Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. Vol. 17, pp. 225 234. Pergamon Press 1977.

977. Printed in Great Britain

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING A N D CUTTING

F L U I D ACTION

L. DE CHIFFRE*

(Received 1 M a y 1977)

Abstract The paper contains an analysis of orthogonal cutting where process geometry is described by
the chip compression factor ). and where friction on the rake face is determined by the reduced tool-chip
contact length n. The minimum energy principle is applied to a simple upper-bound field and an analytical
relationship is found between ,:~ and n. Experimental results, together with data from literature, are compared
with the theoretical expression, and the range of validity of the model is discussed. The same model is
proposed to explain the action of cutting fluids, a particular feature of the model being that fluid access
to the rake face is not required. Three different mechanisms are suggested to account for lubrication in
cutting, which generally speaking consists in restriction of the tool-chip contact area. It is proposed to adopt
the reduced contact length in efficiency tests for cutting fluids. Experimental results are presented.

NOMENCLATURE
A = bl tool chip contact area
A' = btl area of cut
A1 area, (Fig. 5)
A2 area, (Fig. 51
b width of cut
C specific heat
F cutting force
f = kl/k strain-hardening factor
J mechanical equivalent of heat
K constant, see equation (2)
k shear flow stress
[£ average shear flow stress
kl shear flow stress of strain-hardened material
kt constant
k2 constant
l contact length
m = ~/k~ friction factor
N normal force
No constant
n = l/tl reduced contact length
p = F/bt 1 specific cutting force
q normal stress
T~ chip temperature
To workpiece temperature
Ii depth of cut
t2 chip thickness
bl velocity discontinuity
V cutting velocity
If chip velocity
Vn velocity normal to discontinuity line
W cutting power
z length of shear plane
rake angle
friction angle
7 shear strain
~ = t2/t~ chip compression factor
~ = tan3 coefficient of friction
P density
T frictional stress
shear angle
Z = ncos~ multiplier, see equation (3)

* Division of Mechanical Processing of Materials, AMT, Technical University of Denmark, Building 425,
2800 Lyngby, Denmark.
225
226 L. DE CHIFFRE

o
Fla. 1. Stress distribution on the rake face of a cutting tool.

INTRODUCTION
ONE or the major limitations of Merchant's analysis for orthogonal cutting [1] is the
poor description of frictional conditions on the rake face of the tool. As criticized by
later workers [2, 3, 4, 5, 6], Merchant's assumption of the existence of a constant coeffi-
cient of friction, similar to the coefficient used in sliding systems, is in contrast to
a large amount of experimental observations. In the last years, great efforts have been
made to clarify the frictional situation in cutting; a recent review of work in this field
will be found in [5].
It is established that friction conditions in metal cutting differ from those encountered
in conventional sliding systems. The stress distribution on the rake face of a cutting
tool is found to be of the form shown in Fig. 1. Over the length B-A the normal
and shear stresses are relatively low and the usual condition of sliding friction applies.
Following the increase in normal stress, the shear stress reaches at A a value equal
to the shear flow stress of the chip material. In the region A-O, further increases
in the normal stress do not affect the shear stress, which is now constant. In this region,
which is termed the sticking region, the metal adheres to the tool and plastic flow
occurs in the chip. Evidently, ordinary friction laws do not apply here [7]. In many
cases the two regions can be easily recognized, from marks, on the tool as well as
on the undersurface of chips obtained by interrupted cuts [4].
A still open question in metal cutting regards the action of cutting fluids. When
cutting fluids are applied, the existence of the region of sticking friction as well as
the kinematics of the process should apparently preclude any fluid access to the rake
face. In spite of this, to explain the marked influence which cutting fluids have on
chip formation, the theory considering these fluids as boundary lubricants [8] is still
leading [5]. To account for cutting fluid penetration to the rake face, several access
mechanisms have been proposed, some of them as schematically shown in Fig. 2.

c d

FIG. 2. Proposed mechanisms for cutting fluid access to the rake face. (a) Access through capil-
lary network between chip and tool ~8], (b) access through voids connected with built-up edge
formation [9], (c) access into gap created by tool vibration [9], (d) propagation, from chip
backsurface, through distorted lattice structure [10].
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting and Cutting Fluid Action 227

It can be understood from the above that the need exists for an analysis of the
cutting process which gives a better account of the frictional conditions on the rake
face. At the same time, the analysis should incorporate a model which explains the
action of cutting fluids without requiring fluid access to the chip-tool interface.
Two important steps have been taken toward a better physical description of the
cutting process. They will be briefly described in the review below. The present work
is a further step in the same direction.

BRIEF REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

The analysis developed by Merchant in 1945 [1], and resulting in the well-known shear
angle relationship
1
q~ - 4 2 (fl - c0 (1)

considers friction through the coefficient of friction/~ = tan /3.

This assumption is criticized, among others, by Takeyama and Usui [3] who, in
1958, conduct experiments to show the importance of the extension of the contact area
between chip and tool. They observe a linear relationship between cot 4~ and the magni-
tude A/A'cos ~, where A is the tool-chip contact area and A' = btx the area of cut.
On the basis of their cutting force measurements, they assume constant shear stress
on the contact area and a normal force of the form N = No + kxA' + kzA. From force
equilibrium they find the following shear angle equation:
1 - sin c~ A
cot4~- - - + K - - (2)
cos ~ A' cos

where K is a material constant to be determined empirically. Equation (2) involves

no coefficient of friction as equation (1) does. Unfortunately, one more unknown, K,
is introduced.
A different approach is presented in 1967 by Rowe and Spick [6] who propose a
model for orthogonal cutting based on a simple upperbound field consisting of a dis-
continuity at the shear plane and one at the rake face. Their suggestion is based on
the fact that the model makes no reference to a coefficient of friction, since it, physically
more correctly, operates with shearing stress on the rake face. Applying the minimum-
energy principle, the authors find the following shear angle relationship:

1
m sin24~ = - cos ~ cos(2q~ - ~). (3)
Z
Unfortunately, the expression is a trigonometrical equation and therefore of less effi-
cacy than, say, equation (1). C o m m o n for equations (1)-(3) is the fact that the geometry
of the process is expressed through the shear angle q~. On the other hand, the oppor-
tunity of using the chip compression factor as main cutting parameter, in connection
with upper-bound analysis of a machining process, has been shown before [-11]. Corre-
spondingly, a suitable parameter accounting for friction on the rake face will be the
reduced contact length. In the following, an analysis of orthogonal cutting based on
chip compression factor and reduced contact length is presented. The analysis incorpor-
ates a model which explains the action of cutting fluids without requiring fluid access
to the chip-tool interface.

AN A N A L Y S I S O F T H E C U T T I N G PROCESS WITH CHIP COMPRESSION

AND CONTACT LENGTH AS M A I N P A R A M E T E R S
Figure 3(a) shows a simple upper-bound field for orthogonal cutting, consisting of
one discontinuity of length z on the shear plane, and one of length l on the rake
face. Figure 3(b) shows the corresponding hodograph.
228 L. DE CHIFFRE

z t2 t

¥' U

FIG. 3. Simple upper-bound model for orthogonal cutting, (a) Field, (b) hodograph.

The geometrical relationship between shear angle q~ and chip compression factor
2 = t z / t l is
2
cot 4~ -- tan e.
COS

The chip velocity v' is easily obtained, from continuity, and

V
2"
The shear strain is given by the hodograph in Fig. 3(b). Using
U
y-
/)n

the shear strain is obtained as

2 1
+ - - -2tane. (4)
COS ~ 2 COS C~

Equation (4) is shown graphically in Fig. 4. Values corresponding to 2 less than

unity are not obtained in conventional cutting but can be obtained in extrusion cutting
[11].
The cutting power is given by
I;V kuz + mkflv'
b
from where

kvtlb - ~ +fmT. (5)

A

The coefficient f in equation (5) is defined as f = kl/[¢, where kl is the shear flow
stress of the work material after it has passed the shear plane and k is an average
shear flow stress on the shear plane defined, (Fig. 5), by the condition A~ = A2. A
rigid-plastic material would result in f - - 1.
The friction factor m = z/k~ is also used in equation (5); 0 _< m _< 1.
The contact length l is thus the length upon which a constant shear stress rnfk is
acting.
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting and Cutting Fluid Action 229

0t. = 0 °

/
1
J

0 1 2 3 4 5
chip compression foctor,X

FIG. 4. Shear strain in cutting (and extrusion-cutting) as function of the chip compression factor,
for different rake angles.

The chip compression factor is seen to have opposite effects on the two right-hand
terms of equation (5), the first one representing the specific deformation work on the
shear plane and the last one being the specific friction work on the rake face. For
a given contact length, the specific friction work can be reduced, equation (5), by reduc-
ing the chip velocity, i.e. by having a thicker chip; this, in turn, gives a larger deformation
work. Applying the minimum-energy principle, the following simple relationship is
obtained between chip compression factor and reduced contact length:

2 = x/1 + f m n cos ~. (6)

This is basically the same relationship as equation (3). An important difference lies
in the fact that equation (6) relates 2 and n analytically. Before calculating the other
quantities, let us notice that the semiempirical shear angle relation based on chip contact
area measurements (equation (2)) can also be simplified considerably, into
2 -- 1 + K n (7)
where K is the same constant as in equation (2).
The specific cutting force p = F / b t l is given by

p W 2
- - - tan c~. (8)
2~ -'- 2]¢ vt l b cos c~
It should be noticed that this is exactly the same as derived through Merchant's
analysis, where
F
- 2k cot 4).
btl

KI

A2
AT

shear strain ¥

FIG. 5. Definition of average shear flow stress.

230 L. DE CHIFFRE

The adiabatic temperature T~ in the chip can be calculated from

k((V/kvtlb)
Tc- +To
Jpc
_ 2k ( c o ~ tanc~) + T ° (9)

where To is the workpiece temperature.

APPLICATION OF THE ANALYSIS

The analysis developed contains a theoretically determined relationship between 2
and n, as expressed through equation (6). Equation (6) is of a form similar to Merchant's
shear angle relationship, equation (1), where 4~ has been replaced by 2 and fl by n.
Particularly this latter replacement is of importance for a more realistic description
of the cutting process.
The contact length is the length on which a constant shear stress z = raft} acts. It
can be determined experimentally from known shear stress distribution [12]. It can
also be measured from marks on the tool, as in the present work. When the workpiece
material is steel, both regions of friction are easily recognized with the aid of a magnify-
ing glass. A study of the stress distributions for different work materials 1-12] shows
that in many cases the sliding region plays only a secondary role in the determination
of a suitable value for the contact length. Therefore, when determining 1 from marks
on the tool, it is found convenient to let 1 be represented by the length of sticking
friction.
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
Experiments were carried out on steel. Specimen and cutting data are listed in Table 1.
The lathe used was a 15 H P VDF with stepless variable speed and feed (hydraulic).
Cutting forces were measured using a three-component strain-gage dynamometer. Con-
tact lengths were measured using a magnifying glass (8 x ) equipped with a yardstick.
The chip compression factor was determined from chip thickness measurements. The
cutting was performed semi-orthogonally. Also, a number of measurements were per-
formed as orthogonal cutting, by end turning of a tube obtained in the specimen. Both
types of cutting gave the same results as to contact length and chip compression. Differ-
ences in cutting forces were minimal.
Besides cutting dry, tests were carried out with two different commercial cutting fluids:
a 4% soluble-oil emulsion and a neat mineral oil of the sulfochlorinated type.
Figure 6 shows results from contact length measurements. Figure 7 contains experi-
mental data from literature, showing results from cutting different work materials. The
upper-bound solution is also shown for different rake angles. It is assumed here that
f = m = 1. One semiempirical relationship of the form suggested by equation (7) is
reported in Fig. 7. The constant K is here arbitrarily chosen as 0.65.
The agreement between a great part of the experimental results and the theoretical
relationship is seen to be good. Two questions arise in this connection:
TABLE 1. TURNING DATA

Work material: Steel

Composition: 0.5% C, 0.3~o Si, 0.6~ Mn, 0.05% S
Hardness (as received): 190 Hv
Specimen dimensions: O D = 90 m m and 80 m m
Tool material: HSS
Clearance angle: 15 °
Trailing angle: 6 °
Nose radius: 0.15 m m
Cutting fluid temperature: 22°C
Cutting fluid rate: 1 l/min
Chip width: 2 m m
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting and Cutting Fluid Action 231

Work rnoterial: 0.5%C-steel

6
,..<
7~ ~" n ~ - ~ upper~ bound :
,- ,~ ~ o~ 0 "
:

~ ~ - ~ _ l * E~ ~ : 30" '~
=_o z, ~ ,,Ffi~L%~,
o,;
_ ~- . ~ • a,I ~=6o'~'.~.~,..._

o. ~ _ . ~ v..--'-~ - '-&~ ____L--

oE2
Q.
(.9
C I I I I I L I I I
2 4 6 8 10
Reduced contact [ength,n

FIG. 6. Results of contact length measurements : work material: steel. Different cutting conditions.

workmoteria,: r A~-O."~-H
,< • A l - a l l o y (ref. 4) J
-~ as indicated (ref.12) /i
+ stee (ref.13 J / / upper-bound:
,1 o( = 0"
j/
g _semiempirical
\..-
, Cu.1/2 H oc=30" 7
-~_ - ~ ,
If ~f

Q. •"J'" =~_-2U---

0 L I I ; J I I I
)0 2 4 6 8 1~0
Reduced contact [engthjn

FIG. 7. Contact length data from literature. Different w o r k materials and cutting conditions.

(a) why the poor agreement between upperbound solution and experiments, in the
case of materials like aluminium, copper, and, partly, the aluminium alloy, (Fig. 7),
and (b) why the tendency to "deviation in the opposite direction", in the case of steel,
for large values of n, as evident from both Figs. 6 and 7?
The first question, which apparently will demand further experimental work, could
find an answer in the nature of upperbound analysis, whose overestimation of particu-
larly the first right-hand term in equation (5) is expected to become larger as the assump-
tion of one straight discontinuity becomes poorer. This is expected to occur in connec-
tion with broadening of the deformation zone as a result of strain hardening. The
same occurrence is not expected with the friction term of equation (5), since no further
straining is involved there. The total result expected would therefore be a shifting of
equilibrium toward larger chip compression factors, as is the case.
The "deviation in the opposite direction" when cutting steel is probably connected
with built-up edge formation. This is substantiated by the fact that actual rake angles
of the order of 4(~60 ° were regularly observed when the built-up edge was present.
Figure 8 shows the good correlation existing between measured values of the specific
cutting force and values calculated with the aid of equation (8), where constant shear
flow stresses were assumed.

THE ACTION OF CUTTING FLUIDS

The analysis performed above emphasizes the importance of the contact length
between chip and tool. On the same background, a model for cutting fluid action can
be suggested, as shown in Fig. 9. The decrease in chip compression, cutting forces
etc. observed when cutting fluids are applied, can be explained by a model where fluid
access to the rake is not required.
232 L. DE CHIFrRE

z,O0
/
Present work o /
E

-- 3 0 0
/
II

I
I
I
~ 20D I
I
I +11
I +
/ +/ +
/
l + + 4 -+~ +
~oo / ..+++ + \ Ref. 13
/
/ / /
/ t
,Ip l l
E I I I I I
0 1 2 3
calculated specific cutting
force p*= c~s~-tan~-

FIG. 8. Correlation between measured and calculated specific cutting force.

It is suggested that lubrication, which generally speaking consists in a reduction of

the contact length, as is clearly shown in Fig. 6, is tightly connected, (Fig. 9), with
(a) contamination of the rake face at A
(b) promotion of plastic flow at B, resulting in curl increase
(c) cooling of the chip backsurface at B, resulting in curl increase.
In cases where liquid access is easy, as in intermittent cutting, lubrication of the
boundary type will also be possible at D.
Besides 'lubrication' of the rake face, the following mechanisms should be remem-
bered:
(a) 'lubrication' of the clearance face by contamination at C
(b) overall cooling of the cutting region.
The concept of cutting fluid action through contact length reduction by contamination
of the rake face at A has already been put forward by Rowe [14], see also [15], who
refers to substantial evidence showing that adhesion between work material and tool
face is highly influenced by the surrounding atmosphere.
More generally, the adhesion tendency, which plays a major role for contact length
growth, must be expected to be a function of
(a) work material
(b) tool material
(c) tool surface start conditions
(d) environment at A
(e) load situation (rake angle, chip compression).

FIG. 9. Model for cutting fluid action.

 Mechanics of Metal Cutting and Cutting Fluid Action 233

The importance of tool surface start conditions in cutting is emphasized by some

examples: The fact that wear on tools which have been polished to a high degree
of surface finish is less than wear of ordinary ground tools, all conditions being the
same. Similarly, the action of preparates to be smeared onto the tool prior to cutting,
or the simple brushing with a drop of cutting oil "to protect the tool", which intuitively
should be erased away as soon as cutting starts. Both observations can be understood
in terms of contamination of the tool surface.
Simple experiments were carried out to provide further examples. All cutting tests
mentioned earlier were preceded by gently lapping of the tool and degreasing with
toluene. Prior to dry cutting, the specimen was also degreased. To ensure the same
tool surface in all cuts, the tool was submitted to a running-in period, during which
heavy dry cuts were taken so that a large part of the tool rake face resulted smeared
with some work material.
One cut (v = 12 m/min, ~ = 25 °, tl = 0.2 mm, dry) was repeated with tool and speci-
men having not been degreased with toluene, this resulting in a shorter contact length,
as shown in Fig. 6.
A similar result was obtained when the cut (v = 12 m/min, ~ = 12°, tl = 0.2 ram,
neat oil) was repeated on a fresh part of the tool.
Contamination at A is not the only mechanism which is likely to reduce the length
of contact between tool and chip. Another mechanism, which can be considered as
a Rebinder effect of the type examined by Usui, Gujral and Shaw [16] and later by
Barlow [,17] is suggested to occur at the backface of the chip, promoting plastic flow
at B, Fig. 9, and relieving part of the compressive stresses, which in turn is followed
by chip curl increase and reduction of the chip-tool contact length. This mechanism
could explain the marked tool protection effect achieved by coating the specimen with
a thin film of cutting oil, even in uninterrupted cutting, as it is shown clearly by boring
experiments [18]. Earlier research work on this topic has mainly been concerned with
cutting force measurements and contains no investigation of the contact length. Simple
preliminary experiments seem though to support the existence of this backface mechan-
ism [,19].
A third mechanism which is believed to be involved in rake face lubrication is cooling
of the chip back surface [19]. It is suggested that cooling at B promotes chip curl,
this again resulting in a reduction of the contact length. The occurrence of this thermal
mechanism could explain in a simple way the relatively large lubricating effect which
is connected with even plain water.

AN E F F I C I E N C Y PARAMETER FOR CUTTING FLUID TESTING

From a point of view of cutting fluid performance, the three mechanisms just described
are equivalent, in that they all concur to a reduction of the chip~tool contact length,
presumably with synergistic effect. Consequently, it is suggested that the reduced contact
length could be a suitable efficiency parameter for testing the lubricating ability of
cutting fluids. Besides being a more satisfactory parameter than the coefficient of friction,
it presents the advantage of requiring no dynamometry, since only a magnifying glass
is involved in its measurement. In this connection, it should be noticed that a yardstick
of this kind was already proposed by Merchant [-8]: the cutting ratio t l / t 2. However,
while this latter parameter is sensitively influenced by built-up edge formation, as shown
in Figs. 6 and 7, this is not the case of the reduced contact length.

CONCLUSIONS
An analysis of the mechanics involved in orthogonal cutting has been presented,
pointing out the advantages of operating with chip compression factor and reduced
contact length as process parameters. Simple relationships between the two new main
parameters have been determined theoretically and verified by experimental data. The
analysis has been enlarged to account for cutting fluid action. The result is a better
234 L. DE CH1FFRE

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e factors g o v e r n i n g t h e c u t t i n g process m a d e o p e r a t i o n a l t h r o u g h
very s i m p l e expressions.
M a n y aspects are still u n i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d f u r t h e r studies are n e e d e d to p r o d u c e a
m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of the m e c h a n i c s of c u t t i n g . Better u p p e r b o u n d s o l u t i o n s ,
b a s e d o n t h e n e w p a r a m e t e r s , s h o u l d b e s o u g h t . F u r t h e r studies are s u g g e s t e d to c o n t a i n
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d e t e r m i n i n g the c h i p c o n t a c t l e n g t h f r o m the par-
a m e t e r s g o v e r n i n g it, p a r t i c u l a r l y to find a d e p e n d e n c e of n o n l o a d s i t u a t i o n at the
r a k e face. F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e f r o m flow p r o m o t i o n a n d
c o o l i n g o n t h e c o n t a c t l e n g t h are also n e e d e d .

Acknowledgements--I wish to express my gratitude to Professor T, Wanheim for his helpful advice and encour-
agement.
The work described herein was carried out on a grant from the Danish Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research.

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[3] H. TAKEYAMAand E. Usu, The effect of tool-chip contact area in metal machining, Trans. Am. Soc.
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[4] P. W. WALLACEand G. BOOTHROYD,Tool forces and tool-chip friction in orthogonal machining, J.
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[5] J. A. BAILEY,Friction in metal machining- mechanical aspects, Wear 31, 243 (1975).
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[13] D. M. EGGLESTON,R. HERZOG and E. G. THOMSEN,Observations on the angle relationships in metal
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[14] G. W. ROWE, Lubrication in Metal Cutting, Lubrication and Lubricants, Ed. by E. R. BRAITHWAITE,
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[15] T. H. C. CmLDS and G. W. ROWE, Physics in metal cutting, Rep. Prog. Phys. 36, 223 (1973).
[16] E. UsuI, A. GUJRAL and M. C. SHAW, An experimental study of the action of CC14 in cutting and
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