developed when several cells fuse, resulting in one fiber with
multiple nuclei.

Figure 8.4 Muscular tissues.

8.1 Types of Animal Tissues

 Nuclei are located at the periphery of cell, just inside plasma

membrane.
 Fibers have alternating light and dark bands to give a striated
appearance.

Figure 8.4 Muscular tissues.

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
2- Smooth (visceral) muscle (Figure 8.4b) is an involuntary muscle
contains spindle-shaped cells lacking striations.
 The cells form layers in which the thick middle portion of one cell is
opposite the thin ends of adjacent cells (Figure 8.4b).
 Smooth muscle are found in the walls of viscera (intestine, stomach
and other internal organs) and blood vessels.
 Smooth muscle contracts more slowly than skeletal muscle but can
remain contracted for a longer time.

Figure 8.4 Muscular tissues.

8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
3- Cardiac muscle (Figure 8.4c) makes up the walls of the heart.
 Its contraction pumps blood and accounts for the heartbeat.
 Cardiac muscle combines features of both smooth muscle and
skeletal muscle.
 Like skeletal muscle, it has striations, but the contraction of the
heart is involuntary, and cells have a single nucleus.

Figure 8.4 Muscular tissues.

8.1 Types of Animal Tissues

 Heart appears to be composed of one large

interconnecting mass of muscle cells, but actually, cells are
separate and individual, but bound end-to-end at
intercalated disks.

Figure 8.4 Muscular tissues.

 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
d. Nervous tissue:
 Nervous tissue contains nerve cells called
neurons. An average person has about 1
trillion neurons.
 A neuron is a specialized cell that has three
parts (Figure 8.5):
 Dendrites
 cell body
 Axon

 A dendrite conducts signals toward cell

body.
 The cell body contains the major
concentration of the cytoplasm and the
nucleus of the neuron.
 An axon conducts nerve impulses.
 Long axons are covered by myelin, a white Figure 8.5 Neurons and neuroglia.
fatty substance.
 8.1 Types of Animal Tissues
d. Nervous tissue (continued):
 The nervous system has three functions:
 sensory input
 data integration
 motor output
 Neuroglia are cells that take up more than
half the volume of the brain with the
primary function of nourishing neurons and
engulfing bacterial and cellular debris.

Figure 8.5 Neurons and neuroglia.

 Part VI b

b. Nutrition and Transport

 8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal

a. Digestion in Animal:
 Not all animals have a digestive tract.
 In some invertebrates, ex., sponges and protozoa, digestion occurs in
food vacuoles.
 In hydras, digestion begins in gastrovascular cavity, but is finished in
food vacuoles.
 The majority of animals (eg., vertebrates) have some sort of gut, or
digestive tract that includes:
1. Ingestion of food
2. Breakage of food down into small molecules that can cross plasma
membranes.
3. Absorption of these nutrient molecules.
4. Elimination of undigestible remains
 8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal
a. Digestion in Animal (continued):
Adaptation to Diet:
 Adaptation for food in animals is classified in
different categories as herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores according to the food.
a. Omnivores; eat both plants and animals.
b. Herbivores only feed on plants.
c. Carnivores only eat other animals.
 Among invertebrates, filter feeders such as
clams and tube worms are omnivores.
 Land snails and some insects, such as
grasshoppers, are herbivores.
 Meat is rich in protein and fat and is easier to
digest than plant material.
 Intestine of a rabbit, an herbivore, is longer
than that of a similarly sized cat, a carnivore.
Figure 8.6 Dentition among mammals.
 8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal
a. Digestion in Animal (continued):
Adaptation to Diet:
 Among mammals, the dentition differs
according to mode of nutrition (Figure
8.6).
 Among herbivores, the horse, feed off
grasses.
 The horse has sharp, even incisors for
clipping off blades of grass and large,
flat premolars and molars for grinding
and crushing the grass (Figure 8.6a).
 Many mammals, including dogs, lions,
toothed whales and dolphins, are
carnivores.
 Lions use canine teeth for killing, short
incisors for scraping bones and molars
for slicing flesh (Figure 8.6b).
Figure 8.6 Dentition among mammals.
 8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal

a. Digestion in Animal (continued):

Adaptation to Diet:
 Humans, as well as raccoons,
rats and brown bears, are
omnivores.
 Therefore, the dentition has a
variety of specializations to
accommodate both vegetable
and meat diets.
 An adult human has 32 teeth.
One-half of each jaw has teeth of
four different types: two chisel-
shaped incisors for shearing; one
canine for tearing; two fairly flat
premolars for grinding; and three
molars, well flattened for crushing Figure 8.6 Dentition among mammals.
(Figure 8.6c).
 8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal

b. Digestive Enzymes:
 The various digestive enzymes present in the digestive juices help
break down carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and fats.
 Starch is a polysaccharide, and its digestion begins in the mouth.
 Saliva from salivary glands has a neutral pH and contains amylase,
the first enzyme to act on starch.

 Maltose cannot be absorbed by the intestine; additional digestive

action in the small intestine converts maltose to glucose, which can
be absorbed.
 Protein digestion begins in the stomach. Gastric juice secreted by
gastric glands has a very low pH —about 2— because it contains
hydrochloric acid (HCl).
 Pepsinogen, a precursor that is converted to pepsin when exposed
to HCl, is also present in gastric juice and acts on protein to produce
peptides.
 8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal

 Peptides are usually too large to be absorbed by the intestinal lining,

but later they are broken down to amino acids in the small intestine.
 Starch, proteins, nucleic acids, and fats are all enzymatically broken
down in the small intestine.
 Pancreatic juice has a basic pH because it contains sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3).
 One pancreatic enzyme, pancreatic amylase, digests starch (Figure
8.7a).

 Another pancreatic enzyme, trypsin, digests protein (Figure 8.7b).

 Maltase and peptidases, enzymes produced by small intestine, complete

digestion of starch to glucose and protein to amino acids, respectively.
8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal

Figure 8.7 Digestion and absorption of nutrients.

8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal

b. Digestive Enzymes
 These small molecules cross into the villi cells and enter the blood
capillary (Figure 8.7a,b).

 Bile salts facilitate Fats digestion by break apart fat globules into
droplets.
 Lipase, a third pancreatic enzyme, digests fat droplets into glycerol
and fatty acids.
 These molecules enter the villi cells, where they are packaged as
lipoprotein droplets, called chylomicrons.
 The latter enter the lymphatic capillary (Figure 8.7c).
8.2 Digestion and Digestive Enzymes in Animal :
 Part VIb

8.3 Human Nutrition

 8.3 Human Nutrition
a. Carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates are present in food in the form of sugars, starch and fiber.
 Fruits, vegetables, milk and honey are natural sources of sugars.
 Glucose and fructose are monosaccharide sugars and lactose (milk sugar)
and sucrose (table sugar) are disaccharides.
 After being absorbed from the digestive tract into the bloodstream, all
sugars are converted to glucose for transport in the blood and use by cells.
 Glucose is the preferred direct energy source in cells.
 Plants store glucose as starch and animals store glucose as glycogen.
 Good sources of starch are cereal grains, beans
and potatoes.
 Except for honey and milk, animal foods do not
contain carbohydrates.
 Fiber includes various undigestible
carbohydrates derived from plants.
 Food sources rich in fiber include beans, nuts,
fruits and vegetables (Figure 8.8). Figure 8.8 Fiber-rich foods.
 8.3 Human Nutrition
a. Carbohydrates (continued):
 Whole-grain products are, also, a good source of fiber and are more
nutritious than food products made from refined grains.
 During refinement, fiber, vitamins and minerals are removed from grains.
 Insoluble fiber helps stimulating movement in the large intestine,
preventing constipation.
 Soluble fiber combines with cholesterol in the small intestine and prevents
them from being absorbed.
 In this way, high-fiber diets may protect against heart disease.
b. Lipids:
 Like carbohydrates, triglycerides (fats and oils) supply energy for cells, but
fat is stored for the long term in the body.
 Nutritionists recommend that we include unsaturated, rather than
saturated, fats in our diets to avoid delayed growth and heart problems.
 Two unsaturated fatty acids (alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids) are
essential in the diet.
 8.3 Human Nutrition
b. Lipids (continued):
 They can be supplied by eating fish and by including plant oils, such as
canola and soybean oils, in the diet.
 Animal-derived foods, such as butter, meat, whole milk and cheeses,
contain saturated fatty acids.
 Cholesterol, a lipid, can be synthesized by the body.
 Cells use cholesterol to make various compounds, including steroid
hormones and vitamin D.
 Plant foods do not contain cholesterol; only animal foods such as cheese,
egg yolks, liver and certain shellfish (shrimp and lobster) are rich in
cholesterol.
 Elevated blood cholesterol levels are associated with an increased risk of
heart disease.
c. Proteins:
 Proteins are digested to amino acids, which cells use to synthesize
hundreds of cellular proteins.
 8.3 Human Nutrition
c. Proteins (continued):
 Of the 20 different amino acids, nine are essential amino acids that must
be present in the diet.
 Children will not grow well if their diets lack the essential amino acids.
 Eggs, milk products, meat, poultry and most other foods derived from
animals contain all nine essential amino acids and are considered
“complete” or “high-quality” protein sources (Figure 8.9).
 Foods derived from plants generally do not have as much protein per
serving as those derived from animals as plant food generally lacks one
or more of the essential amino acids.
 Vegetarians, however, do not have to rely on
animal sources of protein.
 To meet their protein needs, they can eat
grains, beans and nuts in various combinations.
 High-protein diets can increase calcium loss in
the urine and encourage the formation of kidney
stones.
 8.3 Human Nutrition:
d. Vitamins:
 Vitamins are organic compounds abundant in fruits and vegetables that
regulate various metabolic activities and must be present in the diet.
 Many vitamins are part of coenzymes; for example, niacin is a portion of
the coenzyme NAD+ and riboflavin is a part of FAD.
 Not all vitamins are coenzymes; vitamin A, for example, is a precursor for
the pigment that prevents night blindness.
 The body also needs about 20 elements called minerals for various
physiological functions, including regulation of biochemical reactions,
maintenance of fluid balance and incorporation
into certain structures and compounds.
 Adult females need more iron in diet than males.
 Many people take calcium supplements to
counteract bone diseases that especially affect
old men and women.
 Excess sodium can cause water retention and
contribute to hypertension.
Figure 8.10 Vitamin A-rich foods.
 Part VI b

8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and

Transport
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport
a. Respiration and Gas Exchange in Animal:
 Respiration is the sequence of events that results in
gas exchange between body’s cells and
environment.
 In terrestrial (living on earth) vertebrates, respiration
includes these steps (Figure 8.11):
 Ventilation (i.e., breathing) includes inspiration
(entrance of air into the lungs) and expiration
(exit of air from the lungs).
 External respiration is gas exchange between the
air and the blood within the lungs. Blood then
transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
 Internal respiration is gas exchange between the
blood and the tissue fluid. The blood then
transports carbon dioxide to the lungs.
Figure 8.11 External and
 Some animals (invertebrates), such as flatworms, internal respiration.
are small and shaped in a way that allows the
surface of the animal to do the gas-exchange.
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport
a. Respiration and Gas Exchange in Animal:
 Most complex animals (vertebrates) have
specialized external respiration surfaces, such as
gills in aquatic (living in water) animals and lungs in
terrestrial animals.
 Gas exchange takes place by the physical process
of diffusion.
 Effectiveness of diffusion is enhanced by
vascularization (the presence of many capillaries)
and delivery of oxygen to the cells is promoted when
the blood contains a respiratory pigment (oxygen
carrier), such as hemoglobin.
 When gases are delivered to the cells, oxygen
enters mitochondria, where cellular respiration takes
place.
 Without internal respiration, ATP production does not Figure 8.11 External and
internal respiration.
occur and life ceases.
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport

a. Respiration and Gas Exchange in

Animal:
 It is more difficult for animals to obtain
oxygen from water than from air.
 Water, fully saturated with air, contains
only a fraction of the amount of oxygen
that would be present in the same volume
of air.
 Therefore, aquatic animals expend more
energy carrying out gas exchange than do
terrestrial animals.
 Fishes use as much as 25% of their
energy output to respire, while terrestrial
mammals use only 1–2%.
Figure 8.11 External and internal
respiration.
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport
b. Blood Circulation( Circulatory system):
 The circulatory system transports oxygen and nutrients, such as glucose
and amino acids, to different cells.
 Most animals have a circulatory system that serves the needs of their
cells.
 Later, wastes are excreted from the body by the lungs or kidneys.
 Some invertebrates, such as sponges, flatworms and nematodes do not
have a circulatory system.
 Their thin body wall makes a circulatory system unnecessary.
 Each cell is exposed to water and can independently exchange gases and
rid itself of wastes and can pass nutrient molecules to other cells by
diffusion.
 All vertebrate animals have a closed circulatory system, which is called a
cardiovascular system.
 It consists of a strong, muscular heart in which the atria (sing., atrium)
receive blood and the ventricles pump blood through the blood vessels.
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport
b. Blood Circulation (continued):
 There are three kinds of blood vessels:
 arteries, which carry blood away from the heart.
 veins, which return blood to the heart.
 capillaries, which exchange materials with tissue fluid.
 The wall of a vein is much thinner than that of an artery and this may be
associated with a lower blood pressure in the veins.
 Valves within the veins open toward the heart preventing a backflow of
blood.
8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport:

 There are two different types of circulatory pathways among

vertebrate animals as the following:
I. One-Circuit Pathway: Where the heart has a single atrium
and a single ventricle, ex. fish, (Figure 8.12a).
II. Two –Circuit Pathway: Where the heart pumps blood to the
tissues, through a systemic circuit and pumps blood to the
lungs, through a pulmonary circuit.

Figure 8.12 Comparison of circulatory circuits in vertebrates.

8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport

b. Blood Circulation (continued):

1. One-Circuit Pathway:
 Such as fish, the pumping action
of the ventricle sends blood
under pressure to the gills,
where gas exchange occurs.
 Then, blood returns to aorta,
which distributes blood
throughout the body.
 Veins return O2-poor blood to
the atrium.
 The atrium pumps blood back to
the ventricle.

Figure 8.1a One circuit

pathway in the fish
8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport

b. Blood Circulation (continued)

2. Two-Circuit Pathway
 In amphibians, such as frogs, the heart
has two atria and a single ventricle
(Figure 8.12b).
 O2-poor blood returning via the veins is
pumped to the right atrium.
 O2-rich blood returning from the lungs
passes to the left atrium.
 Both of the atria empty into the single
ventricle.
 O2-rich and O2-poor blood are kept
separate because O2-poor blood is
pumped out of the ventricle before O2-
rich blood enters.
 The O2-rich blood is pumped out for
distribution to the body, while O2-poor Figure 8.1b Two circuit
pathway in the frog
blood is delivered to the lungs.
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport

b. Blood Circulation (continued):

2. Two-Circuit Pathway
 In birds and mammals including
humans, the heart is divided into left
and right halves (Figure 8.12c).
 The right ventricle pumps blood to the
lungs and the larger left ventricle
pumps blood to the rest of the body.
 This arrangement provides adequate
blood pressure for both the
pulmonary and systemic circuits.

Figure 8.1c Two circuit

pathway in the bird
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport
c. Blood, a Transport Medium:
 Blood of mammals has numerous functions that help maintain
homeostasis:
 transports gases, nutrients, waste products and hormones
throughout the body.
 helps regulate body temperature and destroy pathogenic
microorganisms by distributing antibodies; important in immunity.
 carries platelets and factors that ensure clotting and prevent
blood loss.
 In humans, blood has two
main portions (Figure
8.13):
 The liquid portion,
called plasma;
containing many types
of molecules, eg.,
nutrients, wastes, salts
and proteins. Figure 8.13 Composition of blood.
8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport:

c. Blood, a Transport Medium:

 the formed elements, consisting of:
1. red blood cells, or erythrocytes
2. white blood cells, or leukocytes
3. Platelets, or thrombocytes
 Red blood cells are small, biconcave disks that lack a nucleus and
contain the respiratory pigment hemoglobin.
 Hemoglobin contains four
globin chains, each
associated with heme;
iron-containing group
carrying oxygen in the
blood.
 After living about 120
days, red blood cells are
destroyed (or engulfed) in
liver and spleen Figure 8.13 Composition of blood.
8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport:-
c. Blood, a Transport Medium:
 When red blood cells are destroyed, hemoglobin is released.
 The iron is recovered and returned to the red bone marrow for
reuse.
 White blood cells are usually larger than red blood cells, have a
nucleus, lack hemoglobin and transparent.
 When microorganisms enter the body due to
an injury, the response is called an
inflammatory reaction because swelling and
reddening occur at the injured site.
 Cells, in the vicinity, release substances that
cause vasodilation (increase in the diameter
of a vessel) and increased capillary
permeability.
 Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary
wall where they phagocytize foreign material.
 Lymphocytes also play an important role in
fighting infection (Figure 8.14). Figure 8.14 B and T cells.
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport:-

c. Blood, a Transport Medium:

 Certain lymphocytes called T cells attack infected cells that contain
viruses.
 Other lymphocytes called B cells produce antibodies (Figure 8.15).
 Each B cell produces just one type of antibody, which is specific for
one type of antigen.
 Platelets (thrombocytes) result from
fragmentation of cells in red bone marrow.
 These formed elements are involved in blood
clotting, or coagulation by releasing a clotting
factor called prothrombin activator that
converts prothrombin to thrombin.

Figure 8.15 Antibodies structure. Figure 8.14 B and T cells.

 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport:-
Capillary Exchange of Nutrients and Wastes:
 Figure 9.16 illustrates capillary exchange between a systemic capillary
and tissue fluid between the body’s cells.
 Blood that enters a capillary at the arterial end is rich in oxygen and
nutrients and is under pressure created by the pumping of the heart.
 Two forces primarily control movement of fluid through capillary wall:
1. osmotic pressure, which tends to cause water to move from tissue
fluid to blood.
2. blood pressure, which tends to cause water to move in the opposite
direction.
 At the arterial end
of a capillary,
blood pressure is
higher than the
osmotic pressure
of blood.
Figure 8.16 Capillary exchange.
8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport:-
Capillary Exchange of Nutrients and Wastes:
 Osmotic pressure is created by the presence of salts and the plasma
proteins.
 Because blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the arterial
end of a capillary, water exits a capillary at this end.
 Midway along the capillary, where blood pressure is lower, the two
forces essentially cancel each other and there is no net movement of
water.
 Solutes now diffuse according to their concentration gradient:
oxygen
nutrients (glucose
and amino acids)
diffuse out of the
capillary; carbon
dioxide and
wastes diffuse
into the capillary. Figure 8.16 Capillary exchange.
 8.4 Respiration, Blood Circulation and Transport:
Capillary Exchange of Nutrients and Wastes:
 At the venule end of a capillary, where blood pressure has fallen even
more, osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure and water tends
to move into the capillary.
 In addition to nutrients and wastes, the blood distributes heat to body
parts.
 When you are warm, many capillaries that serve the skin are open and
your face is flushed.
 This helps rid the body of excess heat.
 When you are
cold, skin
capillaries close,
conserving heat
and your skin
turns blue.

Figure 8.16 Capillary exchange.

 Part Vib

Animal Reproduction
 8.5 Animal Reproduction

 Although the majority of animals reproduce sexually, a few groups of

animals are also capable of asexual reproduction.
 In sexual reproduction, sex cells, or gametes, produced by the
parents unite to form a genetically unique individual.
 In asexual reproduction, a single parent gives rise to offspring that
are identical to the parent, unless mutations have occurred.
a. Sexual Reproduction in Animal:
 Usually during sexual reproduction, the egg of one parent is
fertilized by the sperm of another.
 The majority of animals are Dioecious; having separate sexes,
while a little are Monoecious organisms; having both male and
female sex organs in the same body.
 The latter organisms, such as tapeworms, are capable of self-
fertilization, but the majority, such as earthworms, practice cross-
fertilization.
 In coral reef fishes called wrasses, a male has a harem of several
females. If the male dies, the largest female becomes a male.
 8.5 Animal Reproduction
a. Sexual Reproduction in Animal (con’d):
 Animals usually produce gametes in new
gonad
specialized organs called gonads.
 Hydras produce only temporary gonads in fall,
when sexual reproduction occurs (Figure 8.17).
 Animals in other phyla have permanent
reproductive organs. Figure 8.17 Reproduction in
 The gonads are testes, which produce sperm Hydra.

and ovaries, which produce eggs.

 Eggs or sperm are derived from germ line cells.
 Other cells in a gonad support and nourish the
developing gametes or produce hormones
necessary to the reproductive process.
 Many aquatic animals, some fish species,
practice external fertilization.
 In orange-fin fishes, sperm from male fertilize
Figure 8.18 Reproduction in
eggs from female in the water (Figure 8.18). orange-fin fish.
 8.5 Animal Reproduction:
a. Sexual Reproduction in Animal (con’d):
 Some aquatic worms, namely Palolo, release their eggs in the water
only when the moon moves closer to the Earth and the tides become
somewhat higher than usual.
 They have a biological clock that can sense the passage of time so
that their reproductive behavior is synchronized.
 Hundreds of thousands of Palolo worms rise to the surface of the sea
and release their eggs during a two- to four-hour period on two to
three successive days of the year.
 In terrestrial vertebrates, copulation; sexual union, is the general
method to facilitate the reception of sperm by a female.
 But the case is not the same in birds and flies.
 Ex., in damselflies, the female curls (twists) her abdomen forward
to receive sperm previously deposited in a pocket by the male and
copulation doesn’t occur.
 Most aquatic animals deposit their eggs in the water, where they
undergo development.
 8.5 Animal Reproduction
a. Sexual Reproduction in Animal (con’d):
 Animals that deposit eggs in the external
environment are called oviparous that has a larval
stage, an immature form capable of feeding.
 Some aquatic animals, called ovoviviparous, retain
eggs and release young able to fend for themselves.
 Ex., male sea horse, a vertebrate, has a special
pocket in which the eggs develop (Figure 8.19).
 Usually, reptiles, such as turtles and crocodiles, lay a Figure 8.19 Male sea horse
retains eggs in a pocket.
leathery-shelled egg that contains extraembryonic
membranes to serve the needs of the embryo and
prevent drying out.
 Birds lay and care for hard-shelled eggs with
extraembryonic membranes.
 One membrane surrounds an abundant supply of
yolk, which is a nutrient-rich material.
 The shelled egg is a significant adaptation to the Figure 8.20 A female turtle
lays eggs.
terrestrial environment (Figure 8.20).
 8.5 Animal Reproduction:
a. Sexual Reproduction in Animal (con’d)
 Besides, temperature is a main factor to determine
sex in turtles; 28oC produces males, while 32oC
produces females.
 On the other hand, placental mammals; termed
viviparous, do not lay eggs and development occurs
inside the female’s body until offspring can live
independently.
 Their placenta allows the development of young to Figure 8.19 Male sea horse
retains eggs in a pocket.
internally exchange materials with his/her mother
until they can function on their own.
 Viviparity represents the ultimate in caring, where the
mother continues to supply the nutrient needs of her
offspring after birth.

Figure 8.20 A female turtle

lays eggs.
 8.5 Animal Reproduction
b. Asexual Reproduction in Animal:
 The adaptive advantage of asexual reproduction is that organisms can
reproduce and colonize favorable environments quickly.
 Several types of invertebrates, such as sponges, hydras and flatworms,
can reproduce asexually.
 Sponges produce asexual gonads that develop into new individuals.
 Hydra is dimorphic; has asexually and sexually reproducing stages.
 A new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud) of the parent.
 Some invertebrates, ex., sponges, sea stars and several earthworms and
sandworms, also, have the ability to regenerate from fragments.
 If an individual is chopped up, it has the potential to regenerate into
several new individuals.
 Several types of flatworms, insects and fishes and even some turkeys
have the ability to reproduce parthenogenetically.
 Parthenogenesis is a modification of sexual reproduction in which an
unfertilized egg develops into a complete individual.
8.5 Animal Reproduction
b. Asexual Reproduction in Animal (con’d):
 In honeybee's community (Figure 8.21), the queen bee makes
and stores sperm she uses to selectively fertilize eggs to
recover female workers.
 Fertilized eggs fed royal jelly develop into queens.
 Any unfertilized eggs become haploid males.

Figure 8.21 Honeybees community.

Thank you