Module 3

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

This module discusses how development is affected by various prenatal factors. It explains the
amazing abilities of newborns, the early appearance of a basic emotional setup, the surprising growth of
mental abilities, and the different factors influencing social development.

Objectives:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Describe the events that occur from conception to birth;

2. Describe the progress of physical growth from birth onwards;
3. Discuss the cognitive and perceptual capacities of the child and the course of development
as presented by Piaget's Cognitive Development;
4. Describe the social influences on development as imparted by Erickson's Psychosocial
Development; and,
5. Outline and describe psychosexual, psychosocial and cognitive development.

Introduction:
An individual, at any given stage of development, is a product of interaction between heredity and
the environment. A human being is never static from conception to death; changes are constantly taking
place in physical and psychological capacities. A maturing organism undergoes continued and progressive
changes in response to experimental conditions and these result in a complex network of interaction.

Definition of Terms

Development. A progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience.
It implies qualitative changes.

Growth. It means a continuous and additive process and implies quantitative changes.

Maturation. It refers to the process of change of an individual which occurs primarily as a function
of aging or time. It excludes effects of practice and experience.

A. Basic Principles of Growth and Development

From numerous studies conducted on growth and development, developmental psychologists have
established some basic principles of developmental change that occur over the life cycle.

1. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.

The first basic principle relates to an orderly sequence of developmental change. The
developmental process, guided by the interaction of maturation and learning, follows a predictable
pattern. It is a continuous process that proceeds according to a definite direction and uniform pattern
throughout the life cycle.

2. The rate of development is unique to each individual.

Although developmental changes follow a predictable pattern, the rate at which changes may
occur may be different from one individual to another. Such differences in rate of change are
determined by the interaction of heredity and the environment.

3. Development involves change:

It implies that a human being is always evolving based on the theories of developmental
psychologists. These changes that children undergo deal with physical, emotional and mental
aspects.
 4. Early development is more critical than later development
The principle gives importance to the formative years of children. It is during this period that
individuals develop foundations for social relatedness, emotional well-being, and personal
adjustments.

5. Development is the product of maturation and learning

Although people are genetically endowed with certain characteristics, learning allows
individuals to develop these innate potentialities. Through exercise and effort, people can act on
their environments and develop competencies.

6. There are individual differences in development

All children do not reach the developmental stages all at the same time or all at the same
age. These differences in development are often attributed to both genetic and environmental
influences.

B. Prenatal Influences

The nature-nurture question asks how much nature (genetic factors) and how much nurture
(environmental factors) contribute to a person's biological, emotional, cognitive, personal, and social
development.

All babies are born with a kind of pre-arranged pattern as a result of a process of transmission of
genetic characteristics from the parent to the offspring called heredity. This determines many specific
characteristics, especially those that affect development. This biological pattern is made up of elements
that come from both parents and are transmitted directly from them to their offspring.

Another factor that contributes to a person's behavior, growth and development is environment. The
external environment includes all the conditions outside an organism that in any way influences life
processes except genes. The external environment can be classified into two - physical and social.

The external physical environment is made up of all the many things in the world that affect us
directly (as food does) and all the things that stimulate our sense organs (as sights and sounds do). Social
environment includes all the human beings who influence us. Some people influence us by direct, daily
contact - our families, friends, classmates. Other people have as much or more influence through indirect
contact - over radio and television, in books and other publications, and in many other ways, such as in our
imagination, memory and daydreams.

Nature-Nurture?

"Minds inhabit environments which act on them and on which they react."
-William James-

People are not, and cannot, be equal in development, because they are biologically unequal
to begin with, and the resulting interplay with environmental forces makes for still greater
differentiation (Hildreth, 1992).

As unique persons, each of us is a result of the interaction of our heredity and our social
environment. Even in the case of individuals who have some genes in common or similar social
environments, the interaction produces wide variations between them. Siblings, who have both
similar environments and some genes in common, also show these wide variations. These pro one
thing - that no two individuals are exactly alike.
 Newborns' Abilities

Human infants are born with a surprising number of sensory and motor abilities, such as
hearing, grasping, suckling. How these abilities develop is explained by an inherited genetic
program.

Conception results in a fertilized human egg, which contains a genetic developmental

program. The mother contributes 23 chromosomes and the father contributes 23, so that each child
receives a unique genetic program.

Sensory Development

During the nine months of development in the womb, the genetic program is guiding the
development of a number of motor and sensory functions that are important for the newborn's
survival. For example, each newborn is equipped with a suckling reflex to ensure getting food and a
very loud cry to demand attention. Here's a summary of a newborn's sensory and perceptual abilities:

Sight. At 1 month, an infant can distinguish his or her mother's face from that of a
stranger's, provided the infant also hears the mother's voice. By 3 months, an infant
can visually distinguish his or her mother's face from a stranger's (Burnham, 1993).
By 3 to 4 years, an infant's visual abilities are equal to those of an adult’s.

Hearing. One-month-old infants have very keen hearing and can discriminate small
sound variations, such as the difference between bah and pah. By 6 months, infants
have developed the ability to make all the sounds that are necessary to learn in which
they are raised (Bower, 1994).

Touch. Newborns also have a well-developed sense of touch and will turn their head
when lightly touched on the cheek (rooting reflex). Touch will also elicit a number of
reflexes, such as grasping and suckling.

Smell and Taste. Researchers found that 1-day-old infants could discriminate between
a citrus odor and a floral odor (Sullivan, 1991). Six-week-old infants can smell the
difference between their mother and a stranger. Newborns have an inborn preference
for both sweet and salt and an infant dislikes bitter tasting things.

Depth Perception. By the age of 6 months, infants have developed depth perception,
which was tested by observing whether they would crawl off a visual "cliff."

Take note!

Although the genetic program is largely responsible for the early appearance of these sensory abilities,
environmental stimulation, such as parental touch and play, encourages the infant to use and further
develop these sensory abilities.

-Shatz, 1997-

Motor Development refers to the stages of motor skills that all infants pass through as they acquire
the muscular control necessary for making coordinated movements. Because each child has a unique genetic
program, he or she will acquire motor skills at different times. The development of early motor skills follows
two general rules, called the proximodistal and cephalocaudal principles
 1. The proximodistal principle states that parts closer to the center of the infant's body
(proximo in Latin means "near") develop before parts farther away (distal in Latin means
"far"). Example, infants can roll over before they can walk or bring their arms together to
grasp a bottle.

2 The cephalocaudal principle states that parts of the body closer to the head ( cephalo in
Greek means "head") develop before the parts closer to the feet ( caudal in Greek means "tail").
For example, infants can lift their heads before they can control their legs to crawl.

3 The cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles, which regulate the sequence for
developing early motor skills, are part of a process known as maturation. Maturation refers
to development changes that are genetically or biologically programmed rather than acquired
through learning or life experiences.

Emotional Development

Emotional development results from our biological capacity to produce emotional expressions
(nature) which interact with the positive or negative feedback (nurture) we receive in attempting to
maintain or change our environment. For example, researchers found that newborns have a limited
emotional capacity to change their environment because their repertoire of emotional expressions
includes only interest, startle, distress, disgust, and neonatal smile. Over the next two years, infants
develop a wide range of emotional expressions and feelings, including social smiling (age 4-6 weeks):
anger, surprise, and sadness (age 3-4 months): fear (age 5-7 months); shame and shyness (age 6-8
months); and contempt and guilt (age 24 months). As children acquire more of these specific
emotions, they also acquire a greater capacity to maintain or change their environments.

A child's emotional development also interacts with his or her basic temperament.
Temperament refers to individual differences in attention, arousal, and reactivity to new or novel
situations. These differences appear early, are relatively stable and long-lasting, and are influenced
in large part by genetic factors. For instance, a child whose temperament includes being fearful,
distressed and easily aroused, will show greater emotional intensity than a child with an opposite
temperament (Saarni et al., 1998). In turn, the intensity of an infant's emotional reactions influences
the bond, or attachment, between parent and child. (see figure 1)

Emotional
Development Emotional Attachment between
Intensity Parent & Child
Temperament

Figure 1. Interaction in Emotional Development

Attachment refers to close fundamental emotional bonds that develop between the infant and his or
her parents or caregiver.

How Does Attachment Occur?

Attachment is a gradual process that begins shortly after birth and continues through infancy.

Child Parent
Crying Care and Sympathy
Good
Social Smiling Joy and Pleasure Parent-Child
Attachment
Happy Greetings Delight and Satisfaction
 As the infant develops closer attachment to his or her parents, he or she also shows more
distress when parents leave. This is called separation anxiety. Separation anxiety is an infant's
distress as indicated by loud protests, crying, and agitation - whenever the infant's parents
temporarily leave.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains an understanding
of his or her world through the interaction and influence of genetic and learned factors

For example, if you gave some blocks to Sam, who is 6 months old he would surely put one
into his mouth. If you gave some blocks to Sam when he was 2 years old, he might stack them. If
you gave Sam blocks when he was an adolescent, he might throw them. From these examples, you
can see that what Sam does with blocks depends on how he perceives and thinks about them, which
in turn depends upon his cognitive development.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Formal

Piaget's cognitive stages refer to four different stages, each of which is more advanced than the preceding
stage because it involves new reasoning and thinking abilities

During the sensorimotor stage (from birth to about age 2), infants interact with
Sensorimotor
and learn about their environments by relating their sensory experiences (such as
hearing and seeing) to their motor actions (mouthing and grasping). This stage is
STAGE 1
marked by the child's lack of ability to use images, language, and symbols. Things
not immediately present are not within the child's awareness until the development of
object permanence, the awareness that objects continue to exist even if they can no longer be heard, touched,
or seen.

Preoperational During the preoperational stage (from 2 to 7 years old), children learn to use
symbols, such as words or mental images, to solve simple problems, and to think
STAGE 2 or talk about things that are present. This stage is marked by egocentric thought
in which the world is viewed from the child's perspective. The principle of
conservation, which states that quantity is unrelated to appearance, is not understood
during this period.

During the concrete operations stage (from about 7 to 11 years), children can perform
Concrete
a number of logical operations on concrete objects (ones that are physically present).
Its beginning is marked by the mastery of the principle of conservation. They learn to
STAGE 3
understand reversibility, or the capacity of things to be reverted to a previous state.
Aside from the mastery of conservation, they also get better at classification (ability to figure out
relationships between objects provided the objects are actually physically present or "concrete").

Formal During the formal operations stage (from about 12 years old through adulthood),
adolescents and adults develop the ability to think about, and solve, abstract problems
STAGE 4 in a logical manner.
Once adolescents reach this stage, they encounter exciting new worlds of
abstract ideas and hypothetical concepts. The cognitive skills associated with this stage are the very ones
that you will need to do well in college.
 Social Development

Social development refers to how a person develops a sense of self or self-identity, develops
relationships with others, and develops the kind of social skills important in personal interactions.

There are two different theories of social development, each of which emphasizes a different
aspect of behavior.

FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

1. Oral Stage 2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage
0-1 1/2 years 1 1/2 - 3 years 3-6 years 6 - 18 years Above 18 yrs.
Early Infancy Late Infancy Early Childhood Middle & Late Puberty to
Childhood Adulthood

Pleasure-seeking Pleasure-seeking Pleasure-seeking is Child represses Individual renews

is centered on the is centered on the centered on sexual thoughts sexual desires that
mouth anus and the its genitals and engages in seeks to fulfill
functions of nonsexual through
elimination activities relationships with
opposite sex

The psychosexual stages are five development periods during which the individual seeks pleasure
from different areas of the body that are associated with sexual feelings.

The first period of development is the oral stage. This suggested to Freud that the mouth is the
primary site of sexual pleasure and if infants are overindulged or frustrated, they can become fixated.
Fixation means that an adult shows personality characteristic that are related to the stage. According to
Freud, infants learn about their environment by such activities involving the mouth.

The major source of pleasure moves to the anal region during the anal stage. The child derives
pleasure from the retention and expulsion of feces. If toilet training is particularly demanding, fixation can
occur. Fixation can lead to unusual rigidity and orderliness or the extreme opposite of disorder or
sloppiness.

At age 3, the phallic stage begins and the source of pleasure moves on to the genitals. The Oedipal
complex develops at this time. The differences between males and females become a concern, and the male
begins to see his father as a rival for his mother. The fear of retaliation causes the development of castration
anxiety. In the end, the child represses his desires for his mother and chooses to identify with the father.
For girls, the pattern is different. They develop an attachment to their fathers known as the Electra complex

The next period, latency stage, is characterized by repression of sexual concerns, making it latent.
The child is preoccupied with nonsexual activities, such as developing social and intellectual skills. His
energies are now absorbed by such concerns as school learning, peer relations, sports and other recreational
activities. The latency years are described as a relatively calm and stable period.

At puberty, in the genital stage, sexual maturity emerges. During this stage, many of the Oedipal
feelings are reactivated and directed toward other persons of the opposite sex. Provided that strong fixations
at earlier stages have not taken place, dependence on parents is overcome and the young person is on the
way to establishing a satisfying life of his own.
 ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES

Period Stages Discussion

Feelings of trust are built on basic physiological and

Early Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust
psychological needs.
(0-1 year old)
Development of Independence in exploration and freedom am
Late Infancy (1- Autonomy vs. Shame
encouraged or shame if they are not.
3 years old) and Doubt
Early Child experiences conflict between independence of action and
Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt sometimes negative results of that action.
(3-5 years old)
Middle & Late Child develops positive social interactions with others or may
Industry vs.
Childhood feel inadequate and become less sociable.
Inferiority
(5-12 years old)
Individual seeks to discover his abilities, skills, limits, and
identity If unsuccessful, he will experience identity confusion,
Adolescence Identity vs. Role
which results in his low self-esteem and becoming unstable or
(12-20 years Confusion
socially withdrawn.

Time for developing loving and meaningful relationships. On

Young
the negative side, without intimacy, a painful feeling of
Adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation
isolation will result and relationships will be impersonal.
(20-40 years)
The contribution to family, community, work, and society
Middle
Generativity vs comprise generativity, and feelings of triviality about one's
Adulthood
Stagnation activities indicate the difficulties and lead to stagnation
(40-65 years)
Time for reflecting on and reviewing how we met previous
Late Adulthood
Integrity vs. Despair challenges and lived our lives
(65 and older)

The psychosocial stages are eight developmental periods during which an individual's primary goal
is to satisfy desires associated with social needs. Erikson hypothesized that from infancy through adulthood
we proceed through these stages, each of which is related to different problems that need to be resolved. If
we successfully deal with the potential problem of each stage, we develop positive personality traits and
are better able to solve the problem at the next stage.
However, if we do not successfully handle the psychosocial problems, we may become anxious,
worried, troubled and develop social and personality problems.

References:

Plotnik, Rod. Introduction to Psychology. 5th ed., Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999.
Sdorow, Lester M. Psychology. 3rd ed., Radison: Brown & Rechmark, 1990.
Sevilla, Consuelo G., et al. General Psychology with Values Development Lessons, 3rd ed. Manila: Rex
Bookstore Inc., 1998.
Sternberg, Robert J. Introduction to Psychology. Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace, 1997.