Research Methods - Chapter 6-8 - Short

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CHAPTER 6: PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA
CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics
6.1. Definition
 The data, after collection, has to be processed and
COURSE DESCRIPTION
analyzed in accordance with the research plan.

 This is essential for a scientific study and for
ensuring that we have all relevant data for making
contemplated comparisons and analysis.
 Technically speaking, data processing implies:
 Editing,
 Coding,
 Classification and tabulation
 Analysis (some authors classified as part of the data
AgEc processing like Selltiz, Jahoda and others)
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 The term analysis refers to: 6.2.Data Processing Operations

The major data processing operations are: -

 Computation of certain measures
A) Editing:
 Searching for patterns of relationship that exist
 Editing of data is a process of examining the
among data-groups. collected raw data (especially in surveys) to
 Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or detect errors and omissions and to correct
these then possible.
differences supporting or conflicting with original
or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical  As matter of fact, editing involves:
tests of significance to determine with what validity  Careful scrutiny of the complicated questionnaires
and/or schedules.
data can be said to indicate any conclusions
 Checking data accuracy, consistency with other
facts gathered, uniformity in entry, completeness,
arrangement to facilitate coding and tabulation
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Stages of editing: -  Central editing:

 Field Editing:
 It is review of and reporting forms by the investigator  Taken place when all forms of
for completing (translating or writing) or recording schedules have been completed and
the respondents’ responses in illegible form.
 This is necessary in view of the fact that individual returned to the office.
writing styles often can be difficult for others to
decipher.  Editing is recommended by a single
 This should be done as soon as possible after the editor in a small study and by team
interview, preferably on the very day or on the next
day. of editors in case of a large inquiry.
 The investigator must restrain himself and must not
correct errors of omission by simply guessing what
the informant would have said if the question had been
asked.
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 Additional remarks on Editing:  In the wrong replies, which are quite obvious,


 Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as must be dropped from the final results,
an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in months especially in the context of mail surveys.
when it would have been recorded in weeks, and the
like.  Editors should be familiar with instructions
 In case of inappropriate or missing replies, the editor given to the interviewers and coders as well
can sometimes determine the proper answer by as with the editing instructions supplied to
checking the other information in the schedule.
them for the purpose.
 At times, the respondent can be contacted for
clarification.  While crossing out an original entry, they should
 The editor must strike out the answer if the reply is just draw a single line on it or highlight by a
inappropriate and he has no basis for color in standardized form.
determining the correct answer the response. In
such a case an editing entry of ‘no answer’ is called  Editor’s initials and the date of editing should
for. be placed on each completed form or schedule.
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B) Coding: Coding is necessary for data reduction and

efficient analysis
Coding refers to the process of assigning
Coding decisions should usually be taken at
numerals or other symbols to answers
the designing stage of the questionnaire.
so that responses can be put into a
This makes it possible to pre-code the
limited number of categories or classes.
questionnaire choices and which in turn is
Such classes should be appropriate to the helpful for computer tabulation.
research problem under consideration. But in case of hand coding some standard
They must be exhaustive (i.e., there must method may be used.
be a class for every data item) and mutual  Code in the margin with a colored pencil.
exclusive.  Transcribe the data from the questionnaire to a
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C) Classification: Classification according to attributes

 Classification based on common characteristics which can

It is the process of arranging data in either be descriptive (such as literature, sex, honesty, etc.)
groups or classes based on common or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.).
 Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon
characteristics. which cannot be measured quantitatively; only their
In this way the entire data get divided presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed.
 It has two types:
into several groups or classes.  Simple classification: - consider only one attribute and
Classification can be one of the divide the universe in to two classes (possessing the given
attribute or not)
following two types: according to  Manifold classification: - consider two or more attributes
attributes & class-intervals simultaneously, and divide the data into a number of
classes (total number of classes of final order is given by
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Classification according to class-intervals:  In this way the entire data may be divided into


 The numerical characteristics refer to quantitative several groups or classes or ‘class-intervals.’
phenomenon which can be measured through  Each group or class-interval, thus, has an upper
some statistical units. limit as well as a lower limit which are known as
 Example: - Data relating to income, production, class magnitude.
age, weight, etc. come under this category.
 We may have classes with equal class magnitudes
 Such data are known as statistics of variables and
or with unequal class magnitudes.
are classified on the basis of class intervals
(groups).  The number of items which fall in a given class is
 For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are known as the frequency of the given class.
within Br. 201 to Br.400 can form one group; those  All the classes or groups, with their respective
whose incomes are within Br. 401 to Br. 600 can frequencies taken together & put in the form of a
AgEc form another group and so on. AgEc table, are described as group| frequencies.
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Classification according to class intervals usually  Typically, we may have 5 to 15 classes.

involves the following 3 main problems:

 To the extent possible, class-intervals
a) How many classes should be there? should be of equal magnitudes, but in
 There can be no specific answer with regard to some cases unequal magnitudes may result
the number of classes. in better classification.
 The decision about this calls for skill and  Hence the researcher’s objective judgment
experience of the researcher. plays an important part in this connection.
 However, the objective should be to display the  Multiples of 2, 5 and 10 are generally
data in such a way as to make it meaningful for
the analyst.
preferred while determining class
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 Some statisticians adopt the following  In case of one or two or very few items have
formula, suggested by H.A. Sturges, very high or very low values (Outliers), one
determining the size of class interval: may use what are known as open-ended
internals in the overall frequency distribution.
I = R/(1 + 3.3 log N)
Such intervals may be expressed like under
where Br. 500 or Br. 10001 and over.
I = Size of class interval;
 Such intervals are generally not desirable,
R = Range (i.e., difference between the value of
the largest item and smallest item among the but often cannot be avoided.
given items);
N = Number of items to be grouped.
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b)How to choose class limits? Class limits may generally be stated in any of the


 While choosing class limits, the researcher must following forms:
take into consideration the criterion that the mid-  Exclusive type class intervals:
point (generally worked out first by taking the sum  They are usually stated as follows:
of the upper limit and the lower limit of a class  10-20; 20-30; 30-40; and 40-50
and then divide this sum by 2) of a class-interval  The above intervals should be read as under:
& the actual average of items of that class interval
 10 and under 20; 20 and under 30;
should remain as close to each other as possible.
 30 and under 40; and 40 and under 50
 Consistent with this, the class limits should be
 Thus, under the exclusive type class intervals, the items
located at multiples of 2,5,10,20,100 and such whose values are equal to the upper limit of a class are
other figure. grouped in the next higher class.
 For example, an item whose value is exactly 30 would be
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 Inclusive type class intervals:  When the phenomenon under consideration

 They are usually stated as follows: happens to be a discrete one i.e., can be
measured and stated only in integers), then we
 11-20; 21-30; 31-40; and 41-50
should adopt inclusive type classification.
 In inclusive type class intervals the upper limit of
a class interval is also included in the  But when the phenomenon happens to be a
concerning class interval. continuous one capable of being measured in
 Thus, an item whose value is 20 will be put in 11- fractions as well, we can use exclusive type
20 class intervals. class interval.
 The stated upper limit of the class interval 11-20 is
20 but the real limit is 20.99999 and as such 11-
20 class interval really means 11 and under 21.
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(i) How to determine the frequency of each class?  An Illustrative Tally Sheet for Determining the
 This can be done either by tally sheets or by mechanical Number of 70 Families in Different Income Groups
aids.
Income groups Number of families or
 Under the technique of tally sheet, the class-groups are Tally mark
written on a sheet of paper (commonly known as the tally (Rupees) (class frequency)
sheet) and for each item a stroke (usually a small vertical Below 400 IIII IIII III 13
line) is marked against the class group in which it falls. 401-800 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
 The general practice is that after every four small vertical
801-1200 IIII IIII II 12
lines in a class group, the fifth line for the item falling in the
same group, is indicated as horizontal line through the said 1201-1600 IIII IIII IIII III 18
four lines and the resulting flower (IIII) represents five 1601 and above IIII II 7
items.
Total 70
 All this facilitates the counting of items in each one of the
class groups.
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 The stated limits of class intervals are different 4.Tabulation:


than true limits. We should use true real limits  When a mass of data has been assembled, it
keeping in view the nature of the given becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange
phenomenon. the same in some kind of concise and logical
 Alternatively, class frequencies can be determined, order. This procedure is referred to as
specially in case of large inquiries and surveys, tabulation.
by mechanical aids i.e., with the help of machines  Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing
viz., sorting machines that are available for the raw data and displaying the same in compact
purpose. form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
 Some machines are hand operated, whereas analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an
others work with electricity. orderly arrangement of data in columns & rows.
 This method is fast but expensive.
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 Tabulation is essential because of the following  Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or
electronic devices. The choice depends on:

reasons.
 The size and type of study,
(i) It conserves space and reduces explanatory  Cost considerations,
and descriptive statement to a minimum.  Time pressures and
 The available of tabulating machines or computers.
(ii) It facilitates the process of comparison.  In relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or
computer tabulation if other factors are favorable and
(iii) It facilitates the summation of items and the necessary facilities are available.
detection of errors and omissions.  Hand tabulation is usually preferred in case of small
inquiries where the number of questionnaires is small and
(iv) It provides a basis for various statistical they are of relatively short length.
 Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally, the list
computations. and tally or the card sort and count methods.
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 When there are simple codes, it is feasible to tally  This way a large number of questionnaires can be listed on
one work sheet. Tallies are then made for each question.
directly from the questionnaire.

 The card sorting method is the most flexible hand tabulation.
 Under this method, the codes are written on a sheet
In this method the data are recorded on special cards of
of paper, called tally sheet, and for each response convenient size and shape with a series of holes. Each hole
a stroke is marked against the code in which if falls. stands for a code and when cards are stacked, a needle
Usually after every four strokes against a particular passes through particular hole representing a particular code.
code, the fifth response is indicated by drawing a  These cards are then separated and counted. In this way
diagonal or horizontal line through the strokes. frequencies of various codes can be found out by the
repetition of this technique.
 These groups of five are easy to count and the data
 We can as well use the mechanical devices or the computer
are sorted against each code conveniently. In the
facility or tabulation purpose in case we want quick results,
listing method, the code responses may be our budget permits their use & we have a large volume of
transcribed onto a large work-sheet, allowing a line straight forward tabulation involving a number of cross-
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breaks..
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 Tabulation may also be classified as simple  Complex Tabulation:


and complex tabulation.  shows the division of data in two or more categories
and as such is designed to give information concerning
 Simple Tabulation: one or more sets of inter-related questions.
 gives information about one or more  results in two-way tables (which give information about
groups of independent questions, two inter-related characteristics of data),
 three-way tables (giving information about three
 results in one-way tables which supply- interrelated characteristics of data) or still higher order
answers to questions about one tables, also known as manifold tables, which supply
characteristic of data only. information about several interrelated characteristics of
data.
 two-way tables, three-way tables or manifold tables are
all examples of what is sometimes described as cross
tabulation.
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 General accepted principles of tabulation can be  Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the
briefly stated as follows: table should be placed directly beneath the table,
 a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make along with the reference symbols used in the
the table intelligible without reference to the text table.
 The title should always be placed just above the  Source from where the data in the table have
body of the table. been obtained must be indicated just below the
 Every table should be given a distinct number to table.
facilitate easy reference.  There should be thick lines to separate the data
 The column headings (captions) & the row under one class from the data under another class
headings (stubs) of the table should be clear & and the lines separating the sub-divisions of the
brief. classes should be comparatively thin lines.
 The units of measurement under each heading
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 The columns may be numbered to facilitate  Miscellaneous and exceptional items, if any, should be
usually placed in the last row of the table.

reference.
 Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple
 Those columns whose data are to be compared as possible. If the data happen to be very large, they should
should be kept side by side. Similarly, not be crowded in a single table for that would make the table
percentages and/or averages must also be kept unwieldy and inconvenient.
close to the data.  Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right
 In order to emphasize the relative significance of column and that of columns should be placed at the bottom.
certain categories, different kinds of type,  The arrangement of the categories in a table may be
spacing and indentations may be used. chronological, geographical, alphabetical or according to
magnitude to facilitate comparison.
 It is important that all column figures be properly
aligned. Decimal points and (+) or (-) signs  Above all, the table must suit the needs and requirements
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Sample table Sample table


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a) The problem concerning “Don’t know” (or  How DK responses are to be dealt with by
DK) responses: researchers?

 While processing the data, the researcher often  Design better type of questions.
comes. One category of some responses that are  Good rapport of interviewers with
difficult to handle are ‘Don’t Know Response’ or respondents will result in minimizing DK
simple DK response. responses.
 The answer depends on two factors:  But what about the DK responses that have
 The respondent actually may not know the already taken place? One way to tackle this
answer or issue is to estimate the location of DK
answers from other data in the
 The researcher may fail in obtaining the
questionnaire.
appropriate information.
 Keep DK responses as a separate category in
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b) Use of percentages:  Percentages hide the base from which

 Percentages are often used in data presentation for they have been computed. If this is not kept
simplify numbers, reducing all of them to a 0 to 100 in view, the real differences may not be
range.
correctly read.
 It facilitates relative comparisons.
 Percentage decreases can never exceed
 While using percentages, use the following rules:
100 percent and as such for calculating the
 Two or more percentages must not be averaged percentage of decrease, the higher figure
unless each is weighted by the group size from which
it has been derived. should invariably be taken as the base.
 Use of too large percentages should be avoided, since  Percentages should generally be worked
a large percentage is difficult to understand and tends to out in the direction of the casual-factor.
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 Analysis can be categorized as:

6.3. Data Analysis


a) Descriptive analysis
 This study provides us with values of companies, work
 It means the computation of certain indices groups, persons and other subjects on any of a magnitude
measures along with searching for patterns of of characteristics such as size, composition, efficiency,
relationship that exist among data groups. references, etc.
 This sort of analysis may be in respect of:
 Analysis, particularly in case of survey or  One variable (described as unidimensional analysis),
 Two variables (described as bivariate analysis)
experimental data, serves estimating the values  More than two variables (described as multivariate analysis).
of unknown parameters of the population and of  In this context we work out various measures that show the
hypotheses for drawing inferences. size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of
measuring relationships between two or more variables.
 For example: Average age = 45.5 years old.
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Sample Figure
b) Multiple regression analysis:
 This analysis is adopted when the researcher has

one dependent variable which is presumed to be a
function of two or more independent variables.
 The objective of this analysis is to make a
prediction about the dependent variable based
on its covariance with all the concerned independent
variables.
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Sample Figure Weight (Kg) Sample Figure Weight (Kg)

Age (Years) Age (Years)
Height (cm) Height (cm)

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C) Multiple discriminant analysis: d) Multivariate analysis of variance (multi-ANOVA):


 This analysis is appropriate when the researcher  This analysis is an extension of two-way ANOVA,
has a single dependent variable that cannot be where in the ratio of among group variance to within
measured, but can be classified into two or more group variance is worked out on a set of variables.
groups on the basis of some attribute.
 The object of this analysis happens to be to predict

an entity’s possibility of belonging to a particular
group based on several predictor variables.
 For example: Categorical adoption (Adopters and

non adopters) and willingness to pay studies
(Wiling and not willing to pay)
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CHAPTER 7: RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING

e) Canonical analysis:
CHAPTER 7 – RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
7.1. Meaning & purpose of research proposal

 This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-

measurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting Meaning:
a set of dependent variables from their joint covariance with a
set of independent variables (Vectors or Matrixes).  It is a clear, concise, well-organized document that
spells out what it is you propose to do, why you
are proposing to do it and how and when do you
conduct the research
 The proposal is comparable to the blue print that
an architect prepares before the bids are let and
building commences.
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 Research proposal document usually aims to cover the

Purpose:
following aspects:
 The goal of a research proposal is twofold:
 Relevance: Convince the reader that your project is original,
 to present and justify the need to study a interesting, and essential for a research field you’re working in.
research problem and  Context: Demonstrate your familiarity with the research field.
 to present the practical ways in which the Show that you know its current state and have a deep
understanding of the literature.
proposed study should be conducted.
 Approach: Explain your methodology. Show that your data and
methods are thought about well.
 Feasibility: Talk about the practical side of your project. Confirm

that you’re able to complete the research within the limits of the
program or the institution you’re applying to.
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Abstract

7.2. Basic contents of research proposal

 Itrefers to a brief over view of the contents of the
Title
research proposal
 Should communicate the purpose of the study
 Provides a brief and clear summary of the project
 Preferably 10 words but at least less than 25 words
 Usually no more than 250 words
 Choose keywords from your research questions and
 Should create a good impression
incorporate these
 Need to carefully choose the details to be included
 Avoid the use of ‘waste words. For example: “A study
on’, ‘An investigation on’, ‘An observation on’  Must be understandable without reading the
whole proposal; don’t get bogged down with details
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Introduction
Statement of the problem

Background and justification of the study  Careful definition of the problem to be solved
Need to provide a brief and focused  The most important aspect of the research
review of the literature proposal
Set the scene – what research has  It captures the reader’s attention by stating the
already been done? problem & its consequences
Demonstrate there is a gap in the  It shows major research gaps in terms of

research or a next step is needed research, policy and development issues
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Objectives of the study

Research Questions/Hypothesis
 It should be (SMART : Specific, Measurable, Achievable,

Reliable and Time bounded) as much as possible  It important to determine
 It flow from the problem statement and gives concrete, and
 the nature of data needed,
achievable goals
 It is best to list the objectives in order of importance and  sampling procedure,
contains:
 method of data analysis and
 General objective: the overall objectives of the research
project;  scope of the study
 Specific objectives: elements of the research directly
addressable by the methodology and emanates from the
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Significance of the Study Scope and limitation

 Spell out the relevance of your study  In this part, you are expected to
express the coverage of your
 It is necessary to give sufficient
research in terms of:
information on the outcomes/
results, the users and uses of these  Area
results to justify the need for the  Objective
study, i.e., the relevance of the  Methodology (data type, method of data
study. collection and analysis.
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Literature Review  Purposes of literature review

 This includes previous research works that have  Benefit from previous findings
been done on the same problem or related ones.
 Improve methodological and
 Literature review is a continuous process in the all procedural matters
stages of the research
 The review helps to clarify, strengthen, and direct  Development of a theoretical
each stage of research framework
 Literatures should be paraphrased  Evaluate previous studies
 Take care of plagiarism
 Avoid duplication
 Theoretical and empirical review
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Work Plan
Table 6. Sample work plan
Research methodology
 Provide clear and specific details of the methodology

and techniques to be used in your study
 It can be categorized in different subsections
 Description of the study area (location, agro-ecology,
climate, altitude)
 Sample size and sampling technique
 Data type, source and method of collection
 Method of data analysis (descriptive statistics, inferential
statistics, models)
 Definitions of working variables
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Budget Plan References/Bibliography


Table 6. Sample budget plan
 List
of academic works cited in the research proposal

Amount( Daily Total document
No Cost item Unit Birr/ rate expenses Remark
Unit) (Birr) (Birr)  Reference citation vs reference list; Example:
1 Per diem Man days 1 500 30,000 1*60*500

 Reference citation:
2 Enumerators Number 50 400 20,000 50*400 Church forests contribute considerably to tree species
3 Driver No 60 200 12,000 60*200 diversity in South Gondar (Bongers et al., 2006)
4 Printer toner Piece 1 3000 3,000 1*3000 According to Bongers et al (2006) church forests contribute
5 Flash(16 GB) No 1 320 320 1*320 considerably……..
6 Oils & lubricants Lump sum 30,000  Reference list:
7 Facilitator No 20 50 20,000 20*20*50 Bongers, F., Alemayehu, W., Sterck, F.J and Tesfaye, B.
Sub total 115,320 2006. Ecological restoration and church forests in
Contingency 5766 0.05*115, 320 northern Ethiopia. Journal of Drylands;1: 35–45.
Total 121,080 115,320 + 5766
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Appendix
7.3. Common mistakes in writing research proposal

 Data collection instruments: Questionnaire, checklist,
data sheet, etc. Common mistakes in writing a research proposal (Wong,

2002 & Locke et al., 2007):
 Details of proposed data analysis
 Not providing context to the research question(s).
methodologies/models.
 Not citing significant studies ("landmark studies") in the
 Other necessary information /data/ supportive to the
field that changed others' understanding of the topic.
proposal: For example: List of all woredas and their
 Trying to change the reader's opinions on topics that are
population to select sample woredas not relevant to understanding the project.
 Not staying focused on the primary research question.
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Chapter 8: INTERPRETATION & REPORT WRITING

8.1. Purpose of Report Writing
 Not focusing on the study's primary objective or


CHAPTER 8 – INTERPRETATION & REPORT WRITING
paying too much attention to minor things (not  Report writing is the last step in a research study
focusing on the big picture).  It requires a set of skills from used in the earlier stages of
research.
 Using the proposal to take a stance on a particular  Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking,
political or social issue. accurate and inductive work.
 Report writing is an activity the researcher has to establish
 Failing to have a clear sense of direction (proposals
effective communication with the readers.
should flow like a research paper).
 Research report is a major component of the research study
 Making the proposal too long or too short. b/c it remains incomplete till the report has been presented
and/or written.
 Using too many citations (only use what you need).  The most striking generalizations and findings are of little
 Not proofreading for grammar and spelling errors. value unless they are effectively communicated to others
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 Important purpose of the writing the reports:  Characteristics of effective research report:


 Presenting the results  Focus: an effective report emphasizes the important
information (addressing objectives of the study).
 To take the modification in the research work
 Accuracy: an effective report does not mislead the
 Future reference
reader.
 Guidance to other researchers
 Clarity: an effective report does not confuse the
 Formal completion reader. Technical terms should be defined to clarify the
 Written evidence issue for the readers (prior knowledge of readers).
 Finding new idea  Conciseness: an effective report does not waste the
reader’s time. It should be short and simple (avoid
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fussy detail).
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8.2. Steps in Writing Research Report B. Preparation of the final outline


A. Logical analysis of the subject matter

 Outlinesare the framework upon which long
 Itis the first step which is primarily concerned with written works are constructed
the development of a subject
 They are an aid to the logical organization of the
 There are two ways in which to develop a subject:
material and a reminder of the points to be stressed
 Logical development: is made on the basic of
in the report.
mental connections and associations between
the one thing and another by means of analysis
 Chronological development: is based on a
connection or sequence in time or occurrence.
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C. Preparation of the rough draft D. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft

 The researcher sits to write down what he/she has  It is the most difficult part of all formal writing
done including:  It requires more time than the writing of the rough draft
 The procedure in collecting the data for his/her  In this step, the researcher should:
study,  See whether or not the material has unity and
 The technique of analysis, cohesion;
 Does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a
 The broad findings and generalizations and
definite pattern?
 The suggestions he/she wants to offer
 Check the mechanics of writing: grammar, spelling
regarding the problem concerned.
and usage.
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8.3. Types of Academic Report  It demonstrates the student's ability to conduct



A. Senior Research Project Report research by drawing on knowledge gained
 It is a work of focused research intended to advance
throughout the period of undergraduate
a student's particular interest in a topic starting with:
education in various areas of study.
 formulation of a research design,
 determining relevant sources,  Students are required to complete a SRP in partial
 carrying out logical analysis till presenting the research fulfillment of the requirements of a Bachelor
 The student selects: Degree.
 the questions to address;
 collects data and information;
 determines a methodology to analyze the data and
 draw meaningful conclusions.
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C. Dissertation
B. Thesis

 A dissertation is an academic report conducted by a

 Itis a critical and well-reasoned documentation of
the knowledge gained by the student through one’s doctoral student
effort under the guidance and supervisions of a  It contains results of original investigations that are
faculty member with expertise and knowledge of the
focused on specific areas of a social or natural
subject the student is studying.
phenomenon.
 Thesis is written at the Master’s degree levels of study.
 Masters students are required to demonstrate their  The originality of the report must be demonstrated by
competence in appreciating contributions by other clear evidence of competence in conducting
researchers by way of literature review, besides use independent field study or experimentation.
of data they collected in the field as evidenced in their
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thesis. AgEc
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 The methodologies used to address pertinent issues D. Journal


 Journal articles enable researchers to disseminate results

should be advanced and solution oriented.
of their findings
 Itdemonstrates evidence of critical use of  It contributes to the general body of scientific knowledge.
published works in the field, appreciation of the  It serves as the function of stimulating & directing further
wider field of knowledge, originality of inquiry.
conceptual & theoretical dimension of the &  Most journals prefer to publish short articles to avoid
relevant methodology. unnecessary details
 It focuses on the substantive contribution or outcome of
 Itmust also make a distinct contribution to the research
existing knowledge in the area or subject.
 It uses of scientific writing style w/c adheres to the
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 There are different formats but usually it



contains:
 Introduction,
 Materials and methods,
 Results and discussion
 Conclusion
 Recommendation
 Sample journals
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8.4. Components of a Research Report Abstract


 Research report is different from research proposal  It is a miniature version of the paper
 Research report (output) is a broader as compared with research  It is a good introduction to the whole body of the research
proposal (plan/guideline).  Whether they need to read the document in its entirety
Preliminary sections Main sections  Writing a clear and concise abstract is an art
 COVER PAGE  INTRODUCTION  A brief summary of your report (taken from all parts of the
 TITLE PAGE  LITERATURE REVIEW research report)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  Good abstract incorporates answers the following key questions:
 TABLE OF CONTENTS  RESULT AND DISCUSSION  What your research aim was,
 LIST OF TABLES  CONCLUSION AND  Key background theory,
 LIST OF FIGURES RECOMMENDATION
 What data were collected from whom and how,
 LIST OF APPENDIX  REFERENCES
 How it was analyzed and
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS  APPENDIX
 Key findings
 ABSTRACT
 Conclusion and recommendation
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Introduction

 Provide sufficient background information about the research

topic,
 Justify the undertaking of the research and
 Describe the objectives intended to achieve
 It should be written in a clear and concise manner aiming at
developing the interest of readers (avoid fussy details).
 The introduction sets out why you choose your topic
 What prompted your interest in the topic;
 The links with previous research;
 Ways your study is different or unique; and
 States the research objective(s), questions or hypothesis.
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Literature Review Research Methodology



 Literature review is critical analysis of the existing knowledge
on the proposed research topic  Procedures in research reports generally
 It includes strengths, limitations & gaps of previous studies should be detailed enough for the reader
 The literature review should be relevant with recent citations  Give a good enough description about:
on the topic
 The study area (verbal + map),
 Serious care must be given to avoid any possible
consideration of plagiarism  Sampling technique and sample size,
 Literature review gives us answer for the following questions:  Method of data collection
 What do we know?  Method of data analysis (descriptive, inferential,
 What we do not know (research gap)? model..),
 How your study fits the research gap?
 Hypothesis (definition of DV and IVs)
 What you may expect to find (hypotheses)?
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Results and Discussion

Discussion

Results
 It is not just a data summarization or a collection of tables  Describe and summarize the results
and figures;
 Results are interpreted, critically evaluated, and
 It should contain an explanation and description of the data
compared to other studies and cite studies
 Tell the reader exactly what you found, what patterns,
trends, or relationships were observed  Develop arguments for and against your hypotheses
 Illustrations in the results section may consist of tables, and interpretations
graphs, photographs, or diagrams that visually depict your
 Do not make generalized statements that are not
results.
based on your data, known facts, or reason
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Conclusion and Recommendation

Recommendation

Conclusion
 It suggests future research directions based on the
 The end of your paper should contain a brief summary of
your basic findings finding of the study
 Briefly re-states how well the study design met the study's
 It should be from the findings of the study
aims
 In scientific report writing, solutions for problems
 Emphasizes major findings and implications of findings
 Brief summary of the findings of our study (emanates from should be suggested based on the findings our
the findings of our research only). research
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References Appendix


 It refers to the references you used and cited into your paper.
 All references given in your paper must appear in the literature  Any additional pictures and/or material
cited section vice versa.
you wish to include
 Make sure any appendices are listed in the

table of contents
 Don't stuff this section unnecessarily
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8.5. Tips in Writing Report

 Begin writing up the report as soon as you can

 Write down ideas as soon as you get them, rather than
leaving them to the writing-up stage
 Be aware of the nature of the report and the intended
audience
 If you are writing for a journal, check the scope of that
journal and editorial requirements
 You will not be able to write the final report the first time
 Make sure before you begin writing up that you make
backups of your work at every available opportunity
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17

Research Methods - Chapter 6-8 - Short

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1/19/2023

CHAPTER 6: PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

analyzed in accordance with the research plan.

 The term analysis refers to: 6.2.Data Processing Operations

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

The major data processing operations are: -

Stages of editing: -  Central editing:

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

B) Coding: Coding is necessary for data reduction and

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

C) Classification: Classification according to attributes

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

 Classification based on common characteristics which can

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Classification according to class intervals usually  Typically, we may have 5 to 15 classes.

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

involves the following 3 main problems:

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

 Inclusive type class intervals:  When the phenomenon under consideration

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

 The stated limits of class intervals are different 4.Tabulation:

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

electronic devices. The choice depends on:

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

directly from the questionnaire.

 Tabulation may also be classified as simple  Complex Tabulation:

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

usually placed in the last row of the table.

Sample table Sample table

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

DK) responses: researchers?

b) Use of percentages:  Percentages hide the base from which

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

 Analysis can be categorized as:

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

 This analysis is adopted when the researcher has

Sample Figure Weight (Kg) Sample Figure Weight (Kg)

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

Age (Years) Age (Years)

Height (cm) Height (cm)

C) Multiple discriminant analysis: d) Multivariate analysis of variance (multi-ANOVA):

CHAPTER 6 – PROCESSING & ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Methods In Agricultural Economics

 The object of this analysis happens to be to predict

 For example: Categorical adoption (Adopters and

CHAPTER 7: RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING

7.1. Meaning & purpose of research proposal

1 Per diem Man days 1 500 30,000 160500