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HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Organic comounds are classified into 'families' of compounds
known as homologous series.

Example: Consider the following alkanes.

The molecular mass increases by a fixed amounts as you go up a

series.
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The four alkanes shown here are represented by the general

formula CnH2n+2 .
** Other homologous series are characterized by the presence of a
particular functional group, and this will be shown in the general
formula for the series.
Example: The homologous series known as the alcohols possess
the functional group - OH. These compounds are represented by
the general formula CnH2n+1OH.
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The boiling point increases

Example: with increasing carbon
number. This is because of
the stronger London
dispersion forces between
the molecules as their
molecular size increases.

Other physical properties

that show this trend with
increasing carbon
number are density and
viscosity.
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As they have the same functional group, members of the same

homologous series show similar chemical reactivity.
Example:

* the alcohols have the - OH functional group, which can be

oxidized to form organic acids
* the - COOH functional group, present in homologous series of
the carboxylic acids, is responsible for the acidic properties of
these compounds
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The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole

number ratio of the atoms it contains.
Example:
The empirical formula of ethane, C2H6, is CH3.
The molecular formula of a compound is the actual number of
atoms of each element present in a molecule. It is multiple of the
empirical formula. It is deduced from both the empirical formula
and the molar mass, M. The relationship is;
M = (molar mass of empirical formula)n
where n is an integer.
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Exercise:
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Exercise:
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The structural formula is the representation of the molecule

showing how the atoms are bonded to each other.
Example: Ethane, C2H6
* A full structural formula

* A condensed structural formula

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* A stereochemical formula shows the relative positions of atoms

and groups around carbon in three dimensions.
Example:

* A skeletal formula is the most basic representation of the

structural formula where the carbon and hydrogen atoms are not
shown but the end of each line and each vertex represents a carbon
atom.
Examples:

C3H8
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NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

The IUPAC System
Naming Alkanes (CnH2n+2)
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Alkyl Groups (Substituents) = 'R' Groups

When a H atom gets separated from an alkane, it is called alkyl
group. While naming alkyls, the suffix -ane changes to -yl.
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Naming Branched Alkanes

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* Substituents can also

be - F, - Cl, - Br, - I.

Or
- NH2 (amino)

Example:
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Exercise: Name the following alkanes.

d)
c)
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Alkanes can also form ring structures. We name them by using a

prefix cyclo - . General formula for cycloalkanes is CnH2n.
Example:
_________________

__________________

_________________

_________________
c
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STRUCTURAL ISOMERS
Structural isomers are compounds that have the same molecular
formula but a different structural formula. Each isomer is a
distinct compound, having unique physical and chemical
properties.
Example: C4H10

n-butane
2-methylpropane

Explain the difference in their boiling points.

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Exercise: a) Pentane has 3 different structural isomers. Draw the

structural formulas of these isomers and write the IUPAC name
for each.
b) Arrange the isomers in order of increasing boiling points.
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Exercise: Hexane has 5 different structural isomers. Draw the

structural formulas of these isomers and write the IUPAC name
for each.
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Exercise: Arrange the alkanes in each set in order of increasing

boiling point.
a) Butane, decane and hexane
b) 2-methylheptane, n-octane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane
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FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
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Naming Alkenes (CnH2n)

hex-2-ene

2-methyl-hex-3-ene
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hex-2-ene

Example:
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Alkenes can also form ring structures. We name them by using a

prefix cyclo - . General formula for cycloalkenes is CnH2n-2.
Exercise:

___________ ___________

___________
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Structural Isomers in Alkenes

A different type of structural isomer occurs when carbon-carbon
double bond is found in different positions.
Example: C4H8 has the following straight chain isomers.
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Exercise: Hexene has 3 straight chain isomers. Draw the

structural formulas of these isomers and write the IUPAC name
for each.
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ethanol chloroethane
o
primary alcohol / 1 alcohol primary halogenoalkane

propan-2-ol 2-chloroethane

secondary alcohol / 2o alcohol secondary halogenoalkane

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2-methylpropan-2-ol
2-chloro-2-methylpropane
o
tertiary alcohol / 3 alcohol
tertiary halogenoalkane
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Naming Other Functional Groups

alkyne (CnH2n-2) Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name = Ex.

alcohol (CnH2n+1OH) Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =
Ex.
Can be classified as 1º/2º/3º according to position of O-H group on
carbon skeleton

Ex.
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* As the number of - OH groups within the alcohol increases

polyalcohols form.

OHCH2CH2OH : ethane - 1,2- diol

OHCH2CH2CH2OH : propane -1,3- diol

OHCH2CHOHCH2OH : propane- 1,2,3 - triol (glycerol)

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ether
Functional group =
suffix in IUPAC name =
The smaller, shorter alkyl group becomes the alkoxy substituent.
The larger, longer alkyl group side becomes the alkane base
name.
Ex.

CH3CH2OCH2CH3 ethoxyethane
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aldehyde :
Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =

Ex.

ethanal
propanal
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ketone :
Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =

Ex.

propanone
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carboxylic acid:

Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =

Ex.
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ester:

Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =

Ex.
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Exercise: Name the following esters.

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amide

Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =

Ex.

propanamide
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amine
Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =

Ex.

ethanamine
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nitrile
Functional group =

suffix in IUPAC name =

Ex.

propanenitrile
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arene
Functional group = phenyl

suffix in IUPAC name = - benzene

Ex.

methylbenzene
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FUNCTIONAL GROUP ISOMERISM

Functional group isomers are organic molecules that have
the same molecular formula but different functional groups.
A molecular formula C3H6O could be either an aldehyde or a
ketone.

propanal propanone

Aldehydes and ketones are functional group isomers.

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A molecular formula C3H6O2 could be either a carboxylic acid or an

ester.

methylethanoate
propanoic acid

Carboxylic acids and esters are functional group isomers.

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A molecular formula C2H6O could be either an alcohol or an ether.

ethanol methoxymethane
Alcohols and ethers are functional group isomers.
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Exercises
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PROPERTIES OF BENZENE
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Enthalpy changes for the hydrogenation of benzene and related

molecules (Figure 10.5 in the book).
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TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONAL

GROUPS
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Exercises
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

* Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons because they contain all
single carbon-carbon bonds. The carbon atoms are sp3
hybridized, forming a tetrahedral shape.
* C - C and C - H bonds are strong bonds. Bond enthalpies are
348 kJ mol-1 and 412 kJ mol-1 respectively. Because of this
reason alkanes only react in the presence of a strong source of
energy . This means that they have very low reactivity. As a
result, they are stable under most conditions and can be stored,
transported, and compressed safely.

Two reactions involving alkanes are combustion and substitution.

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Combustion Reactions

Example

Example

Example
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* As the C : H ratio increases with unsaturation, there is an increase in

the smokiness of the flame, due to unburned carbon.
* The products of combustion reactions have serious impact on the
environment. CO2 (g) and H2O (g) are greenhouse gases. They absorb
infrared radiation and so contribute global warming and climate change.
* CO(g) is a toxin because it combines irreversibly with the hemoglobin
in the blood and prevents it from carrying oxygen.
* Unburned carbon is released into the air as particulates, which have a
direct effect on human health, especially the respiratory system. In
addition, these particulates act as catalysts in forming smog in polluted
air and cause global dimming.
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Substitution Reactions: Halogenation

Halogenation reaction occurs when a halogen (Cl2, Br2 ...) takes
place of a hydrogen atom in the alkane.

Example
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The reaction mechanism of halogenation

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Example
The reaction between hexane, C6H14, and bromine water in the
presence of uv light.
The change in colour from brown
to colourless of bromine water
when it reacts with an alkane
occurs only in the presence of uv
light. This reaction is used to
distinguish between alkanes and
alkenes.
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