Motors Manual

TOYOTA
(UK)
MOTORS AND CONTROLS
TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 1

Contents
Electrical hazard awareness Single Phase Motors
Fundamentals Split Phase

Capacitor Start/Induction Run
Motor Effect Permanent Split Capacitor
Induction Effect Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run
Torque Shaded Pole
Power Universal Motor
Generators Principle Of Operation
DC Motors – General
AC Motor Controls
Principle of Operation
Design Features Starters
Losses and Efficiency Speed Control
Motor Equations Brakes
DC Motors -Types and Characteristics Switching and Protection Devices
Shunt Wound Motor Contactors

Series Wound Motor Thermal Devices
Compound Wound Motor Magnetic Devices
Permanent Magnet Motor Thermistors
DC Motor Controls PILZ safety relay system
Starters Motor Data

Speed Control
Direction Control Performance
Braking Enclosure Types
Frame Size
Three-Phase Induction Motors IP Rating
Insulation Rating
Rotating Magnetic Field Hazardous Environments
Basic Construction
Speed Testing and Troubleshooting
Characteristics
Wound Rotor Motor Instrumentation
Double Cage Motor Test Procedures
Troubleshooting Chart
Three-Phase Synchronous Motor Transformers
Construction
Characteristics
Power Factor Correction
Electrical hazard awareness
What does hazard mean?
Hazard means:
• any potential or actual threat to the wellbeing of people, machinery or
environment
Electrical hazard safety means:
• taking precautions to identify and control electrical hazards
Why know about it?

Because failing to take the necessary precautions can lead to:
• injury or death
• fire or property damage
What are the safety priorities?

Electrical hazards exist in almost every workplace. Common causes of electrocution are:
• making contact with overhead wires
• undertaking maintenance on live equipment
• working with damaged electrical equipment, such as extension leads, plugs and
sockets
• using equipment affected by rain or water ingress
How do you respond to electrical incidents?

If you come across a person receiving an electric shock:
• if possible, disconnect the electrical supply (switch?)
• assess the situation – never put yourself at risk
• take precautions to protect yourself and anyone else in the vicinity
• apply the first aid principles (e.g. DRSABCD)
• assess the injuries and move the casualty to a safe area if required
• administer first aid if trained
• seek urgent medical attention
Do you want to be a victim?

You could be the victim if you:
• don’t follow proper procedures around electricity
• use electrical equipment improperly
• use faulty electrical equipment
What are the types of injuries?

• Burns
• Shocks
• Falls

KEEP SAFE
KNOW HOW TO CONTROL ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
What are the levels of effect of current?
What should you do in an electrical emergency?

For low voltage electricity >50 V AC and 110 V DC
• remove the source of electricity supply
• commence CPR if trained
• call the emergency number on site
For high voltage electricity >1000 V
• call the emergency number for your site
• don’t go near the casualty
• don’t touch the casualty or try to free them with anything
Should you report electrical incidents?

• Electricity is invisible – this in itself makes it dangerous
• It has great potential to seriously injure or kill
• The company has a duty of care to its employees and contractors
• Everyone is exposed to electrical hazards, not just electricians
• Report all electrical shocks and near misses
Can you protect yourself from electricity?

• Don’t wear metal objects
• Turn power off
• Wear appropriate clothing
• Don’t touch live parts
• Don’t install or repair electrical equipment
• Use qualified personnel
• Clean and dry leads and plugs before use
• Use PPE

What are other safety measures?
• Heed warning signs
• Use the right equipment
• Study the operation manual
• Take care of extension leads
• Use only approved extension lamps
• Don’t pull on leads
• Use residual current devices – RCDs
• Use the proper fuses and circuit breakers
Regular safety inspections

are a part of YOUR job...
• Electrical equipment should be checked each time before use for defects
• If not tagged or the tag is out of date then report it and place it out of service
Should you be aware of powerlines?

• Do you know if there are overhead powerlines on your site?
• Do you know where they are located?
• Do you know what the safe work clearance is?
• Strict regulations are laid down to cover any work that may have to be performed
close to overhead powerlines
What is a powerline corridor?

MSI Regulation 5.28 defines a powerline corridor as the area under any overhead
powerline that has not been properly isolated, and 10 metres either side of the
powerline.
• It is essential that these areas are respected. They are there for the safety of
everyone
• Do not store equipment, machinery, buildings
or structures in powerline corridors
• Do not construct, fabricate or maintain
structures, buildings, machinery or
equipment in powerline corridors
Can a powerline be approached safely?

Up to and including to 33 kV
• 2.3 m when passing underneath and 3 m when passing to the side
Above 33 kV
• 4 m when passing underneath and 6 m when passing to the side
Who can access substations?

• Only trained and authorised personnel may enter and work inside a substation
• To enter a substation you must complete the substation entry training
• Access is restricted for any cabinet with exposed energized parts

What are electric shock hazards?
• Arc welding can and has killed people in high risk environments
• Everyone involved needs to better understand the hazards, adopt sound practice
and use appropriate safety devices
• Study and adhere to the Code of Practice: WTIA Tech Note 7-04
• Use safety devices such as manual trigger switches and voltage reducing devices
(VRDs)
• Under adverse conditions, strive to improve control measures (e.g. presence of
moisture as sweat or rain)
A welding incident…
• Assistant hands welder a metal object.
Resultant current is 35 mA
•The risk of electric shock from correctly installed and maintained power sources is negligible,
provided that sensible
precautions are taken by the
operator and correct work
procedures are followed
•Ensure that the right person is carrying out electrical work – licensed versus competent
•Electricity is essential but, improperly used, it can be DEADLY!
I= V/R = 67/1900 = 35 mA
Result = Assistant
survived but welder died
What risk assessment?!
Is this a problem?
Fundamentals
Force on a Current-Carrying Wire in a Magnetic Field
Force
N S
Current in wire is flowing
towards you
The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Motor Rule:
‘Hold the thumb, first and second fingers of the left hand mutually at right angles so that
the First finger points in the direction of the Field and the seCond finger points in the
direction of the Current flow. The thuMb will now point in the direction of the force (or
Motion) acting on the conductor.’
F = B x I x l where: F = Force on wire (Unit Newtons – symbol N)

B = Flux density of the magnetic field (T)
I = Current flowing in the wire (A)
l = Length of wire perpendicular to field (m)
Wire Moved through a Magnetic Field
Force
N S Induced current flows towards you
Motion
The induced current direction given by Fleming’s Right Hand Induction Rule:
‘Hold the thumb, first and second fingers of the right hand mutually at right angles so
that the First finger points in the direction of the Field and the thuMb points in the
direction of the Motion. The seCond finger will now point in the direction of the induced
Current flow.’
The induced current in the wire causes it to experience a force that, using Flemings Left
Hand Motor Rule, is seen to be in the opposite direction to the original motion. This
result conforms to Lenz’s Law:
‘The induced emf acts in such a direction so as to oppose the change causing it.’
The size of the induced EMF is given by Faradays Law:

‘The size of the emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage in the circuit.’
For the case shown it can be shown that:
E = B x l x v where: E= Induced EMF (V)

B =Flux Density of the magnetic field (T)
l = Length of wire perpendicular to the field (m)
v= Velocity of wire perpendicular to the field (m/s)

Torque in Rotating Systems
Force
The turning effect or torque of a force
r depends not only on its size but also on
its perpendicular distance from the axis
of rotation
T = F x r where: T = Torque (Units are Newton metre – Nm)

F = Force (N)
r = Perpendicular distance of force from axis of rotation (m)
Power in Rotating Systems
Power = Work Done per second

= Force x distance moved per second
= Force x distance moved per revolution x number of revs per second
= Force x 2πr x n
= F x 2πr x n
= 2πnT (since F x r = T)
P = 2πnT where P= Power (W)

N= Rotational speed (revs per second)
T= Torque developed (Nm)

DC Motors General
Principles of Operation
N S 1. Anti-clockwise turning effect.
2. No turning effect, but coil

N S continues to rotate due to its
momentum.
3. Clockwise turning effect. Coil

N S comes to rest in position 2
To keep the coil rotating, the current direction in the coil must be reversed every time the
plane of the coil becomes perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is achieved using a
split–ring commutator.
Once rotating, the coil will generate a back emf that opposes the supply voltage.
In practice, dc motors have many coils revolving between electromagnetic poles and
connected to a multi-segmented commutator.
Practical Motor Design Features
A typical DC motor (and a DC generator) consists of:
An armature core, an air gap, poles, and a yoke - that form the magnetic circuit.
An armature winding, a field winding, brushes and a commutator - that form the
electric circuit.
A frame, end bells, bearings, brush supports and a shaft - that provide the
mechanical support.

Armature Core or Stack The armature stack is made up thin magnetic steel
laminations stamped from sheet steel with a blanking die. Slots are punched in the
lamination with a slot die. Sometimes these two operations are done as one. The
laminations are welded, riveted, bolted or bonded together.
Armature Winding The armature winding fits in the armature slots and is eventually
connected to the commutator. It usually consists of copper wire, either round or
rectangular, and is insulated from the armature stack. The armature winding is
connected to the supply voltage via the commutator, but also generates an appreciable
back emf when the motor is running. The size of the back emf depends upon how the
winding has been wound:
Wave Winding In wave wound armatures there are 2 parallel paths through the
armature coils between the brushes - irrespective of the number of poles.
Lap Winding In lap wound armatures there are as many paths in parallel through
the armature coils as there are poles. Compared with a wave wound armature,
the lap wound armature has a lower back emf and an increased current carrying
capacity.

Field Poles The pole cores can be made from solid steel castings or from laminations.
At the air gap, the pole usually fans out into what is known as a pole head or pole shoe.
This is done to reduce the reluctance of the air gap. Normally the field coils are formed
and placed on the pole cores and then the whole assembly is mounted to the yoke.
Field Coils The field coils are those windings, which are located on the poles and set
up the magnetic fields in the machine. They also usually consist of copper wire and are
insulated from the poles. The field coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel with the
armature winding) or series windings (in series with the armature winding) or a
combination of both. In addition, permanent magnet fields are used on some smaller DC
products.
Yoke The yoke is a circular steel ring, which supports the field poles mechanically and
provides the necessary magnetic path between the poles. The yoke can be solid or
laminated. In many DC machines, the yoke also serves as the frame.
Commutator The commutator is the mechanical device that periodically reverses the
current direction in the armature winding, so as to ensure continued rotation. It consists
of a number of segments normally equal to the number of slots. The segments or
commutator bars are made of silver-bearing copper and are separated from each other
by mica insulation.
Brushes and Brush Holders Brushes conduct the current from the external circuit to the
commutator. There are many types of brushes. A brush holder is usually a metal box
that is rectangular in shape. The brush holder has a spring that holds the brush in
contact with the commutator. Each brush usually has a flexible copper shunt or pigtail,
which extends to the lead wires. Often, the entire brush assembly is insulated from the
frame and is movable as a unit about the commutator to allow adjustment.
Interpoles Interpoles are similar to the main field poles and are located on the yoke
between the main field poles. They have windings in series with the armature winding.
Interpoles have the function of reducing the armature reaction effect in the commutating
zone. They eliminate the need to shift the brush assembly.
Frame, End Bells, Shaft, and Bearings The frame and end bells are usually steel,
aluminium or magnesium castings used to enclose and support the basic machine parts.
The armature is mounted on a steel shaft, which is supported between two bearings.
The bearings are either sleeve, ball or roller type and are normally lubricated by grease
or oil.
Back End, Front End The load end of the motor is the Back End. The end opposite the
load end, most often the commutator end, is the Front End of the motor.

Losses and Efficiency
Friction and Windage These losses include bearing friction, brush friction, and
windage. They are also known as mechanical losses. They are constant at a given
speed but vary with changes in speed. Power losses due to friction increase as the
square of the speed and those due to windage increase as the cube of the speed.
Armature Copper Losses These are the I2R losses of the armature circuit, which
includes the armature winding, commutator, and brushes. They vary directly with the
resistance and as the square of the currents.
Field Copper Losses These are the I2R losses of the field circuit, which can include the
field windings, and interpole windings. They vary directly with the resistance and as the
square of the currents.
Core Losses These are the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the armature. With
the continual change of direction of flux in the armature iron, an expenditure of energy is
required to carry the iron through a complete hysteresis loop. This is the hysteresis loss.
Also since the iron is a conductor and revolving in a magnetic field, a voltage will be
generated. This, in turn, will result in small circulating currents known as eddy currents.
If a solid core were used for the armature, the eddy current losses would be high. They
are reduced by using thin laminations, which are insulated from each other. Hysteresis
and eddy current losses vary with flux density and speed.
Efficiency The efficiency is equal to the output divided by the input and is usually
expressed as a percentage
Motor Efficiency = (Input - Losses) / Input
Motor Equations
Current The current drawn by the motor depends upon the supply voltage, the
resistance of the motor and the size of the back emf – in accordance with Ohms Law. In
general terms:
V – E = IR where: V = Supply Voltage (V)

E = Back Emf developed in the motor (V)
I = Current drawn by the motor (A)
R = Resistance of the motor (Ω)

Torque (1) If each term in the current equation is multiplied by the current:
where: VI= power delivered from supply

= power loss in motor
Hence EI = Power P delivered by motor (if no friction or core losses)

= 2πnT
Therefore where T = Torque (Nm)

E= back EMF (V)
I = Motor current (A)
n = Speed of motor (rev/s)
Torque (2) T = F r = BIl x r = /A x I x l x r

Hence the torque is proportional to the product of flux and current as the other quantities
in the equation are constant for a given motor
T α ΦI where: T= Torque developed by motor

Φ= Flux of motor’s magnetic field
I= Current drawn by motor
Back EMF E = Blv = /A x l x 2rn

Hence the back emf is proportional to the product of rotational speed and flux as the
other quantities in the equation are constant for a given motor.
E α nΦ where: E = Back emf

n = Rotational speed of the motor
Φ = Flux of motor’s magnetic field
It can also be shown that:
where E = Back emf (V)

Z = number of conductors wound on the armature
Φ = useful magnetic flux per pole (Wb)
p = number of pairs of poles
n = armature speed (rev/s)
c= number of parallel paths through the winding
(2 for wave winding and 2p for lap winding)

DC Motor Types and Characteristics
With the exception of permanent magnet motors, DC Motors are classified according to
how the armature and field windings are interconnected. The characteristics of DC
motors are usually described in terms of their Torque-Current, Speed-Current and
Speed-Torque curves.
Shunt Wound Motor
In the shunt wound motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding across the supply:
I If
V= Supply Voltage
Ia
E = Back emf in armature
Ra = Armature Resistance
V Rf Rf = Field Resistance
E Ra Ia = Armature Current
If = Field Current
I = Total Current = Ia + If
Torque v Armature Current. The current in the field winding is constant as it is always
placed across the supply voltage. Thus the flux across the armature winding is also
constant. As the torque developed by any dc motor is proportional to the product of the
flux across the armature winding and the armature current, it follows that for the Shunt
Motor torque depends only on the armature current.
Torque
Armature Current
Speed v Armature Current. From the current equation:
V-E = IaRa therefore E = V- IaRa

But E α nΦ therefore n α E/Φ

Hence: n α
As V, Ra,Φ are constants, the speed drops when the armature current increases.
Speed
Armature Current
Speed v Torque. As torque is proportional to armature current, the speed-torque curve

is very similar in shape to the speed-armature current curve.
Applications. Shunt wound motors have a relatively flat speed-torque characteristic

(typically only 10% speed drop between No Load and Full Load) and give good speed
regulation over wide load ranges. They have a stable no-load speed and a
comparatively low starting torque. Shunt wound motors are used in constant-speed
applications such as driving lathes and conveyor belts.
Series Wound Motor
The field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
V= Supply Voltage
Rf E = Back emf in armature
Ra Ra = Armature Resistance
V E
Rf = Field Resistance
I = Supply Current (in both field
and armature)

Torque v Current For small supply currents:
T  I and I
Hence T 
At larger supply currents:
The magnetic circuit of the motor is saturated and the flux is constant
Hence T  I
Torque
Supply Current
Speed v Current n α where Rt is the total resistance of the coils

  I and is very small compared with V
Hence n is inversely proportional to the supply current

Speed
Supply Current
Speed v Torque The speed-torque curve is similar to the speed-current curve.

Speed regulation is poor. The high speed under light loading indicates that the series
motor must be permanently coupled to the load and should not be used where the load
might suddenly decrease to a low value (e.g. belt drives under fault conditions).
Applications. The motor develops a high torque at low speed (e.g. on start up) – when it
also draws a large current. Hence it is used in traction applications where a large initial
torque is required e.g. hoists, cranes trains etc.
Compound Wound Motor
A compound wound motor uses a field winding in series with the armature and a shunt
winding in parallel with the armature, in order to obtain a compromise in the
performance between a series and a shunt type motor – typically both good starting
torque and good speed regulation. Compound motors can be further classified as
follows:
Cumulative Compound – in which the series winding is connected so that the field
due to it assists that due to the shunt winding.
Differential Compound – in which the series winding is connected so that the field
due to it opposes that due to the shunt winding.
Long Shunt – in which the field winding is placed across both the series winding
and the armature winding.
Short Shunt - the field winding is placed across the armature winding only.

Applications. Compound wound motors can be designed to give characteristics that suit
almost any application. Generally they are used when a large starting torque is required
but where the load may fall to a small value, and in applications where sudden heavy
loads may occur e.g. stamping presses, machine presses and plunger pumps.
Permanent Magnet Motor
Permanent magnet motors have no wound field and a conventional wound armature
with commutator and brushes. Because of its permanent field, motor losses are less
with better operating efficiencies. This motor has excellent starting torques, but with
speed regulation not as good as compound motors. However, the speed regulation can
be improved with various designs, with corresponding lower rated torques for a given
frame.

DC Motors Controls
Starters
If the full supply voltage is applied to a stationary motor, the starting current in the
armature will be very high and there is a risk of:
a) Burning out the armature

b) Damaging the commutator and brushes, due to heavy sparking
c) Overloading the feeder
d) Snapping off the shaft due to mechanical shock
e) Damaging the driven equipment due to the sudden mechanical shock
All dc motors must, therefore, be provided with a means to limit the starting current to
reasonable values, usually between 1.5 and twice full-load current. One solution is to
connect a rheostat in series with the armature. The resistance is gradually reduced as
the motor accelerates and is eventually eliminated entirely, when the machine has
attained full speed. This forms the basis of the faceplate starter:
The diagram shows a manual faceplate starter for a shunt motor. Bare copper contacts
are connected to current-limiting resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4. Conducting arm 1 sweeps
across the contacts when it is pulled to the right by means of insulated handle 2.
In the position shown, the arm touches dead copper contact M and the motor circuit is
open. As the handle is drawn to the right, the conducting arm first touches fixed contact
N.
The supply voltage Es immediately causes full field current Ix to flow, but the armature
current / is limited by the four resistors in the starter box. The motor begins to turn and,
as the back emf Eo builds up, the armature current gradually falls.
When the motor speed ceases to rise any more, the arm is pulled to the next contact,
thereby removing resistor R1 from the armature circuit. The current immediately jumps to
a higher value and the motor quickly accelerates to the next higher speed.

When the speed again levels off, we move to the next contact, and so forth, until the arm
finally touches the last contact.
The arm is magnetically held in this position by a small electromagnet 4, which is in
series with the shunt field. If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted, or if the field
excitation should accidentally be cut, the electromagnet releases the arm, allowing it to
return to its dead position, under the pull of spring 3.
This safety feature prevents the motor from restarting unexpectedly when the supply
voltage is re-established.
Speed Control
Shunt Wound Motors The speed of a shunt wound motor is given by:
n 
Apart from changing the supply voltage (V), the speed is varied by changing the value of
the flux () or by varying the effective armature resistance (Ra).
A shunt field regulator may be placed in series with the field winding. As the
resistance of the regulator is increased, so the value of the field current will
decrease. The resulting decrease in flux will cause the motor to increase in
speed.
A series armature resistor will increase the effective armature resistance,

leading to a decrease in speed. However, since the resistor is in series with the
armature, it carries the full armature current and results in a large power loss in
large motors where a considerable speed reduction is required for long periods.
Series Wound Motors. The speed of a series wound motor is given by:
n  where R is the combined resistance of field and armature coils
Apart from changing the supply voltage (V), the speed can be varied by changing the
value of the flux () or by varying the resistance of the motor.
A diverter (variable resistor) may be placed in parallel with the series wound
field, and has the effect of reducing the field current for a given value of supply
current. The resulting decrease in flux will cause the motor to increase in speed.
A variable resistor in series with the field winding and armature circuit will
increase the effective resistance of the motor and lead to a decrease in speed.
However, it carries the full armature current and results in a large power loss in
large motors where a considerable speed reduction is required for long periods.

Direction Control
The direction of rotation of a series motor can be changed by changing the polarity of
either the armature or field winding. If you simply changed the polarity of the applied
voltage, you would be changing the polarity of both field and armature windings and the
motor's rotation would remain the same.
Since only one of the windings needs to be reversed, the armature winding is typically
used because its terminals are readily accessible at the brush rigging. The armature
receives its current through the brushes, so that if their polarity is changed, the
armature's polarity will also be changed. The figure shows a DC series motor that is
connected to a reversing motor starter. In this diagram the armature's terminals are
marked Al and A2 and the field terminals are marked S1 and S2.
When the forward motor starter is energized:

a) The top contact identified as F closes so the A1 terminal is connected to the positive
terminal of the power supply and the bottom F contact closes and connects terminals
A2 and S1
b) Terminal S2 is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply. When the
reverse motor starter is energized, terminals A1 and A2 are reversed. A2 is now
connected to the positive terminal
c) Notice that S2 remains connected to the negative terminal of the power supply
terminal. This ensures that only the armature's polarity has been changed and the
motor will begin to rotate in the opposite direction

The normally closed (NC) set of R contacts connected in series with the forward push
button, and the NC set of F contacts connected in series with the reverse push button.
These contacts provide an interlock that prevents the motor from being changed from
forward to reverse direction without stopping the motor.
The circuit can be explained as follows:
a) When the forward push button is depressed, current will flow from the stop push
button through the NC R interlock contacts, and through the forward push button to
the forward motor starter (FMS) coil
b) When the FMS coil is energized, it will open its NC contacts that are connected in
series with the reverse push button. This means that if someone depresses the
reverse push button, current could not flow to the reverse motor starter (RMS) coil
c) If the you want to reverse the direction of the rotation of the motor, you will need to
depress the stop push button first to de-energize the FMS coil, which will allow the
NC F contacts to return to their NC position
d) You can see that when the RMS coil is energized, its NC R contacts that are
connected in series with the forward push button will open and prevent the current
flow to the FMS coil if the forward push button is depressed
Braking
When a large dc motor is coupled to a heavy inertia load, it may take an hour or more
for the system to come to a halt. Such a lengthy deceleration time is often unacceptable
and, under these circumstances, a braking torque is required to ensure a rapid stop.
One way to brake the motor is by simple mechanical friction. A more elegant method
consists of circulating a reverse current in the armature, so as to brake the motor
electrically using regenerative braking
Consider a shunt motor whose field is directly connected to a source Es, and whose
armature is connected to the same source by means of a double-throw switch. The
switch connects the armature to either the line or to an external resistor R. When the
motor is running normally, the direction of the armature current I1 and the polarity of the
back emf Eo are as shown in the first diagram on the next page. Neglecting the
armature IR drop, Eo is equal to Es
If the switch is suddenly opened the motor continues to turn, but its speed will gradually
drop due to friction and windage losses. On the other hand, because the shunt field is
still excited, induced voltage Eo continues to exist, falling at the same rate as the speed.
The motor is now a generator whose armature is open-circuit
When the switch is closed on the second set of contacts the armature is suddenly
connected to the external resistor. Voltage Eo will immediately produce an armature
current I2. However, this current flows in the opposite direction to the original current /1 It
follows that a reverse torque is developed whose magnitude depends upon I2. The
reverse torque brings the machine to a rapid, but very smooth stop

Armature to a dc source Es Dynamic Braking.
Armature open circuit generating voltage E o.
In practice, resistor R is chosen so that the initial braking current is about twice the rated
motor current. The initial braking torque is then twice the normal torque of the motor.
As the motor slows down, the gradual decrease in Eo produces a corresponding

decrease in I2. Consequently, the braking torque becomes smaller and smaller, finally
becoming zero when the armature ceases to turn. The speed drops quickly at first and
then more slowly, as the armature comes to a halt.

Three–Phase Induction Motors
Production of a Rotating Magnetic Field
The operation of three-phase motors depends upon the fact that a rotating magnetic
field can be produced if a three-phase supply is connected to symmetrical three-phase
windings, evenly-spaced around the casing of a motor. Each phase is fed to one or
more fixed windings:
3 Windings (1 winding per phase) 120 degrees

6 Windings (2 windings per phase) 60 degrees – most common
12 Windings (4 windings per phase) 30 degrees
The arrangement for 6 poles is shown below together with a representation of the
magnetic field generated at any one moment in time:
A1
B2 C2
C1 B1
A2
Notice in the above example that 4 poles are produced by the 6 windings and that the
rotation of the field is clockwise (following A1, B1, C1). To reverse the direction of
rotation, any two of the phases need to be swapped over, i.e. swapping the wires to B
and C would cause the motor to rotate anticlockwise.
The speed of revolution of the magnetic field (its synchronous speed) is determined by
the frequency of the supply and the number of pole pairs:
where: ns = synchronous speed (rev/s)

f = supply frequency (Hz)
p= number of pole pairs = number of pairs of windings per phase

Basic Construction
AC induction motors are examples of asynchronous motors where the speed of the
motor is other than the speed of the rotating magnetic field. The three basic parts of an
AC motor are the rotor, stator, and enclosure.
Stator The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor. The stator core is made up
of several hundred thin laminations that are stacked together forming a
hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.
The stator windings are connected directly to the three-phase power source to produce
a rotating magnetic field. There are 2 ways of interconnection:
STAR (or ‘Wye’) Connection: DELTA Connection:

W1 U1,W2
U2, V2, W2
U1 V1 W1,V2 V1,U2
W2 U2 V2 W2 U2 V2
Motor
Terminal
Box U1 V1 W1
U1 V1 W1
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

The incoming 3 phase supply lines are connected to the ‘1’ (one) terminals whilst the ‘2’
terminals are used to connect the shorts as required. Not all motors have all 6 ends of
the stator connections available in the motor terminal box – the interconnection details
will be given on the motor plate. Generally, larger motors are almost always supplied
connected in Delta.
Rotor The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit. In the basic induction
motor, a “squirrel cage” rotor is used consisting of a stack of steel laminations with
evenly spaced conductor slots around the circumference. The laminations are stacked
together to form a rotor core. Aluminium is die-cast in the slots of the rotor core to form a
series of conductors around the perimeter of the rotor. The conductor bars are
mechanically and electrically connected with end rings. The rotor core mounts on a steel
shaft to form a rotor assembly. The rotating stator field induces a current in the
conductor bars, which sets up a magnetic field in the rotor. Interaction between the
stator and rotor fields causes the rotor to rotate in the same direction as the stator field,
but at a slower speed.
Enclosure The enclosure consists of a frame and two end brackets. The stator is
mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air gap separating
it from the stator. There is no direct physical connection between the rotor and the
stator. The enclosure also protects the electrical and operating parts of the motor from
harmful effects of the environment in which the motor operates. Bearings, mounted on
the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. A fan, also mounted on the shaft, is often
used on the motor for cooling.

Speed
The force that makes the rotor turn is present only when there is an induced emf in the
rotor bars – which only occurs when the rotating magnetic field of the stator cuts the
rotor bars. If the rotor runs at the same speed as the stator field, no emf is induced in the
rotor bars, hence there is no force on them and no torque on the rotor. Thus the rotor
slows down – and it can never run at synchronous speed.
The difference between the rotor speed nr and the synchronous speed ns is called the
slip speed
Slip speed = ns-nr (rev/s)
Fractional slip or slip (%)

When there is no load on the rotor, other than friction, it will run very nearly at
synchronous speed. As the rotor is loaded, the speed falls (i.e. the slip increases), the
induced emf and induced current increase, so therefore the force and torque acting on
the rotor increase until they balance the load.
Torque-Speed and Stator Current-Speed Characteristics of Squirrel-Cage Motor
Locked Rotor (or Starting) Torque A – the minimum torque that the motor develops at
rest at rated voltage and frequency.
Locked Rotor (or Starting) Current – the steady state current taken from the supply at
rated voltage and frequency with the rotor locked.
Pull-up Torque B – the minimum torque developed during the period of acceleration
from rest to the speed that breakdown torque occurs.
Breakdown Torque C – the maximum torque that the motor develops at rated voltage
and frequency without an abrupt drop in speed.
Full-Load Torque D – the torque developed by the motor on full load at the rated voltage
and frequency.

Under normal operating conditions, up to full load, the motor has almost constant speed.
However it has a poor starting torque and a high starting current. Better start
characteristics can be obtained by increasing the rotor resistance – though this also
leads to poorer speed regulation over the normal operating range of the motor. Ideally
we need a motor with variable rotor resistance.
Wound Rotor motor
A major difference between the wound rotor motor and the squirrel cage rotor is the
conductors of the wound rotor consist of wound coils instead of bars. These coils are
connected through slip rings and brushes to external variable resistors. A large
resistance value is used at start-up to improve the performance of the motor during this
period and then gradually removed as the motor speeds up. The slip rings are short-
circuited in order to provide optimum performance over the normal operating range of
the motor. The resistors can also be used to give some control over the speed of the
motor.
Double Cage Induction Motor
In the double cage induction motor, the rotor has 2 cages one inside the other. The
outer cage has high resistance, low reactance bars (e.g. bronze) whilst the inner cage
has low resistance, high reactance bars (e.g. copper). Under starting conditions, the
rotor current is concentrated in the outer cage to give high starting torque and low
starting current. At normal running speed the rotor current is concentrated in the low
resistance inner cage.
Torque
Double Cage
Outer Cage
Inner Cage
Speed

Three-Phase Synchronous Motors
Construction and Operation
The stator arrangement for a synchronous motor is identical to that of an induction motor
and results in a magnetic field that rotates at synchronous speed. Unlike in the
induction motor, the magnetic field of the rotor in a synchronous motor does not depend
on an induced current and the rotor is therefore able to rotate without slip (i.e. at
synchronous speed). The rotor field has the same number of poles as the stator and is
normally produced by coil windings connected to an external DC power supply by slip
rings and brushes. Another alternative is to use permanent magnets in the rotor.
Unlike induction motors, the synchronous motor is not self-starting thus the rotor
arrangement usually incorporates a means to start the motor as an induction motor (e.g.
squirrel cage), which is shorted out as the rotor approaches synchronous speed. At this
point DC is applied to the rotor coils producing a strong constant magnetic field in the
rotor, which locks in step with the stator field.
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Under no load the rotating stator and rotor fields will be exactly aligned. If a load is
applied to a synchronous motor, the rotor will momentarily slip behind the stator but will
thereafter continue to rotate at synchronous speed. As the load is increased so will the
misalignment of the rotor and stator. The rotor however will continue to rotate at the
synchronous speed until the load torque reaches a value of around 1.5 x Full Load
Torque (the pull-out torque) beyond which the rotor will be forced out of synchronism
and the motor will stall.
Torque
Pull-out Torque
Motoring
Speed
Generating

Power Factor Correction
An important advantage of a synchronous motor is that the motor power factor can be
controlled by adjusting the excitation of the rotating DC field. Unlike AC induction
motors, which run at a lagging power factor, a synchronous motor can run at unity or
even at a leading power factor. Synchronous motors can therefore supply reactive
power to counteract lagging power factor caused by inductive loads.
As the DC field excitation is increased, the power factor (as measured at the motor
terminals) becomes more leading. If the excitation is decreased, the power factor of the
motor becomes more lagging.
The curves on the graph show the effect of excitation (field amps) on the stator and on
the system power factor. There are separate V curves for No-Load and Full Load cases.
A manufacturer may also have curves for other percentages of full load (25%, 50%,
75%). To determine the field excitation that will produce a unity power factor at full load:
Go up the Y-axis to unity power factor (100%). Come across the X-axis to the peak of
the Power Factor V curve for full load operation. Come back down the Y-axis to
determine the field amps (10A). Notice that at unity power factor, the stator full load
amps is at the minimum value.

As the field amps increases above what is required for unity power factor, the motor
becomes more leading. As the amps decrease below what is required for unity power
factor, the motor becomes more lagging. In either case, the stator amps increases
above that required for unity power factor.
Single Phase Motors
A stator fitted with a winding connected to a single-phase ac supply will produce a

pulsating rather than a rotating magnetic field. Thus a stationary squirrel cage rotor does
not experience any starting torque. However, if the rotor is initially spun by some other
means, the motor will then continue to run in that direction, rather like a 3-phase motor.
Single-phase motors are started by getting the stator field to rotate during the start-up
period so that the rotor may follow. This is achieved by activating an additional “start”
winding on the stator connected in parallel to the normal “run” winding. The 2 windings
are designed to have different resistance and reactance values so that the currents in
them are out of phase and thereby produce a rotating magnetic field in the stator. The
start winding is automatically disconnected from the supply once the rotor has been
spun into motion.
Single-phase motors are distinguished by the means in which the phase difference
between the run and start windings needed for start-up is achieved.
Split-Phase Motor
The split phase motor, (or induction-start/induction-run motor), is the simple and cheap
for industrial use, though somewhat limited. The start winding is made with smaller
gauge wire of fewer turns than the main winding; this creates more resistance but less
inductive reactance and puts the start winding's field out of phase (by about 30 degrees)
from that of the main winding during the start-up period. The main winding, of heavier
wire, keeps the motor running the rest of the time. A split-phase motor uses a centrifugal
switch that disconnects the start winding when the motor comes up to about 75% of
rated speed.
Starting torques are low (100%-175% FLT). Starting currents are high (700-1,000%
FLC), so prolonged starting times may overheat the start winding.
Maximum running torques are 250 - 350% FLT. Thermal protection is difficult because
the high locked-rotor current relative to running current makes it tricky to find a protector
with trip time fast enough to prevent start-winding burnout.
Split-phase motors are used in small grinders, small fans and blowers, and other low
starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3 HP.
Capacitor Start/Induction Run
The capacitor start/induction run has many industrial applications. It can be considered
as a split-phase motor, but with a beefed-up start winding that includes a capacitor (100
- 1000μF) in the circuit to increase the phase difference between the start and run
circuits and thereby provide a start "boost". Like the split-phase motor, the capacitor
start motor also has a starting switch, but the switch now disconnects not only the start
winding but also the capacitor.
Capacitor start/induction run motors have several advantages over split-phase motors:
more starting torque (200 - 400% FLT); less starting current (450-575% FLC) due to the
larger wire in the start circuit; higher cycle rates; and reliable thermal protection.
The cap-start/induction-run motor is more expensive than a comparable split phase
design because of the additional cost of the start capacitor, but it has a much wider
application range such as conveyors, large blowers and pumps.
Permanent Split Capacitor
A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor has neither a starting switch, nor a capacitor
strictly for starting. Instead, it has a run-type capacitor (<65μF) permanently connected
in series with the start winding. This makes the start winding an auxiliary winding once
the motor reaches running speed. Because the run capacitor must be designed for
continuous use, it cannot provide the starting boost of a starting capacitor.
Starting torques are low (30 -150% FLT) as are starting currents (less than 200% FLC -
making them excellent for applications with high cycle rates). PSC motors have several
advantages:
No starting mechanism and so can be easily reversed.

Designs can be easily altered for use with speed controllers.

Reliability due to lack of starting switch.
Permanent split capacitor motors have many applications depending on the design.
These include fans, blowers with low starting torque needs, and intermittent cycling uses
such as adjusting mechanisms, gate operators and garage door openers, many of which
also need instant reversing.
Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run
This motor combines the best of the capacitor-start/induction-run motor and the
permanent split capacitor motor. It has a start-type capacitor in series with the auxiliary
winding like the capacitor-start motor for high starting torque. And, like a PSC motor, it
also has a run-type capacitor that is in series with the auxiliary winding after the start
capacitor is switched out of the circuit - giving a high breakdown torque.
The capacitor-start/capacitor-run type motor can be designed for low full-load currents
and high efficiency so that it operates at lower temperature than other single-phase
motor types of comparable horsepower.
Cap-start/cap-run motors cost more but are able to handle applications too demanding
for any other kind of single-phase motor. These include woodworking machinery, air
compressors, high-pressure water pumps, vacuum pumps and other high torque
applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.
Shaded-Pole
Shaded-pole motors have only one main winding and no start winding. Starting is by
means of a design that rings a continuous copper loop around a small portion of each
motor pole. This "shades" that portion of the pole, causing the magnetic field in the
ringed area to lag the field in the un-ringed portion. The reaction of the two fields gets
the shaft rotating.
Because the shaded pole motor lacks a start winding, starting switch or capacitor, it is
electrically simple and inexpensive. Also, speed can be controlled merely by varying
voltage, or through a multi-tap winding. Mechanically, shaded-pole motor construction

allows high-volume production so that they are considered to be disposable rather than
repairable.
Starting torque is low (25 - 75% FLT) as is the efficiency (less than 20%). It is also a
high slip motor (7 - 10% below synchronous speed).
Low initial cost suits shaded pole motors to low-horsepower or light-duty household
applications such as multi-speed fans.

Universal Motor
The universal motor can be operated on either an a.c. or d.c. supply and is very similar
in construction to a d.c. series wound motor. The main difference is that the yoke is
made up of finer laminations to reduce eddy currents and prevent overheating when
operated from an a.c. supply. On an a.c. supply the field polarity and armature
conductor polarity will change at the same time, therefore the motor continues to run in
the same direction. The commutator is still required to change the armature current
polarity whenever the plane of the armature coil is perpendicular to the field.
The motor is cheap to produce and runs at a higher speed than an induction motor. It is
more powerful than any other similarly sized single-phase motor, but suffers from
considerable brush and commutator wear. Like the series d.c. motor, if the load on the
motor is reduced, the speed will rise rapidly.
Universal motors are widely used in domestic appliances up to 1/3 HP such as vacuum
cleaners, food mixers and washing machines.
GENERATORS PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
DC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. when a conductor

move in a magnetic field in such a way conductors cuts across a magnetic flux of lines
and e.m.f. produces in a generator and it is defined by faradays law of electromagnetic
induction e.m.f. causes current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
First Law :
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in
it. Or Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.
Second Law :
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
The following are the basic requirements to be satisfied for generation of E.M.F
1.A uniform Magnetic field

2.A System of conductors
3.Relative motion between the magnetic field and conductors
• Magnetic field :Permanent Magnet (or) Electro Magnet (practical)
• Conductor :- Copper (or) Aluminum bars placed in slots cut around the
periphery of cylindrical rotor
• Relative motion:-
By Prime Mover
Turbine
I.C Engine (Internal combustion)

Basic AC Generator Basic DC Generator
Basic operation of the generator

As the loop rotates, the magnetic flux through it changes with time
This induces an e.m.f and a current in the external circuit
The ends of the loop are connected to slip rings that rotate with the loop
Connections to the external circuit are made by stationary brushes in contact with the
slip rings
The Practical DC Generator

 The actual construction and operation
of a practical dc generator differs
somewhat from our elementary generators.
 Nearly all practical generators use
electromagnetic poles instead of the
permanent magnets used in our elementary
generator.
 The main advantages of using
electromagnetic poles are:
(1) increased field strength.
(2) possible to control the strength of the
fields. By varying the input voltage, the
field strength is varied. By varying the field
strength, the output voltage of the generator
can be controlled.

AC Motor Controls
An ac motor controller is a combination of devices used to start, run, and stop an
induction motor based. The control circuit may be manually activated but is more usually
run of 115V a.c. – derived from the incoming supply lines – or a separate 24Vd.c.
supply.
Motor Starters
Induction motors can be started by connecting the motor directly across the supply
circuit (Direct on Line starters) or by applying a reduced voltage during the start period
(Star-Delta, Auto-transformer and Soft starters). There are no hard and fast rules as to
which method is the most appropriate:
The heavy start currents (5-8 times Full Load Current) drawn by large induction
motors can create voltage disturbances on some ‘weak’ supply lines so reduced
voltage starting is preferable.
Fast cycling motors (repeatedly starting and stopping without intervening cooling
periods) may overheat if started on full voltage (where the heating effect will be
25-64 times the run value).
Motors that start without significant load torque are able to speed up very quickly
so that the heavy current drawn on start-up is of short duration and full voltage
starting may be appropriate.
The torque of the motor is proportional to the square of the applied voltage. Thus
reduced voltage starting will lead to a significant decrease in the acceleration of
the motor and increase in run-up time – which may be advantageous for certain
types of load.
Whatever method is used, the starter will incorporate at least one 3-pole contactor along
with some form of overload protection.
Direct on Line (DOL) Starter. A DOL starter links the motor direct to the supply. The
contactor coil is connected in series with a start button, stop button and overload trip
contacts. The control circuit is energised from two lines of the 3-phase supply – usually
via a step-down transformer. When the start button is pressed the control supply is
connected to the contactor coil. The contactor closes and then starts the motor. When
the start button is released its contacts spring open. An auxiliary contact on the
contactor keeps the contactor coil energised after the start button is released.
Pressing the stop button breaks the control circuit to the contactor coil; the contactor
trips and the motor stops.

If the motor takes too much current because it is mechanically overloaded or stalled, the
overload coils open the overload trip contacts, which will stop the motor and prevent
overheating.
The diagram below shows a DOL starter using 24V dc control circuitry that additionally
enables the motor to be reversed by changing over 2 of the inputs.

Star – Delta Starters Star-Delta starters initially arrange for the stator coils to be linked in
star configuration across the supply so that each coil experiences the phase voltage –
this is reduced by a factor of 1.732 (57.5%) compared with the line voltage. The coils are
switched into delta configuration following a suitable time period after start-up,
whereupon the coils experience the full line voltage.
Operator closes motor isolator IS and then presses the start button.
Start button connects the supply to the star contactor coil S in the control circuit.
Contactor contacts S close so motor windings are star connected.
Auxiliary contacts S1 close so line Contactor coil L is energised, contacts L close, motor
is connected to 3-phase supply and starts up.
Auxiliary contacts L1 close at the same time as contacts L. The operator may now
release the start button since supply to coil L is maintained through L1.
After a time interval that allows the motor to run up to speed, auxiliary contact L2 opens
and L3 closes.
Star Contactor coil S is de-energised and its contacts S open; so do the auxiliary contact
S1. Delta Contactor coil D is energised and the motor is now delta connected to the 3-
phase supply. In some cases a mechanical interlock is fitted between the contacts S and
D so that both cannot be closed at the same time.

Autotransformer Starter. The autotransformer starter is a reduced voltage starting
method for motors where each end of the three phases is not accessible.
The diagram shows a manual autotransformer starter. The starting conditions depend
on the position of the tapping on the transformer winding, i.e. on the secondary voltage.
Usually three or more tappings are provided so that there is a choice of starting
conditions such as 40, 60 or 75% of line voltage. The use of an autotransformer, which
uses only one winding for both input and output, makes for an arrangement that is
cheaper, smaller and lighter than an equivalent double-wound transformer – but is still
more expensive than a star-delta starter.
Soft Starters. A soft-start reduces the peak inrush current by as much as 50%, prevents
unnecessary excess torque, reduces line disturbances on the power distribution system
and reduces instances of nuisance tripping of protection devices. Generally, a soft start
uses a solid state (thyristor-based) adjustable time ramp circuit that gradually increases
power to the motor. As voltage is applied, current is gradually increased as needed by
the motor, until full voltage and current bring the motor to its operating RPM. At that
point, the soft-start circuit turns off.

Comparison of Starting Methods. The method are compared in the table below:
Type of Starting current Starting torque Applications

Starter as % of FLC as % of FLT
Direct on line 500 – 800 130-220 Low output machines where high
(DOL) start current and torque shock has
no detrimental effect
Direct on line 500 – 800 130-220 Low output machines where high
Reversing start current and torque shock has
no detrimental effect
Star Delta 180 – 260 50-70 Applied to drives started on no or
light loads. Starting torque and
current are fixed at 1/√3 DOL figures
and cannot be varied. Motor needs
to have 6 terminals.
Auto- Variable Variable Used where a specific starting
transformer torque/current relationship needed
Soft Start 300 – 350 10 Used where very low starting torque
needed. Motor accelerates very
slowly with maximum starting
current much lower than DOL value
Speed Controllers
The speed of an ac induction motor can be altered by changing the synchronous speed
of the stator field, or by changing the amount of rotor slip.
Changing the Synchronous Speed. The synchronous speed depend on the number of
stator pole pairs and the frequency of the supply:
Altering number of poles – the stator windings may be reconnected so as to alter

the number of poles or there may be more than one set of windings. Used in
applications requiring a few set speeds only (e.g. fans, conveyors, machine tools)
rather than continuous adjustment.
Altering the supply frequency. Whilst the UK mains runs at a constant 50Hz, a
supply of different frequency (5-120Hz) can be obtained by first rectifying the ac
supply to dc and then using an inverter to re-convert to ac. The output frequency
is controlled by capacitor-triggered thyristors within the inverter and is fed to the
motor via an automatic control system. The Variable Speed Drive (VSD) is used
in applications where a range of speeds are needed.(e.g. machine tools and
pumps). The VSD output is not a pure sine wave but consists of the fundamental
frequency plus various harmonics. The fundamental frequency f determines the
synchronous speed, though the harmonics result in unwanted noise and losses
and normally result in the motor being de-rated by 5-10%. To ensure that the
shape of the torque/speed characteristics remains similar at the new synchronous
speed, the supply voltage v is altered so that the ratio v/f remains unchanged – at
least up to the base frequency of 50 Hz.
Changing the Rotor Slip. The amount of rotor slip for a given load depends on the size
of the induced current in the rotor:
Altering the Supply Voltage. Reducing the voltage across the stator windings,
reduces the strength of the rotating magnetic field. The induced emf in the rotor is
reduced, the rotor current drops as does the torque developed by the motor. The
motor will slip more until the value of the induced emf increases to its original
value and the motor torque once more balances the load torque. Commonly used
for centrifugal pumps and fan-type characteristics where load torque is low at low
speeds and the heat generated in rotor at high slip is tolerated.
Variation of rotor resistance. This is used in the wound-rotor induction motor to

control the rotor current and hence the torque of the motor. Inefficient but simple
and used in hoists, conveyors and crushers.
Brake Controls
Many motors are fitted with some ‘brake’ device, to slow the motor to a stop and / or to
hold the motor in place. The brakes may be electrical or mechanical.
Electric Brakes. Electric brakes may operate by regeneration and/or DC injection (both
are examples of dynamic braking). In the latter case, DC is ‘injected’ to the stator coils in
place of the AC supply. This generates a fixed magnetic field, rapidly slowing and
locking the motor in place. Whilst DC injection is useful for rapidly stopping a motor, it is
unsuitable for holding a motor in a given position.
Mechanical Brakes. Typically a pad or shoe type brake acting on a brake disc fitted to
the motor shaft. These are ‘fail safe’ as they are operated and held on by powerful
springs. When the brake coil is energised the friction element is pulled away from the
armature plate and the motor is able to rotate. A rectifier is used to convert alternating
current to direct current to operate the brake coil.
Correct adjustment of the brake clearance is critical.
Motors used with a VSD (inverter) must have the brake rectifier fed direct from the
supply and not from the VSD output.
W2 U2 V2
W1 U1 V1
1 2
Rectifier
L1 L2 L3 3 4
Motor Terminal Box 110V dc
Brake Coil
Switching and Protection Devices
Motor switching and protection devices are located on or very close to the motor itself
and are provided in addition to circuit protection devices (which in motor circuits are
normally in the form of a High Breaking Capacity fuse or Type C/D Miniature Circuit
Breaker). The motor protection device must take account of the fact that the current
during start-up may be many times greater than FLC – thus the overload function needs
to be both time and current related, whilst still giving instantaneous protection against
short circuits.
Contactors
Contactors are electro-mechanical switching devices that are used to operate motor
starters and are akin to large relays. Whilst protection devices such as MCB’s can be
used to turn a motor On/Off, the MCB is designed for thousands of switching operations
whereas a contactor is designed for millions of operations.
Three pole magnetic contactors are used with motors operating on three phase a.c.
systems. The number of poles in these contactors refers to the number of power
contacts and does not include control contacts for control wiring.
L1 L2 L3
T1 T2 T3
Stationary Contacts
Movable Contacts
Insulated Springs
Electro-magnet
Coil
Moving Plunger
Many contactors have auxiliary contacts built in to provide signalling to a control device.
In circuit diagrams, contactor elements are indicated thus:
a) Main Contact
b) Auxiliary Contact
c) Contactor Coil

Thermal Overload Device
A thermal protector is designed to prevent a motor from getting too hot, causing possible
fire or damage to the motor. They are usually a bi-metallic strip element, held at one end
that is heated directly by the passage of the main current. As its temperature rises, the
element bends due to the unequal expansion of the two metals and this movement is
used to trip or operate the contacts.
The thermal overload relies on the heating effect of a current plus time. If the motor
takes a high current over a short time (e.g. a start up), the thermal overload will not trip.
If excess current flows for a longer time then the overload will trip.
Never bypass a protector because of nuisance tripping. This is generally an indication of
some other problem, such as overloading or lack of proper ventilation. Only manual-
reset thermal overloads should be used in application where the driven load could cause
personal injury if the motor should restart unexpectedly. Otherwise the overload device
should be “linked” to the control circuit of the motor.
Magnetic Overload Device
An electromagnetic coil is used to lift an iron plunger or armature to release a latch that
secures a closed contact. The magnetic force of the coil is proportional to the current
flowing. At a pre-determined current, the plunger will operate the tripping mechanism.
When a motor’s start current is high so the overload could trip on starting. To remedy
this an oil dashpot is used to slow down the movement of the plunger enabling starting
currents to be ignored, but continuous excess currents will trip the overload contacts.
Thermistors
Thermistors are semiconductor devices whose resistance varies with temperature and
which can operate on AC or DC systems. Thermistors with a Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC) of resistance are used in motors to provide temperature protection.
Thermistor protection units continuously monitor the temperature of the motor by means
of the PTC thermistors embedded in the machine windings. If the nominal operating
temperature of the probes is reached, the probes convert the rapid increase in
resistance into a switching function that can be used to open the control circuit or signal
a fault.
Thermistor protection relays provide additional motor protection and should be used to
supplement a conventional current sensing overload relay.
PILZ safety relay system

EN 62061
–Safety of Machinery: Functional safety of electrical, electronic and programmable
electronic control systems
–Technology specific
–Covers all levels of complexity
•EN ISO 13849-1
–Safety of machinery — Safety-related parts of control systems Part 1: General
principles for design
–Is a replacement for EN 954-1
–Not technology specific, can be used for any energy source.
–Can also be used for Programmable Systems (Safety PLC’s)
EN ISO 13849-1
•4.2.2 – For each safety function the characteristics and the required performance level
shall be specified
•4.3 Determination of required performance level (PLr)
–For each selected safety function to be carried out by a SRP/CS, a required
performance level (PLr) shall be determined and documented (see Annex A for
guidance on determining PLr).
Safety Functions - Examples

•Safety related stop function initiated by safeguard
•Local control function
•Hold to run
•Enabling device
•Muting function
•Prevention of unexpected start up
•Control modes and mode selection
•Emergency stop

Motor Data
Performance
Every motor should have an easily read and durable rating plate fixed to its frame,
containing the following information (BS 4999 Part 101):
 The manufacturer’s name

 The manufacturer’s serial number, and year of manufacture
 The type of machine: motor, generator, shunt, series, cage, etc.
 The class of rating or the duty type
 The rated output
 The rated voltage
 The rated current
 The type of current (A.C. or D.C.)
 For A.C. machines, the rated frequency and number of phases
 The rated speed or speed range
 The class of insulation or permissible temperature rise
 The number and date of the applicable standard (e.g. B.S. 4999)
 For A.C. machines, the winding connections shown by appropriate symbols
 For A.C. machines, the power factor
 The maximum temperature if it is designated to be other than 40 oC
 The altitude if it is designated to be used at greater than 1000 metres
Enclosure Types
There are several types of protection and cooling for motors:
Open Machine. An open machine has no restriction to ventilation other than the
mechanical construction of the machine:
 An Open Drip Proof (ODP) machine is protected from drops of liquid or solid particles
- at any angle from 0 to 15 degrees downward from the vertical
 An Open Splash Proof (OSP) machine is protected from drops of liquid or solid
particles - at any angle not greater than 60 degrees downward from the vertical
 A guarded machine is a machine where all openings that have direct access to live
metal or rotating parts are limited in size by the structural parts or by screens, baffles
or other means to prevent accidental contact with hazardous parts
 A semi-guarded machine is a machine in which part of the ventilating openings in the
machine (usually the top half) are guarded, but others are left open

Weather Protected Machine A Type 1 machine is guarded with its ventilation
constructed to minimize the entry of rain, snow and air-borne particles . A Type 2 is
similar to a Type 1, but its ventilation is constructed at the intake and discharge so that
storms or high winds cannot blow into the electric parts of the motor.
Totally Enclosed Machine A totally enclosed machine is enclosed to prevent the free
exchange of air between the inside and outside of the case - this ordinarily means that
the motor is dust tight, and has a moderate water seal as well.
 A Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated (TENV) machine is cooled by convection

 A Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) machine is cooled by fans integral to the
machine but external to the enclosing parts
 A Totally Enclosed Water-Cooled (TEWC) machine is cooled by circulating water in
contact with the machine parts
 A Totally Enclosed Air Over (TEAO) machine is designed to be used solely in the air
stream of the fan or blower, which it is driving
 A Totally Enclosed Waterproof machine is generally constructed so that a stream of
water from a hose will not enter the machine
Explosion Proof Machine The enclosure of an explosion proof machine is designed to

withstand the explosion of a specified gas or vapour which may occur within it, and to
prevent the ignition of the gas or vapour surrounding the machine due to sparks, flashes
or explosions from within the machine casing.
Frame Size
The symbols used to identify the frame size of machines are as follows(BS 4999)
e.g. D132 S D
First Symbol Second set of Third symbol Fourth Symbol

(Enclosure Type) digits (stator Core (type of mounting if
Length) not foot)
C Enclosed height in S Short D Flange
Ventilation millimetres of the
D Totally Enclosed shaft centre M Medium V Skirt
above the feet on L Long C Face Flange
a foot mounted P Pad
frame R Rod
Ingress Protection (IP) Ratings
EN 60529 outlines an international classification system for the sealing effectiveness of

enclosures of electrical equipment against the intrusion into the equipment of foreign
bodies (i.e. tools, dust, fingers) and moisture. This classification system can be loosely
linked to the enclosure type classifications and uses the letters "IP" ("Ingress
Protection") followed by usually 2 digits. An "x" is used for one of the digits if there is
only one class of protection; i.e. IPX4 which addresses moisture resistance only.

The first digit of the IP code indicates the degree that persons are protected against
contact with moving parts and the degree that equipment is protected against solid
foreign bodies intruding into an enclosure.
The second digit indicates the degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against the harmful entry of various forms of moisture.
First Number (Ingress of solids) Second Number (Ingress of Liquids)

0 No protection 0 No protection
1 Protected against solid objects 1 Protection against vertically falling drops
up to 50mm of water . - means protected against
e.g. accidental touch by hands dripping water
2 Protected against solid objects 2 Protected against vertically falling drops
up to 12mm of water with enclosure tilted 15° from the
e.g. fingers vertical - limited ingress permitted.
3 Protected against solid objects 3 Protection against direct sprays of water
up to 2.5mm (tools and wires) up to 60 degrees from vertical
4 Protected against solid objects 4
Protected against water splashed from all
up to 1mm (small tools and
directions - limited ingress permitted.
wires)
5 Protected against dust, limited 5 Protected against low pressure jets of
ingress (no harmful deposit) water from all directions – limited ingress
permitted
6 Totally protected against dust 6 Protected against low-pressure jets of
water - limited ingress permitted. Means
use on shipdeck.
7 Protected against the effect of immersion
between 15cm and 1m
8 Protected against long periods of

immersion under pressure
Insulation Systems
There are different insulating components used in the process of building a motor, such
as the enamel coating on the magnet wire and the insulation on the leads in the motor
box. Another important component is the dipping varnish that is used to seal scratches
that may have occurred and binds the winding together so that it does not vibrate or
chafe when subjected to the magnetic force that exists in the motor. Insulation systems
are divided into classes based on thermal ageing and failure. Four classes are
commonly used in motors – A, B, F, and H - separated by 25 degree C increments. The
temperature capability of each class is defined as the maximum temperature at which
the insulation can be operated to yield an average life of 20,000 hours:
Class A - Rated 105 degrees C

Class B - Rated 130 degrees C
Class F - Rated 155 degrees C
Class H - Rated 180 degrees C

Hazardous Environments
Hazardous atmospheres are classified into 3 zones:
 Zone 0 An explosive mixture is present continuously or for long periods

 Zone 1 An explosive mixture is likely to occur in normal operation
 Zone 2 An explosive mixture is unlikely to occur and would be of short length
 No Zone Non-hazardous or safe area
The temperature at which a gas, vapour or mist ignites spontaneously at atmospheric

pressure is known as the ‘Ignition temperature’. To avoid the risk of explosion, the
temperature of any part or surface of the motor must always remain below the ignition
temperature of the mixture. Design max surface temperature of a motor under normal
operating conditions are given below:
Temperature Class Maximum Surface

Temperature (oC)
T1 450
T2 300
T3 200
T4 135
T5 100
T6 85
Motors that are required to operate in a hazardous environment are designed with
appropriate protection measures:
Flameproof (EEx d) A type of protection in which the parts which can ignite an
explosive atmosphere are placed in an enclosure which can withstand the
pressure developed during an internal explosion to the explosive atmosphere
surrounding the enclosure.
Increased Safety (EEx e) Additional measures are applied to electrical

equipment so as to give increased security against the possibility of excessive
temperatures and of the occurrence of sparks and arcs during the service life of
the apparatus.
Non-Sparking (EEx N) In normal operation, the apparatus is not capable of

igniting a surrounding explosive atmosphere and no fault capable of causing
ignition is likely to occur.

Motor Testing and Trouble Shooting
Instrumentation
General Guidelines. There are several meters that can be encountered during electrical
work activities. Each meter has a specific use, but there are some general rules that will
ensure that the meters are used in the correct manner.
 The correct meter should be selected for the type of test to be carried out
 The meter and any leads should be visually inspected before use to ensure that the
meter is in good working order
 Meter leads are connected to the right connections for the measurement required
 The meter should be handled with care and placed in a safe position to allow a
‘hands free’ operation
 It should also be placed in such a position that it can be easily read
 After use ensure that the meter is:
 Switched off
 Visually inspected to ensure that the meter is in good working order
 Stored in a safe place to prevent any damage to it
 General advice for leads and probes to be used with meters is covered in HSE
guidance note GS38.
The leads should:
 Be adequately insulated
 Be coloured so that one lead can readily be distinguished from the other
 Be flexible and sufficiently robust for the duty expected of them
 Be sheathed to protect against mechanical damage
 Be long enough for the purpose (but not too long).
 Not have accessible exposed conductors other than the probe tips, nor should
live conductors be accessible to a person's finger if the lead should become
detached from the probe or the instrument.
The probes should:
 Have finger guards or be so shaped so as to guard against inadvertent hand
contact with the live conductors under test.
 Be insulated so as to leave an exposed metal tip not exceeding 2mm measured
across any surface of the tip.
In addition, fused leads are recommended.
When reading voltage any multi-meter must be connected in parallel across the part of
the circuit to be measured. The resistance of any voltmeter needs to be as high as
possible.
When reading current any multi-meter must be connected in series within the circuit to
be measured. The resistance of the meter must be as low as possible.

When reading resistance the circuit must be isolated from the supply. The meter is
connected in parallel across the part of the circuit to be measured.
Voltage Indicator A voltage indicator is used to check that a circuit is isolated

 It has neon lights on it; these will light up to indicate the level of potential
 It is only a rough guide to the level of potential
 It can indicate ac or dc
 It has a fused lead on one side protected by a 500mA HBC fuse
Multifunctional Meter (Multimeter) This type of meter will perform several functions;
these include reading Voltage (ac and dc), Current (ac and dc), and Resistance. They
can come in various guises but the two most common types are the Digital Multi-Meter
(DMM) and the Analogue Multi-Meter (AVO).
Clamp Meter Used to measure current either ac or dc via a number of different settings,
some clamp meters can also be multi-meters
 To measure the current in a cable or wire the meter is placed around the wire
 Take care in cases where the meter is placed within a panel or is close to large
conductors, magnets or transformers
Insulation Tester This type of meter is commonly called a Meggar and is used to ensure
that the insulation of conductors, accessories and equipment is in a healthy condition, it
also indicates the presence of any short circuits
 The voltage setting required for the insulation check depends upon the thickness of
the insulation of the cable or wire
 The rule of thumb for selecting the correct setting is to set at twice the working
voltage of the circuit or equipment
Other less common meters include Earth Loop Impedance testers, RCD testers and
Phase Rotation meters
Testing Procedures
Tests on motors may be carried out with the motor power off (static tests) or the motor
power on (dynamic tests).
Static Tests. Static tests must be carried out with the motor supply disconnected.
In addition to visual inspection for obvious damage, static tests fall into 2 categories –
insulation tests and resistance tests:
Insulation Tests – Confirm condition of winding insulation

Refer to the motor rating plate and electrical drawing for the circuit voltage
Select the correct voltage on the meggar:
Supply Voltage Test Voltage

230 Volts 500 Volts
400 Volts 500 Volts
 Ensure test leads are in good condition. Short them together and test the
meter – the reading should be 0  (may be some lead resistance)
 To meggar between phases remove the connection links within the terminal
box (star/delta). Sometimes it may not be possible to meggar between phases
because the star connection is built into the windings and cannot be
accessed. Also, star - delta connections are sometimes made outside the
motor terminal box between the main panel and the motor or at the motor
contactor
 Test the insulation between phases and between each phase and earth:
Motor Style Phase to Phase to Earth to

Earth Phase Earth
Standard >1 M >1 M 0
Servo/Spindle >10 M >10 M 0
 Caution should be taken when meggaring servomotors as these can have

multiple windings, which will show as short circuits when meggared between
phases. Refer to maintenance manuals
Resistance Tests – Confirm winding continuity and balance

An Insulator tester or Low Ohmmeter can be used to carry out the tests. Large motors
and servo/spindle motors should be tested using a low ohmmeter, as they will have
windings of low resistance (usually below 1). The table below gives approximate
acceptable values when testing the resistance of the windings:
Power Voltage Amps Expected

(KW) 
0.75 415 2 11.41
1.1 415 2.5 9.13
1.5 415 3.5 6.52
2.2 415 5 4.5
3 415 6.5 3.51
3.7 415 7.5 3.04
4 415 8.4 2.71
5.5 415 11 2.07
7.5 415 14 1.63
9 415 17 1.34
11 415 21 1.08
 Before taking resistance readings short the meter test leads together to
ensure correct operation. When using a low ohmmeter ensure that all
crocodile clips are connected properly or the meter will show open circuit.
When using an insulator tester note the value when the leads are shorted
together as this reading needs to be subtracted from the reading obtained
from the motor

 All phases should be equal resistance when tested – make a note of how the
motor windings are connected since sometimes it will not be possible to test
across one set of windings
U
B
M U
M
A
W V
W Star V Delta
A - W = Resistance of one winding checked

B - W = Resistance of two windings checked
Winding Resistance can be calculated using:
R = 0.055 x Volts
Rated Current
Volts – Supply Voltage

Rated Current = Full Load Current of Motor
See motor rating plate for above values
Dynamic Tests – Dynamic tests are carried out with the motor connected to the power
supply and therefore require all the safety aspects associated with live working,
particularly as the motor may also be running. The tests could include:
Visual inspection for defective operation – e.g. sparking. noise, overheating

Voltage checks with a multimeter – e.g. at the contactor and the motor.
Current checks with a clampmeter – e.g. at the circuit breaker and motor.

Motor Trouble Shooting Chart
Trouble Cause What to do

Motor fails to start Blown fuse Replace fuse with proper type and rating
Overload trips Check and reset overload in starter as band-aid if safe to do so. For
permanent countermeasure, investigate the reason why an increased
current is being drawn from the motor. (for example look for increased
friction in motor or load from worn bearings etc)
Improper power supply Check to see that power supplied agrees with motor name plate and
load factor
Improper line connections Check connections with diagram supplied with motor
Open-circuit in windings or control Indicates by humming sound when switch is closed. Check for loose
switch wiring connections. Also, ensure that all control contacts are closing
Mechanical failure Check to see if motor and drive turn freely. Check bearings and
lubrication
Short circuited stator Indicated by blown fuses. Motor must be rewound
Motor may be overloaded Reduce load
Motor stalls Wrong application Change type or size. Consult manufacturer
Overload Reduce load
Low voltage Ensure the name plate voltage is maintained. Check connections
Open circuit Fuses blown, check overload relay, stator and push buttons
Motor runs and then Power failure Check for loose connections to line, fuses and control
dies down
Motor does not Not applied properly Consult supplier for proper type
come up to speed Voltage too low at motor terminals Use higher voltage or transformer terminals or reduce load. Check
because of line drop connections. Check conductors for proper size
Starting load too high Check load motor is supposed to carry at start
Open primary circuit Locate fault with testing device and repair
Motor takes too long Excessive load Reduce load
to accelerate and/or Low voltage during start Check for high resistance. Adequate wire size
draws high current Applied voltage too low Get power supply increased
Wrong rotation Wrong sequences of phases Reverse two phase at the motor or control cabinet
Motor overheats Overload Reduce load
while running under Frame or bracket vents may be Open vent holes and check for a continuous stream of air from the
load clogged with dirt and preventing motor
proper ventilation of the motor
Motor may have one phase open Check to make sure that all leads are well connected
Grounded coil Locate and repair
Unbalanced terminal voltage Check for faulty leads, connections and transformers
Motor Vibrates Motor misaligned Realign
Weak support Strengthen base
Coupling out of balance Balance coupling
Driven equipment unbalanced Rebalance driven equipment
Defective bearing Replace bearings
Bearings not in line Line up properly
Multi-phase motor running single Check for open circuit
phase
Excessive and play Adjust bearing or add shim
Scraping noise Fan rubbing air shield Remove interference
Fan striking insulation Clear fan
Noisy operation Air gap not uniform Check and correct bracket fits or bearings
Rotor unbalanced Rebalance
Hot bearings Bent or sprung shaft Straighten or replace shaft
general Excessive belt pull Decrease belt tension
Pulley too far away Move pulley closer to motor bearing
Pulley diameter too small Use larger pulley
Misalignment Correct by realignment of drive
Hot ball bearings Insufficient grease Maintain proper quality of grease in bearing
Deterioration of grease or lubricant Remove old grease, wash bearings thoroughly in kerosene and
contaminated replace with new grease
Excessive lubricant Reduce quantity of grease
Overloaded bearing Check alignment, side and end thrust
Broken ball or rough race Replace bearing, first clean housing thoroughly

Transformer Basics
Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to
transfer electrical energy by means of a changing magnetic field
One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in
our homes and workplace’s is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a
convenient voltage, transformed (hence the name transformer) into much
higher voltages and then distributed around the country using a national grid of
pylons and cables over very long distances.
The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that higher
distribution voltages implies lower currents for the same power and therefore
lower I2*R losses along the networked grid of cables. These higher AC
transmission voltages and currents can then be reduced to a much lower,
safer and usable voltage level where it can be used to supply electrical
equipment in our homes and workplaces, and all this is possible thanks to the
basic Voltage Transformer.
A Typical Voltage Transformer

The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component
rather than an electronic component. A transformer basically is very simple
static (or stationary) electro-magnetic passive electrical device that works on
the principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting electrical energy from
one value to another.
The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits
using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the
transformer itself. A transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic
induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction.
Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a
voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that

transformers work in the “magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name
from the fact that they “transform” one voltage or current level into another.
Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and
current levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of
electrical power being transferred from one winding to another via the
magnetic circuit.
A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of
wire, one called the “Primary Winding” and another called the “Secondary
Winding”. For this tutorial we will define the “primary” side of the transformer
as the side that usually takes power, and the “secondary” as the side that
usually delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer the primary is
usually the side with the higher voltage.
These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead
wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the
“core”. This soft iron core is not solid but made up of individual laminations
connected together to help reduce the core’s losses.
The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be
transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current passed through
the primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage
into the secondary winding as shown.
Single Phase Voltage Transformer
In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection

between the two coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation
Transformer. Generally, the primary winding of a transformer is connected to
the input voltage supply and converts or transforms the electrical power into a
magnetic field. While the job of the secondary winding is to convert this
alternating magnetic field into electrical power producing the required output
voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)
 Where:
 VP - is the Primary Voltage

 VS - is the Secondary Voltage
 NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
 NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
 Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only
linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase
or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is
used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the
primary, it is called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the
voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called
a Step-down transformer.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same
voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its
output is identical with respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This
type of transformer is called an “Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used
for impedance matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is
achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP )
compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding ( NS ).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the
number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly
known as a transformers “turns ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the

operation of the transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the
secondary winding.
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary
winding compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no
units, compares the two windings in order and is written with a colon, such
as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this example, that if there are 3 volts on the
primary winding there will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt.
Then we can see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the
resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio, and this is true.
Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary,
the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio of any given transformer
will be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: “turns
ratio = voltage ratio”. The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is
generally not important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:
A Transformers Turns Ratio
Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns
ratio value is very important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different
transformer relationship and output voltage than one in which the turns ratio is
given as: 1:3.
Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns
of wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the
transformer.
This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings
for every one secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger number on
the left to a smaller number on the right, the primary voltage is therefore
stepped down in value as shown.

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer
above, what will be the resulting secondary no load voltage.
Again confirming that the transformer is a “step-down” transformer as the

primary voltage is 240 volts and the corresponding secondary voltage is lower
at 80 volts.
Then the main purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages at preset
ratios and we can see that the primary winding has a set amount or number of
windings (coils of wire) on it to suit the input voltage. If the secondary output
voltage is to be the same value as the input voltage on the primary winding,
then the same number of coil turns must be wound onto the secondary core as
there are on the primary core giving an even turns ratio of 1:1(1-to-1). In other
words, one coil turn on the secondary to one coil turn on the primary.
If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input
voltage, (step-up transformer) then there must be more turns on the secondary
giving a turns ratio of 1:N(1-to-N), where N represents the turns ratio number.
Likewise, if it is required that the secondary voltage is to be lower or less than
the primary, (step-down transformer) then the number of secondary windings
must be less giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N-to-1).
Transformer Action
We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding
compared to the primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage
available from the secondary coil. But if the two windings are electrically
isolated from each other, how is this secondary voltage produced?
We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils
wound around a common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is
applied to the primary coil, current flows through the coil which in turn sets up
a magnetic field around itself, called mutual inductance, by this current flow
according to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. The strength of the

magnetic field builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum
value which is given as dΦ/dt.
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward

from the coil the soft iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic
flux. This magnetic flux links the turns of both windings as it increases and
decreases in opposite directions under the influence of the AC supply.
However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core
depends upon the amount of current and the number of turns in the winding.
When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength reduces.
When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the
turns of the secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the
secondary coil. The amount of voltage induced will be determined
by: N*dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is the number of coil turns. Also this
induced voltage has the same frequency as the primary winding voltage.
Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both
windings because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings
together. As a result, the total induced voltage in each winding is directly
proportional to the number of turns in that winding. However, the peak
amplitude of the output voltage available on the secondary winding will be
reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.
If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome
the cores magnetic losses, we can either send a larger current through the
coil, or keep the same current flowing, and instead increase the number of coil
turns ( NP ) of the winding. The product of amperes times turns is called the
“ampere-turns”, which determines the magnetising force of the coil.
So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only
one turn in the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary
coil, assuming no losses, enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux
generated to induce one volt in the single turn of the secondary. That is, each
winding supports the same number of volts per turn.
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic
relationship between induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:

emf = turns x rate of change
 Where:
 ƒ - is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π

 Ν - is the number of coil windings.
 Φ - is the amount of flux in webers
This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding
emf, N will be the number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary
winding emf, N will be the number of secondary turns, ( NS ).
Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to
operate correctly, transformers cannot therefore be used to transform or
supply DC voltages or currents, since the magnetic field must be changing to
induce a voltage in the secondary winding. In other words, transformers DO
NOT operate on steady state DC voltages, only alternating or pulsating
voltages.
If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive
reactance of the winding would be zero as DC has no frequency, so the
effective impedance of the winding will therefore be very low and equal only to
the resistance of the copper used. Thus the winding will draw a very high
current from the DC supply causing it to overheat and eventually burn out,
because as we know I = V/R.

A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns
on the secondary winding. The maximum value of the magnetic flux density is
1.1T when 2200 volts, 50Hz is applied to the transformer primary winding.
Calculate:
a). The maximum flux in the core.
b). The cross-sectional area of the core.
c). The secondary induced emf.

Electrical Power in a Transformer
Another one of the transformer basics parameters is its power rating. The
power rating of a transformer is obtained by simply multiplying the current by
the voltage to obtain a rating in Volt-amperes, ( VA ). Small single phase
transformers may be rated in volt-amperes only, but much larger power
transformers are rated in units of Kilo volt-amperes, ( kVA ) where 1 kilo volt-
ampere is equal to 1,000 volt-amperes, and units of Mega volt-amperes,
( MVA ) where 1 mega volt-ampere is equal to 1 million volt-amperes.
In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power available in the
secondary winding will be the same as the power in the primary winding, they
are constant wattage devices and do not change the power only the voltage to
current ratio. Thus, in an ideal transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one
(unity) as the voltage, V multiplied by the current, I will remain constant.
That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is
“transformed” into electric power, at the same frequency, to the same
voltage/current level on the secondary side. Although the transformer can
step-up (or step-down) voltage, it cannot step-up power. Thus, when a
transformer steps-up a voltage, it steps-down the current and vice-versa, so
that the output power is always at the same value as the input power. Then we
can say that primary power equals secondary power, ( PP = PS ).
Power in a Transformer
Where: ΦP is the primary phase angle and ΦS is the secondary phase angle.
Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current being
transmitted, that is: I2R, increasing the voltage, let’s say doubling ( ×2 ) the
voltage would decrease the current by the same amount, ( ÷2 ) while
delivering the same amount of power to the load and therefore reducing losses
by factor of 4. If the voltage was increased by a factor of 10, the current would
decrease by the same factor reducing overall losses by factor of 100.

Transformer Basics – Efficiency
A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy. This
means that there are no friction or windage losses associated with other
electrical machines. However, transformers do suffer from other types of
losses called “copper losses” and “iron losses” but generally these are quite
small.
Copper losses, also known as I2R loss is the electrical power which is lost in
heat as a result of circulating the currents around the transformers copper
windings, hence the name. Copper losses represents the greatest loss in the
operation of a transformer. The actual watts of power lost can be determined
(in each winding) by squaring the amperes and multiplying by the resistance in
ohms of the winding (I2R).
Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetic molecules
within the core, in response to the alternating magnetic flux. This lagging (or
out-of-phase) condition is due to the fact that it requires power to reverse
magnetic molecules; they do not reverse until the flux has attained sufficient
force to reverse them.
Their reversal results in friction, and friction produces heat in the core which is
a form of power loss. Hysteresis within the transformer can be reduced by
making the core from special steel alloys.
The intensity of power loss in a transformer determines its efficiency. The
efficiency of a transformer is reflected in power (wattage) loss between the
primary (input) and secondary (output) windings. Then the resulting efficiency
of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the power output of the secondary
winding, PS to the power input of the primary winding, PP and is therefore high.
An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy it
receives. Real transformers on the other hand are not 100% efficient and at
full load, the efficiency of a transformer is between 94% to 96% which is quiet
good. For a transformer operating with a constant voltage and frequency with
a very high capacity, the efficiency may be as high as 98%. The
efficiency, η of a transformer is given as:

Transformer Efficiency
Where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.
Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called “volt-
amps”, VA to differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the efficiency
equation above can be modified to:
It is sometimes easier to remember the relationship between the transformers

input, output and efficiency by using pictures. Here the three quantities
of VA, W and η have been superimposed into a triangle giving power in watts
at the top with volt-amps and efficiency at the bottom. This arrangement
represents the actual position of each quantity in the efficiency formulas.

Transformer Efficiency Triangle
and transposing the above triangle quantities gives us the following

combinations of the same equation:
Then, to find Watts (output) = VA x eff., or to find VA (input) = W/eff., or to find

Efficiency, eff. = W/VA, etc.
Transformer Basics Summary

Then to summarise this transformer basics tutorial. A Transformer changes
the voltage level (or current level) on its input winding to another value on its
output winding using a magnetic field. A transformer consists of two electrically
isolated coils and operates on Faraday’s principal of “mutual induction”, in
which an EMF is induced in the transformers secondary coil by the magnetic
flux generated by the voltages and currents flowing in the primary coil winding.
Both the primary and secondary coil windings are wrapped around a common
soft iron core made of individual laminations to reduce eddy current and power
losses. The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the AC power
source which must be sinusoidal in nature, while the secondary winding
supplies electrical power to the load. Having said that, a transformer could be
used in reverse with the supply connected to the secondary winding provided
the voltage and current ratings are observed.

We can represent the transformer in block diagram form as follows:
Basic Representation of the Transformer
The ratio of the transformers primary and secondary windings with respect to
each other produces either a step-up voltage transformer or a step-down
voltage transformer with the ratio between the number of primary turns to the
number of secondary turns being called the “turns ratio” or “transformer ratio”.
If this ratio is less than unity, n < 1 then NS is greater than NP and the
transformer is classed as a step-up transformer. If this ratio is greater than
unity, n > 1, that is NP is greater than NS, the transformer is classed as a step-
down transformer. Note that single phase step-down transformer can also be
used as a step-up transformer simply by reversing its connections and making
the low voltage winding its primary, and vice versa as long as the transformer
is operated within its original VA design rating.
If the turns ratio is equal to unity, n = 1 then both the primary and secondary
have the same number of windings, therefore the voltages and currents are
the same for both windings.
This type of transformer is classed as an isolation transformer as both the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer have the same number of
volts per turn. The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power it
delivers to the load to the power it absorbs from the supply. In an ideal
transformer there are no losses so no loss of power then PIN = POUT.

Motors Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Motors Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TOYOTA

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 1

Fundamentals Split Phase

DC Motors -Types and Characteristics Switching and Protection Devices

Shunt Wound Motor Contactors

DC Motor Controls PILZ safety relay system

Starters Motor Data

Why know about it?

What are the safety priorities?

How do you respond to electrical incidents?

Do you want to be a victim?

What are the types of injuries?

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 3

What are the levels of effect of current?

What should you do in an electrical emergency?

Should you report electrical incidents?

Can you protect yourself from electricity?

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 4

Regular safety inspections

Should you be aware of powerlines?

What is a powerline corridor?

Can a powerline be approached safely?

Who can access substations?

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 5

F = B x I x l where: F = Force on wire (Unit Newtons – symbol N)

Wire Moved through a Magnetic Field

N S Induced current flows towards you

The size of the induced EMF is given by Faradays Law:

E = B x l x v where: E= Induced EMF (V)

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 7

T = F x r where: T = Torque (Units are Newton metre – Nm)

Power in Rotating Systems

Power = Work Done per second

P = 2πnT where P= Power (W)

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 8

N S 1. Anti-clockwise turning effect.

2. No turning effect, but coil

3. Clockwise turning effect. Coil

Practical Motor Design Features

A typical DC motor (and a DC generator) consists of:

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 9

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 10

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 11

Motor Efficiency = (Input - Losses) / Input

V – E = IR where: V = Supply Voltage (V)

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 12

where: VI= power delivered from supply

Hence EI = Power P delivered by motor (if no friction or core losses)

Therefore where T = Torque (Nm)

Torque (2) T = F r = BIl x r = /A x I x l x r

T α ΦI where: T= Torque developed by motor

Back EMF E = Blv = /A x l x 2rn

E α nΦ where: E = Back emf

It can also be shown that:

where E = Back emf (V)

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 13

Shunt Wound Motor

Speed v Armature Current. From the current equation:

V-E = IaRa therefore E = V- IaRa

TOYOTA(UK) Motors and Controls 14

Speed v Torque. As torque is proportional to armature current, the speed-torque curve

Applications. Shunt wound motors have a relatively flat speed-torque characteristic

Series Wound Motor