M.

Ceraolo

Veicoli Elettrici e Ibridi

Azionamenti elettrici
Per una descrizione testuale completa delle macchine elettriche e di tutto il
materiale di queste slides:

M Ceraolo, D. Poli
Fundamentals of Electric Power Engineering, IEEE-Wiley
Capitoli 9÷12

(disponibile anche presso la Biblioteca di Ingegneria)

M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 2

Introduzione agli azionamenti

Azionamenti in corrente continua

Azionamenti asincroni trifase

Azionamenti PMSM

M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 3

 Why we need electric drives

Electric machines have a mechanical characteristic on the T- Ω plane

When machines are fed by constant voltage, constant-frequency sources, these have the following
drawbacks:
• For all machines, operation goes along lines, not in full regions
• for DC and ASMA Low speeds are acceptable only for limited times, since require high currents;
for SMA starting is virtually impossible.
• For ASMAs the useful part of the characteristic (that can be exploited for long times without
overload is between P1 and P2
For comparison: diesel engines have regions (several curves depending on fuel injection), but do not
allow speeds below a minimum.

current

current torque
torque

torque 0

0  0 

Asynchronous Synchronous
 lim  (induction) Machine
Machine - ASMA SMA
DC Machine - DCMA
 Ideal mechanical characteristics (regions)

Whenever we need operation at variable speeds (e.g. for electric cars or traine)we wish:
• To use the available power in large speed ranges: limited only by maximum speed and torque
limits.
• To be able to use less than maximum torque (and power) at any speed.

Below diagrams showing, shaded, these regions

Power
Traction Torqu e

Torque


 base  max max
Braking

Only direct traction

traction and braking

traction and braking in both directions

5
 What an electric drive is

An electric drive is the combination of a power electronic converter and an electric machine to
enhance the performance of the machine alone.
AC
Im f=const f=var
If
U=const U=var T, 
DC/DC + DC-DC M
DC converter converter Supply
source
Um 3
(1) - (2) electronic
converter (PPU)
electric drive
PPU: Power Processing Unit

DC f=var
Im
If U=const U=var T, 
Controlled
M
Controlled + Supply
AC rectifier rectifier 3
Um
source electronic
(1) - (2) converter (PPU)
electric drive

(1): armature electronic converter (2): field electronic converter

Electric drive
based on a three-phase AC machine
Electric drive based on a DC machine (Synchronous or asynchronous)

The converters allow machine supply with controlled voltage on armature and/or excitation to enhance
their performance
Introduzione agli azionamenti

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M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 7

 DC machine presentation

Im
If The DC machine has an excitation winding and an
+ armature winding.
Um In this way we control well its operation, and have
- simple and clean equations that help
field understanding more complicated machines
armature (excitation)
winding

DC machine

In our developments we'll use linked flux Ψf , as produced by supplying current form a DC
𝑈𝑓
source. If we apply 𝑈f to the field winding, the field current 𝐼f = 𝑅𝑓
will flow, causing Ψ𝑓 =
𝐿𝑓 𝐼𝑓 do be produced, where 𝐿𝑓 is a proportionality factor and depends on the machine
construction.
Actually all machines have field and armature sections: the field's produces a field which is
induced in the armature's.
In SM's the field is the rotor, armature in stator; In DC and Induction machines the field parts are
stator and armature the rotor

8
 Electric drives principle of operation:
DC drives
Ia Ra Ia
Equations of a DC machine If
+
+
𝐸 = ΩΨf U Uf
ቊ
𝑇 = 𝐼a Ψf 𝑈 = 𝐸 + 𝑅a 𝐼a - -
+ U E +

The mechanical ideal conversion occurs through E: Uf=RfIf

the power entering it is converted into mechanical power. 𝐸𝐼 = Ω𝑇
𝑇
From the equations above:𝐸𝐼 = ΩΨf × = Ω𝑇
Ψ
f
We can change armature and field voltages at will using converters.
At the maximum performances 𝐼a = 𝐼n . So we can produce the curves in the figures below.
1. Operation at low speeds. Through a converter we keep field voltage at its maximum and U so that 𝑈 = 𝐸 +
𝑅a 𝐼n : torque is at its maximum and mechanical power grows linearly. The vertical distance between U and E is
constant, i.e. equal to 𝑅a 𝐼n . The generated mechanical power is also an increasing straight line

Y
Voltage Power
U=Y+InRa
Y=U/
T=YIn

E
max base max
base
 Electric drives principle of operation:
DC drives
Equations of a DC machine
𝐸 = ΩΨf
ቊ
𝑇 = 𝐼a Ψf 𝑈 = 𝐸 + 𝑅a 𝐼a Ψf  𝐼f

2. Operation switch. When we reach the maximum voltage Umax, due to converter or machine limitation, we
must switch to a different control in which U is constant. The switching speed is called base speed Ω𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 .
3. Operation above 𝛀𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 (flux weakening) The voltage is held constant. In 𝑈 = ΩΨ + 𝑅a 𝐼n we can neglect
voltage drop across 𝑅a , so 𝑈 ≅ ΩΨ and flux reductions causes a voltage increases.
The region below 𝛺𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 is called full-flux region (field voltage is maximum, so is field flux), the other region is
called flux weakening region. If instead of using In we use a different current I<In, we have smaller curves. Since
this can be done continuously, the entire region below maximum curves can be covered.

Im Y
\ If Power
+ Voltage
U=Y+InRa
Um
Y=U/If
T=YIn
-
field
armature (excitation)
winding
max base max
base
DC machine

10
 Implementing a DC drive

𝐸 = ΩΨf Ia
ቊ If
𝑇 = 𝐼a Ψf
DC/DC + DC-DC
DC converter converter
Ua
source
(1) - (2)

A DC drive from a DC
source (above) or an
AC source (below): the
so-called Ward-
Leonard Ia
If
Controlled + Controlled
AC rectifier rectifier
Ua
source
(1) - (2)

(1): armature electronic converter (2): field electronic converter

11
 Not a single curve, a whole region - 1
Ra Ia
𝐸 = ΩΨf
ቊ 𝑈 = 𝐸 + 𝑅a 𝐼a Ψ𝑓 = 𝐿𝑚 𝐼𝑓
𝑇 = 𝐼a Ψf + U E +

I=In 𝐸𝐼 = Ω𝑇
Y
I=In/2 Power
U=Y+IRa
Y=U/
T=YIn

max base max

base

12
 Not a single curve, a whole region - 2
Ra Ia
Power
Traction Torque

Torque
+ U E +
I>0

I<0 
base max max
Braking 𝐸𝐼 = Ω𝑇

Only direct traction traction and braking

Region of possible
operating points

Ia The right figure drive is

If Ua<0 Ua>0
AC. Ia>0 Ia>0
+ +
Uf The shown
Ua
voltage/current signs
would be valid in case it Ua<0 Ua>0
Ia<0
were DC and Uf>0. Ia<0

𝐸 = ΩΨf Note the drive efficiency

ቐ 𝑇 = 𝐼a Ψf map
Ψf = 𝐿m 𝐼f traction and braking in both directions
(four-quadrant operation)
This is AC, but could be easily DC
13
Closed-answer Test TP 1-2
(DC Drives)

14
Introduzione agli azionamenti

Azionamenti in corrente continua

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M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 15

 The ASMA as a transformer

I1 R1 X1 I1-Im X2 R2 I2

+ + Im + + + +
U1 E1tot E1 E2 E2tot U2
Xm
- - - - - -

ideal transformer
more realistic transformer model

I1 R1 X1 I1-Im R2’ X2’ I2’

The
+
transformer
Im + +
referred to
U1 U2’ U2 primary
Xm
- - - winding

16
 Equivalent mechanical load
power and torque analysis Fin qui 16-11-21

Pmg/3
Is Rs Xs
I’r X’r R’ r
′
1 − 𝑠 𝑅r
+ 𝑅r′ + 𝑅r′ =
Ii 𝑠 𝑠
Us 1-s
Xi R’ r s
Ri Ω0 − Ω
- s=
Ω0
stator rotor Mechanical
air-gap
shaft

Stator copper losses: 𝑃l,cs = 3𝑅s 𝐼s2 (Stator) iron losses: 𝑃l,i = 3𝑅i 𝐼𝑖2
𝑅r′ ′2
Rotor copper losses: 𝑃l,cr = 3𝑅′r 𝐼′2r Air-gap power 𝑃ag = 3 𝐼
𝑠 r

Mechanical generated power Mechanical useful power

′
1 − 𝑠 ′2
𝑃𝑟 = 3𝑅𝑟 𝐼
𝑠 𝑟 𝑃mu = 𝑃mg − 𝑃lm
𝑃ag 𝑃mg
Airgap-torque = mechanical generated torque= 𝑇ag = 𝑇mg = =
Ω0 Ω

17
 Finding the torque vs speed curve

I Rs X R’ r I Rs X

+ + + +
Us R’ r 1-s Us R’ r
U1 s U1 s
- - - -

Pmg/3 Pag/3

2
𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 2 𝑅′𝑟 𝑈12 𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 𝑠
𝐼 = 2 𝑃𝑎𝑔 =3 𝐼 =3 =3 2 2
𝑋 + 𝑅 ′2𝑟 Τ𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑋 2 + 𝑅 ′2𝑟 Τ𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑋 + 𝑅′2𝑟

𝑃ag 𝑃mg 3 𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 𝑠

𝑇mg = = = 𝑇𝑚𝑔 𝑠 = 0 = 0 (when Ω = Ω0 )
Ω0 Ω Ω0 𝑠 2 𝑋 2 + 𝑅′2𝑟

𝜕𝑇𝑚𝑔 3𝑈12
=0 ⇒ Ƹ = ±𝑅 ′𝑟 Τ𝑋
𝑠1,2 𝑇෠𝑚𝑔1,2 = 𝑇𝑚𝑔 (𝑠Ƹ1,2 ) = ±
𝜕𝑠 2Ω0 𝑋

18
 Current and torque vs. speed

𝜕𝑇𝑚𝑔 3𝑈12
=0 ⇒ Ƹ = ±𝑅 ′𝑟 Τ𝑋
𝑠1,2 𝑇෠𝑚𝑔1,2 = 𝑇𝑚𝑔 (𝑠Ƹ1,2 ) = ±
𝜕𝑠 2Ω0 𝑋

torque
current I Rs X R’ r I Rs X
P Q
T
+ + Tnom + +
0 Us Inom
R’ r 1-s Us R’ r
U1 s U1 s
generator
- - operation - -
motor operation
Pmg/3 Pag/3

1 0 2

19
 AC drives Principle of operation

torque When feeding at fixed voltage and frequency we

current
have a single curve.
T Moreover, the effective region is only between
Tnom the two peaks (in the range 1-2):
Inom
0
outside, torque reduces, current increases
power factor reduces
motor operation

1 0 2

Using a variable voltage-variable frequency

f=var (through a VSC) we want to have several
U=var T, 
DC M curves, to cover whole regions on the T-W
Supply 3 plane, all in the effective region (between
electronic the peaks)
converter (PPU)
electric drive

20
 Let's look at previous equations
in an newer way
I Rs X

2
𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 2 𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 𝑠
+ + 𝐼 = 2 𝑃𝑎𝑔 =3 𝐼 =3 2 2
𝑋 + 𝑅 ′2𝑟 Τ𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑋 + 𝑅′2𝑟
Us R’ r
U1 s
- - 𝑃ag 𝑃mg 3 𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 𝑠
𝑇mg = = =
Ω0 Ω Ω0 𝑠 2 𝑋 2 + 𝑅′2𝑟
Pag/3

What happens if we use U1 proportional to frequency?

Ω0 − Ω ΔΩ
𝑈1 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐾Ω Ω0 (𝑘Ω = 𝑝 𝐾𝑓 Τ( 2𝜋)) 𝑠= =
Ω0 Ω0
We get:

𝑠 2 𝑈12 𝛥2 Ω ⋅ 𝐾Ω2 ΔΩ ⋅ 𝐾𝛺2

2
𝐼 = 2 2 = 𝑇mg = 3𝑅′𝑟
𝑠 𝑋 + 𝑅′2𝑟 𝑝ΔΩ𝐿 2 + 𝑅′2𝑟 𝑝ΔΩ𝐿 2 + 𝑅′2𝑟

=> At equal ΔΩ torque and current do not depend on Ω0 !

21
 The U/f=const control

𝑠 2 𝑈12 𝛥2 Ω ⋅ 𝐾Ω2 ΔΩ ⋅ 𝐾𝛺2

2
𝐼 = 2 2 = 𝑇𝑚𝑔 = 3𝑅′𝑟
𝑠 𝑋 + 𝑅′2𝑟 𝑝ΔΩ𝐿 2 + 𝑅′2𝑟 𝑝ΔΩ𝐿 2 + 𝑅′2𝑟

=> At equal ΔΩ torque and current do not depend on Ω0 !

=> At equal ΔΩ determines the torque for

every Ω0 .
Therefore, changing the supply frequency while
torque
keeping 𝑈1 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐾Ω Ω0 just translates the
torque curves.

This is called the U/f=constant control.

More sophisticated control techniques exist,

 01  02  03  04  05 but this well illustrates the principle of all of
them

22
 Interpreting U/f=constant control

I Rs X
Seen from its terminals the machine has
+ + three windings, which must obey Faraday's
Us R’ r law that for a single winding is:
U1 s
𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝑖
- - 𝑈 = 𝑅𝑖 + = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Pag/3 𝑈 = 𝑅𝐼 + 𝑗𝜔𝜓 𝑈1 = 𝑗𝜔𝜓 ⇒
𝑈1 = 𝑘𝑓 ⇒ 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑈1 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐾Ω Ω0

U/f=constrant mans constant flux

M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 23

 Controlling from the terminal voltage

I Rs X
𝑈1 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐾Ω Ω0
+ +
Us R’ r 𝑈s = 𝑈1 + 𝑅𝐼 This is a phasor equation
U1 s
- -

Pag/3

It the power factor is large, and therefore

current is nearly in phase with voltages, we can
U1 Us=U1+RI substitute the phaseor equation with an
algerbaric' one:
I
𝑈𝑠 ≅ 𝑈1 + 𝑅𝐼

This is acceptable, and usually done with U/f=const drives, because they make the
machine operating in the effective zone, where the power factor is rather high

24
 Choosing the frequency
to get wanted torque - principle

Consider the motion equation:

wanted
torque 𝑇𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝑇𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝐽Ωሶ
J
Adding the drag torque to the
0
accelerating, we know the
Tdrag wanted torque Tgen.
From the algebraic machine
curve I determine Ω0 , which in
0 turn determines frequency and
voltage.

f=var I apply that frequency and

U=var T, 
DC M voltage through the VSC
Supply 3
electronic
converter (PPU)
electric drive

25
 Choosing the frequency
to get wanted torque - implementation

f*
ˆ
  0max
T*  0 p U*
+ U=kf*+RsI*
+ 2 control
 0max logic
I*
Saturation  meas

I*0=f()

 meas
DC inverter f=var
U=const U=var T,  control
M mechanical interface
Supply
3 load to the
physical
f* U* system
tachometer

26
 Practice:
comparing machine starting -1

Voltages/V

Currents/A

Torques/(Nm)

Constant voltage and frequency supply Supply U1=Kf f; =const 27

 Practice:
comparing machine starting -1

Voltages/V

You can reproduce curves

very similar to these using
the supplied file (next slide)
Currents/A

Torques/(Nm)

Constant voltage and frequency supply Supply U1=Kf f; =const 28

An example:
comparing machine starting -2

File: TP2 13 May.mo; model TP2.TP2_1.Practice1

29
 Flux weakening and base
When speed increases, voltage increases.

Sooner or later we reach the machine or PPU limit (we saw VSC limits in the previous lessons)

When this limit is reached, we can still raise frequency, but keeping voltage constant. This causes the
curves to decrease fast (proportional to the square of frequency)

3 𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 𝑠 3 𝑈12 𝑅′𝑟 ΔΩ

𝑇𝑚𝑔 = =
Ω0 𝑠 2 𝑋 2 + 𝑅′2𝑟 Ω20 Δ2 Ω𝐿2 𝑝2 + 𝑅′2𝑟
T, P
Pmax P Max power above base speed
reduces with frequency
2𝜋𝑓 = 𝑝Ω0 )
So, asynchronous machines have
Tdrag limited flux-weakening capability

0 base 

30
Closed-answer Test TP 2-1
(Asynchronous drives)

31
Introduzione agli azionamenti

Azionamenti in corrente continua

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Azionamenti PMSM

M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 32

 SM Behn Escemburg model

Xs Rs I Er
+ jXs I

+ E
r U  U

-
I

To analyse drives we neclect resistance:

Xs I Er
+ jXs I

+ U
Er  U
- 
I

33
 SM generator and motor sign convention

Xs I Er
+ jXs I
Generator convention (current
+ U assumed exiting from the
Er  U
assumed positive pin)
- 
I

I Xs
U
+ I
jXs I
Motor convention (current
U Er + assumed entering the assumed
 positive pin)
-  Er

Pmech /3

34
 Reminder
from Synchronous machine's theory

P,T P,T
𝐸𝑈
𝑃=3 sin 𝛽
𝑋


 0

Torque and power depend on angle displacement, not on speed.

Then the machine is fed by the network, having constant frequency, the speed is also perfectly
constant:
2𝜋𝑓 = 𝜔 = 𝑝Ω

To operate the machine at variable speed, we need to feed it by a converter, typically a VSC.

35
 Rotor constitution
The large majority of synchronous drives use Permanent Magnet Rotors.
Permanent magnets produce field similarly to rotor winding in conventional SMs.
Main differences:
• No possibility to control the flux
• No rotor losses.
Synchronous drives based on PM motors are often called Brushless motors

Simple examples of rotor constitution

q q
quadrature
axis q

d d

direct
axis d

interior PMs surface PMs surface PMs

(anisotropic) anisotropic isotropic

36
 Rotor constitution

I Xs The majority of Synchronous

U drives are based on
+ jXs I permanent magnet in the
I
U + rotor:
Er
 We'll assume this:
-  Er 𝐸𝑟 = 𝑗𝜔𝑘Φ𝑃𝑀 = 𝑗𝜔Ψ𝑃𝑀
= 𝜔Ψ𝑃𝑀
Pmech /3

Simple examples of rotor constitution

q q
quadrature
axis q

d d

direct
axis d

interior PMs surface PMs surface PMs

(anisotropic) anisotropic isotropic

37
 Direct and quadrature axes

 
quadrature q
axis q

direct
axis d

interior PMs surface PMs

(anisotropic) isotropic

By convention (nearly everyone agrees on this):

• the direct axis is in the direction of field exiting radially the stator and entering the air gap
(in these examples, but not always, it is the PM South-North pole direction)
• the quadrature axis leads the direct axis by 90° electrical

Remember that
𝜃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 = 𝑝𝜃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ

38
 The MTPA rule
I Xs
U
+ 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 3𝑈𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
jXs I
I = 3𝐸𝑟 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾
U Er +

-  Er

Pmech /3 Pmech /3

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ ΤΩ = 3𝜔Ψ𝑃𝑀 𝐼 cos 𝛾 ΤΩ = 3𝑝Ψ𝑃𝑀 𝐼 cos 𝛾

When we feed the machine through a PPU, we can choose voltage and frequency. To have the same
torque we can choose a combination of current I and angle 𝛾.
We choose the MTPA (maximum Torque per Ampere rule, which implies cos 𝛾=1, 𝛾=0

f=var
U=var T, 
DC M
Supply 3
electronic
converter (PPU)
electric drive

39
 Phasor diagram with MTPA (isotropic)

U’
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 3𝑝Ψ𝑃𝑀 𝐼 cos 𝛾
U
’>
j ’LsI Fin qui 23-11-21
j LsI
j Y
q-axis
d-axis I j ’Y

As long as speed increases, we increase the frequency supply, paying attention to the stator field
position: it must always be in quadrature with rotor's:

• The phasor diagram shows also direct and quadrature axes: d is directed as the field produced by
PM, q is 90° leading q
• Voltages lead their fluxes by 90° so does 𝐸_𝑟 = 𝑗𝜔ΨPM
• The rotor field is aligned with current I (Galileo Ferrari' s theorem)
• The PM field is on the direct axis; its EMF is rotated counter-clockwise by 90 degs
• Angle gamma between current and 𝐸_𝑟 is zero

40
 Flux weakening (isotropic) - 1

U’
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 3𝑝Ψ𝑃𝑀 𝐼 cos 𝛾
U
’>
j ’LsI

j LsI But voltage cannot increase

j Y
forever. Sooner or later we reach
q-axis machine or PPU limitation, and we
d-axis I j ’Y must continue with constant
voltage.
U/b
U/1 To understand the phasor diagram
U/2 under these conditions, better to
divide all sides by 𝜔 The lengths of
the two legs (catheti) remain
unchanged
I3
jLsI
I2 Below 𝜔2 the machine absorbs
U/3 reactive power, above delivers this
I1 q-axis kind of power to the outside
network.
I jY
d-axis
41
 Id and Iq

U/b
U/1
U/2

I jLsI

-Id U/3
q-axis

jY
d-axis Iq

The stator current I has components on d and q axis:

• Id creates a flux aligned with d axis: a positive value adds flux to PM's and vice versa
• Iq creates a flux aligned to the q axis: on isotropic machines it is the only component that generates
torque
• Iq is always positive/negative for motor/generator
• Id is never positive: for isotropic machines its unique role is to contrast PM flux at slighter speed than
base's
• Id in case of anisotropic machines is non-zero also below base speed: it contributes to generating
torques in the MTPA logic

42
 Torques analysed through stator and rotor poles

F1 q S
S N Flux due to
S stator currents
N N
F2

d
 S N N S

gamma=0 gamma=90°
Id=0, Iq>0 Id<0, Iq=0

The magnet visualization of magnetic fields helps understanding

relationships: I
• When Iq>0 a motive torque is generated; both the forces F1(pushes) and
F2 (pulls) draw rotor in the direction of motion -Id
q-axis
• When Iq=0 and Id<0, no torque is generated, since the straight line on
which the force acts passes through the centre of rotation (torque=force
d-axis Iq
x distance and here distance=0) and the effects of stator flux is to de-
magnetize PM (flux weakening)

• For anisotropic machines the situation is just a bit more complex

43
 Flux weakening (isotropic) - 2

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 3𝑝Ψ𝑃𝑀 𝐼 cos 𝛾 𝑃 = 3𝜔Ψ𝑃𝑀 𝐼 cos 𝛾 = 𝑈𝐼 cos 𝜑

1.5

P/(3UmaxIn)
1.2  (rad)
T/Tmax
0.9
U
0.6 Umax
0.3

0.0
0 1 2 pk 3 4 5
/ b
6

Up to the base speed 𝛾 angle is zero, the maximum torque constant and we have MTPA. Stator and rotor
fields are orthogonal
Above the base speed, part of the stator field must be used to contrast PM's: we do flux-weakening. The
curves of P and T here are when current is 𝐼𝑛 ; with smaller currents, we have lower curves in proportion.
At 𝜔𝑝𝑘 voltage and current are orthogonal, and therefore 𝑃 = 3𝑈𝐼.
Below 𝜔𝑝𝑘 the machine absorbs reactive power, above delivers this kind of power to the outside
network.
44
 Different designs (isotropic)

Torque (own scale)

Ψ𝑃𝑀 = 1.5 𝐿𝑑 𝐼𝑛 Voltage (PU Ψ𝑃𝑀 = 2.5 𝐿𝑑 𝐼𝑛
Power (PU) gamma

The shape of the curves depends strongly on the ration of 𝐿𝑠 and Ψ𝑃𝑀 If the latter is too strong,
large part of current at high speeds is required to counteract it to keep terminal voltage under
control.
In the right case the PM is strong in comparison with the weakening capability of the stator, and at
𝜔 = 1.70𝜔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 all the current is to be used to compensate the PM flux to keep terminal voltage
under control, and no current remains available to generate torque!
The right design is often used outside automotive, because gives larger torque at equal current.

45
 Anisotropic design

For the stator's field to traverse the rotor, the space where
quadrature permanent magnets reside act as air.
axis q
Therefore the magnetic circuit has more air on the direct axis
than in the interpole s (quadrature axis).
direct The analysis is more complicated, but the resulting curves
axis d are similar.
It is noticeable that the MTPA angle (below 𝛾) is larger than
zero.
interior PMs (anisotropic)
Torque (own scale)
Voltage (PU
Power (PU) gamma

𝐿q
= 2.75
𝐿d
Ψ𝑃𝑀 = 1.5 𝐿𝑑 𝐼𝑛

46
Closed-answer Test TP 2-2
(Synchronous drives)

47
Simulating a PM Synchronous machine
at variable speed

File: TP2 13 May.mo; model TP2.TP2_2.Practice1

48
Simulating a PM Synchronous machine
at variable speed

Simulation as supplied
The machine torque
follows rather closely
the request converted
into Iq
At the higher speeds
we overcome the
voltage limit (100 V
rms), but we have
current margin
(limit=100 A rms)
We can de-flux at the
higher speeds through
Id
(next slide and try-
yourself!)

49
Simulating a PM Synchronous machine
at variable speed

With some Id we
reduced voltage, while
increasing current

Both voltage and

current are now within
limits.

Try yourself other

combinations"
1) Change Id profile
2) reduce load torque
and repeat starting
with Id=0 and then
changing it as needed

50
 U/f means constant flux

I Rs X
Seen from its terminals the machine has three
+ + windings, which must obey Faraday's law that
R’ r for a single winding is:
Us U1 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝑖
s
𝑈 = 𝑅𝑖 + = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿
- - 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑈 = 𝑅𝐼 + 𝑗𝜔𝜓 𝑈1 = 𝑗𝜔𝜓 ⇒
Pag/3 𝑈1 = 𝑘𝑓 ⇒ 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑈1 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐾Ω Ω0

I: Before 𝜔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 constant flux

II: After 𝜔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 constant voltage
The same we had for DC!

M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 51

 All drives (1)

Y
Voltage Power DC
U=Y+InRa
Y=U/
T=YIn I: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 Ψ (E ≡ Ω)
II: const 𝑈 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐸
E Ψ reduces with Ω
max base max
base
T, P
Pmax P
Asynch
I: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 Ψ (𝑈1 ≡ Ω)
II: const 𝑈1 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑈 Tdrag
Ψ reduces with Ω
1.5
0 base 
P/(3UmaxIn)
1.2  (rad)
T/Tmax
0.9
PMSM
U
0.6 Umax I: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 Ψ (𝐸 ≡ Ω)
0.3
II: const 𝑈 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐸
Ψ reduces with Ω (Through 𝐼𝑑 )
0.0
0 1 2 pk 3 4 5
/ b
6

M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 52

 All drives (2)

Below 𝜔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 Above 𝜔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 Ψ (E ≡ Ω) const 𝑈 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐸 We control flux, thus E, through DC
Ψ ≡ 1/ Ω the excitation winding

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 Ψ (𝑈1 ≡ Ω) const 𝑈1 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑈 We control flux through U, thus E Asynch

Ψ ≡ 1/ Ω
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 Ψ (𝐸 ≡ Ω) const 𝑈 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐸 We control flux through 𝐼𝑑 PMSM
Ψ ≡ 1/ Ω

Yr In all cases torque can be imagined to be equal due to the

product of stator times rotor fluxes, times the sine of the angle
between:
𝑇 = 𝑘Ψ𝑠 Ψ𝑟 sin 𝛽

Ys The above flux is the total flux, the vector composition of stator
and rotor fluxes

M. Ceraolo - VEI - Power Electronics 53

 M. Ceraolo

Veicoli Elettrici e Ibridi

Azionamenti elettrici