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1.CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHY
What is geography?
It is the study of MAN (human beings) and his environment and how he uses the environment to earn a living (get development).
Origin of Geography?
Geography = Geo = Greek word = Earth
Graphy = Greek word = Description
1. Atmosphere = Air which covers the earth with major gases:a) Nitrogen b) Oxygen c) Carbondioxide
Branches of Geography
There are 3 main branches.
1. Physical Geography = Deals with feature on the earth’s surface, weather and continents.
3. Practical Geography = Deals with map work, photograph surveying, research etc.
1. Sun
2. Planets
3. Asteroids
4. Comets
5. Interplanetary dust and gases.
The planets are traveling around the sun in anti-clockwise direction. The path the planets take is called its orbit. The orbit is oval shape or elliptical.
The sun is the central body in the solar system.
It is the only body which generates its own heat and light
The Sun
The sun is a star and like many other stars we see in the sky.
The sun seems to be bigger than other stars because it is closer to the earth than the other stars.
1. a) Hydrogen – 75%
2. b) Helium – 23%
3. c) Other elements of carbon, oxygen, carbondioxide and other gases make up.
It is the main source of heat and light for the planets and other heavenly bodies.
Solar Energy
What is energy?
It is power to generate heat and make things move or change the energy.
Energy from the sun is called solar energy.
The Planets
What is a planet?
It is a heavenly body that revolves around the sun.
What are the characteristics of a planet?
Note
Pluto does not qualify to be called a planet because its orbit overlaps that of Neptune.
There are 8 planets. Their relative distance from the sun as follows:
1) Mercury 5) Jupiter
2) Venus 6) Saturn
3) Earth 7) Uranus
4) Mars 8) Neptune
1. Mercury
2. a) It is the nearest to the sun.
3. b) The hottest.
4. c) The smallest.
5. d) Distance – 58 million km from the sun.
6. e) Takes 88 days to orbit the sun.
7. f) No satellites.
2. Venus
3. a) Second planet from the sun.
4. b) Distance – 108 km million
5. c) Brightest planet.
6. d) 225 days to orbit the sun.
7. e) No satellite.
3. Earth
4. a) Third planet from the sun.
5. b) Distance – 150 km million
6. c) Takes 365 ¼ days to orbit the sun.
7. d) Has one moon.
8. e) Only planet which has life.
9. f) Only planet with hydrosphere.
4. Mars
5. a) It is the fourth planet from the sun.
6. b) Smaller than the Earth.
7. c) Distance from the sun – 228 million kms.
8. d) Has two satellites.
Between Mars and Jupiter there are many heavenly bodies known as asteroids.
5. Jupiter
6. a) It is the fifth planet in the solar system.
7. b) It is the largest planet.
8. c) Distance is 773 million kms.
9. d) Takes about 12 earth years to complete one orbit.
10. e) Has 16 moons.
6. Saturn
7. a) Sixth planet from the sun.
8. b) Distance is 1426 million kms.
9. c) Second largest planet.
10. d) Takes 29 earth years to complete one orbit.
11. e) Has 20 satellites.
12. f) Differs from other planets because of a ring around it.
7. Uranus
8. a) Is the seventh planet from the sun.
9. b) It is four times bigger than the sun.
10. c) It is 2869 million kms from the sun.
11. d) It takes 84 earth years to complete one orbit.
12. e) Has one moon.
8. Neptune
9. a) It is the eighth planet from the sun.
10. b) It is the farthest planet.
11. c) Distance 4497 million kms.
12. d) Has 8 satellites.
13. e) Takes 165 earth years to complete one orbit.
Note: The larger the distance a planet is from the sun, the colder it becomes.
Other heavenly bodies in the solar system
1. The satellites
These are heavenly bodies which revolve around the planets. Not all planets have satellites and the number of satellites varies from planet to planet.
2. Asteroids
3. Comets
They are solid objects with leading heads and a long tail. These can only be seen when their orbit overlaps that of the earth.
4. Meteors
(ii) Shinyanga
1. b) U.S.A. – Arizona
The Moon
It is a natural satellite of the earth.
Shape – Is spherical in shape like other heavenly bodies.
Size – Diameter – 3456 km which is about ¼ of the earth’s diameter.
– Mass 1/8 of the earths.
Nature – It is solid and reflects light.
Revolves around the earth and complete one revolution in 29 ¼ days
It also spins along its own axis. The time taken to complete one rotation is the same as that of the revolution.
The moon shows different shapes in a month
Cresentic (1/4)
Semi-circle (1/2)
Circle (full moon)
2.THE EARTH
It is the planet in which we live.
Origin of the Earth?
– Big bang.
– Created by God.
– The sun – Broken material from the sun started to whirl around the sun. With time it cooled and solidified and formed the planets and other heavenly bodies which revolve around the
sun. Our earth is one of them.
The shape of the earth.
Early misconceptions
They thought the earth was flat. This is wrong. Today we know the earth is spherical in shape. It is not a perfect sphere but oblate spherical or GEOID.
Why along the equator it bulges and at the poles it is slightly flattened. This can be proved by the measurements below:-
1. Ship visibility
When observing a ship approaching a harbor you don’t see the whole ship at once. You first see the flag post then the whole ship. If the earth were flat then the whole ship would be seen all
the time.
The earth is rotating along its own axis from the south place on the east, experience sunrise earlier than places in the west because of the spherical shape of the earth.
If one starts from point O and travels straight to the east, then comes back to point O from the west.
W——àO——àE
4. Aerial photographs
This occurs when the earth is between the moon and the sun.
The shadow of the earth which falls on the moon is circular in shape. Only spherical bodies can give round shadows.
6. Logical conclusion
All planets are spherical in shape. The earth is a planet. Therefore, it must be spherical in shape.
The movement of earth
The earth is in motion all the time.
Why don’t we see the objects in motion?
We are also in the same motion.
Types of earth’s motions:-
1) Rotation
2) Revolution
1) Rotation
It is the spinning or movement of a body along its axis.
The earth rotates along its axis.
1. a) When travelling in a speed vehicle, objects outside the seem to be moving in the opposite direction. This is the same as the motion of the earth in relation to the sun. It is the earth
which rotates not the sun.
Twice a day the level of the sea rises and twice a day the level of the sea falls. This is the result of the earth’s rotation.
Winds are deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the southern hemisphere.
B) Revolution
1) What is revolution?
Is a motion of one body around the other.
The earth moves around the sun and completes one orbit in 365 ¼ days.
The orbit of the earth is elliptical in shape, therefore the distance of the earth from the sun varies from place to place.
a) Aphelion
This is the farthest distance of the earth from the sun which is 152 million kms. This occurs every year on 4th July.
b) Perihelion
This is when the earth is closest to the sun when it is about 147.3 million kms. This occurs on 3rd January.
1. Seasons
They result from the earth on its orbit around the sun
There are four seasons
They are:
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Spring
1. Summer solstice
On 22nd December, the sun is over head on tropic of Capricorn. It is summer solstice in the southern hemisphere and, and winter solstice in northern hemisphere
2. Winter Solstice
Eclipses
It occurs when one heavenly body in space moves between two others, one of them being source of light.
There are 2 types of Eclipse
1) Eclipse of moon (Lunar)
2) Eclipse of sun (solar)
Note:
1) Eclipse can be partial only part of heavenly body is observed.
2) Penumbra – refers to part of the shadow which results when source of high is partially obstructed.
3) Umbra – Refers to part of the shadow in which the light source is totally blocked.
The Equator
It is the half way between north and South Pole.
The line divides the earth to northern and southern hemisphere latitudes are expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds.
Parallels of latitudes
Are lines drawn north or south of equator parallel to it are called parallel of latitudes.
Longitudes
Are imaginary lines which run from North Pole to South Pole.
They measure angular distances east and west of the prime meridian. Longitudes run from North Pole to South Pole.
Greenwich meridian is chosen as prime meridian and given the value of 0° longitude. In England it passes though Greenwich observatory station and in Africa it passes through Accra in
Ghana .
Greenwich meridian divides earth into Western and Eastern hemisphere longitudes measure E or W of this line 0°-180°e.0°-180°w therefore 180°w and 180°e are one and the same
longitude.
1. a) A time zone is a stretch of land which keeps the same standard time.
2. b) Standard time is the time accepted through one time zone which is 15° stretch.
The prime meridian is the starting point of the time zones. Time is recorded along Greenwich meridian, is called Greenwich Meridian Time (G.M.T.).
The International Date Line (I.D.L)
This is the line of longitude where the calendar day begins Nations have agreed to change dates.
I.D.L – follows the meridian 180
1. a) It is the middle line which divides the time zones into equal halves.
2. b) The line which passes over Pacific Ocean avoiding dividing a country into different days.
IDL : is not straight it is zigzag .When you cross the IDL west wards you lose a day and when you cross the IDL east wards you add a day.
1. The continents
It is a large landmark rising from the ocean floor which includes adjacent islands. Continents are surrounded by oceans.
Origins of continent
Originally there was a large land mark called PANGEA.
Pangaea broke into two large land masses which were LAURASIA and GONDWANALAND, These were separated by a thin sea called TETHYS. Later the two large continents broke into
several continents which started to drift apart to their present position relative to one another.
Number of Continents
There are 7 continents, they are:
1) Asia
2) Africa
3) North America
4) South America
5) Europe
6) Antarctica
7) Australia
NB: There is more land marks in the northern hemisphere and more water bodies in the southern hemisphere.
Area: 422mill km
1. b) Location:
NB: Area is separated from Africa by a narrow isthmus of Suez where the Suez canal was dug.
2) Africa
Area: 303mil. Km
Location: Mostly centrally placed among the continents. It is crossed by the equator, the two troops of Cancer and Capricorn and the prime meridian.
Latitudes Extends from 35°S to 37°N
Longitude extends from 150°W to 50°E
Borders: North – Mediterranean sea
South – No border
West – Atlantic Ocean
East – Indian Ocean
3) North America
Size: Third largest continent
Area: 24milkm
Location: Latitude from 10° to 65° north and the ocean
Longitude from 60° to 160° west
Borders: North – Arctic ocean
East – Atlantic Ocean
South – No borders
West – Pacific Ocean
NB: In the south, North America is connected to South America by a narrow step of land called Isthmus of Panama where the Panama Canal was dug.
4) South American
Size : Fourth largest continent
Area – it is about 17.4mil. km2
Location: Latitudes from 40N to 50S and the ocean
Longitude from 35W to 80E
Borders:North: No Borders
South: No borders
East:Atlantic Ocean
West: Pacific Ocean
5) Antarctica
Size: Fifth largest continent
Location: It is within the Antarctic Circle which is 650S
It is surrounded by the southern ocean
It is only uninhabited continent.
6) Europe
Size: Sixth largest continent
Area: 9.8milkm2
Location: Latitude from 40°N to 40°S
Longitude from 10°E to 60°W
Borders: North – Arctic ocean
East – No Borders
South – Mediterranean Sea
West – Atlantic Ocean
7) Australia
Size: Smallest continent
Area: 8.5millkm
Location: Latitude from 40°N to 10°S north and the ocean
Longitude from 115°E to 150°W
Borders: North – Indian ocean
East – Pacific Ocean
South – Southern ocean
West – Indian Ocean
1) Plateaus
Extensive highland with more flat top.
They have steep sides.
1. a) By forces of compression.
In areas of faulting compressional forces can uplift the land between fault lines.
1. b) Volcanic eruptions
2) Plains:
Are extensive flat lowland. Low elevation 0-220km above sea level.
How are they formed? By down pushing of earth’s crust.
1) Fold Mountains
They are formed by wrinkling of the earth’s rock layers.
When rock layers are subjected to compression they form series of folds.
The up fold form series of Fold Mountains. Fold Mountains are extensive, covering thousands of kms across continents.
Example:- Africa – Atlas – South Africa
2. Block Mountains
They are raised lands above the surroundings with flat top with steep sides. They are formed in areas of faulting.
3. Rift Valley
This is trough like depression with steep sides and flat bottom which is found in areas of faulting.
How is it formed? It can be formed by: (i) Compression (ii) Tension
(i) By Compression
(a) Rocks layers subjected to compression.
(b) Development of parallel faults.
(c) The side block moves upward. The middle block remains stable.
(ii) By Tension
(a) Rocks layers subjected to tensional force.
(b) Parallel faults develop.
(c) The middle block sinks creating a rift valley.
It is part of the Great Rift Valley which starts from the Middle East and moves southwards to river Zambezi. When it comes to East Africa, it splits into 2 branches:-
In Tanzania:- (a) Lk. Natron (b) Lk. Manyara (c) Lk. Eyasi (d) Lk. Nyasa
4. Volcanic Mountains
(ii) Dormant Volcano – It has erupted in historical times but has remained inactive for a long time. E.g. Mt. Vesuvius (Naples, Italy)
(iii) Extinct Volcano – It has not erupted in historical times and does not show signs of erupting again. E.g. Mount Elgon (Uganda)
5. Residual Mountains
1. Overland flow – The rain water does not evaporate but flows on the ground surface.
2. Underground flow – Is water that sinks into the ground where it may find its way to the surface.
3. Run-off – Is the flow of water over and under the ground.
4. Tributaries – Are the streams that join together.
5. Distributaries – Are small streams which enter a sea or lake.
6. River basin – The area from which a river system collects its rain water.
7. Watershed – Is the boundary between one drainage and the next.
River System
River is a mass of water flowing in a natural channel over the earth’s surface. All rivers flow from highlands to lowlands.
River system
All the tributaries, the main river and distributaries together form river system.
River source
A place where the river makes its first appearance.
This can be high in mountains. E.g. River Rufiji – Southern highlands
Rivers which start from lakes. E.g. River Nile – Lake Victoria
Rivers can even start from springs.
River mouth
Place where a river ends. This can be sea or ocean etc. E.g. Rufiji.
Oceans
Ocean is a large body of water surrounding lands.
Major oceans of the world:-
(i) Pacific Ocean – 165.3 million km2
(ii) Atlantic Ocean – 82.2 million km2
(iii) Indian Ocean – 73.4 million km2
Note: Oceans have no uniform distribution on the earth’s surface. There are more natural bodies in the S. Hemisphere than in the N. Hemisphere.
1. Salinity
Ocean water is salty, it contains mineral salts. Major salts in the ocean water are:-
(a) Sodium Chloride
(b) Calcium Carbonate
(c) Magnesium Sulphate
(d) Other potassium
2. Temperature
Temperature of ocean water is not uniform. Normally temperature decreases towards the poles. Example: Around the equator temperature can be 25 degrees Celsius and at the pole it can
drop to 2 degrees Celsius.
Ocean Currents
Horizontal movement of surface water in the oceans.
They are mainly caused by wind. We refer to dominant wind:- Polar winds, Westernlies, Trade winds.
The direction of movement of ocean currents is influenced by three factors:-
(i) Direction of dominant winds.
(ii) Rotation of the earth – deflection of ocean currents to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
(iii) The shape of the continent – When the current meet a large land mass they split and change direction.
Note: The circulation in the northern hemisphere is clockwise and in the southern hemisphere it’s anticlockwise.
Originate from warm climate and flow polewards. E.g. Agulhas, Brazil.
Originate from cold regions and flow towards the equator. E.g. Benguela, Peru.
Tides
The rising and falling of the level of water in oceans. Twice a day the level of the ocean rises known as high tides. Twice a day the sea level falls which is called low tides.
Causes of tides
Gravitational pull of the sun and the moon. The pulling force is not the same all times.
Spring Tides – When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the pulling force is maximum therefore we have the greatest high tide called spring tide.
Neap Tides – When the three bodies are in right angle, the pulling force is less so we have neap tides.
Ocean Waves
These are surface disturbances.
Causes of waves
Most ocean waves are caused by wind. That is why when it is calm, the waves are little, and when it is windy the waves are great.
A wave has got the following features:
(a) Crest – The highest part of a wave.
(b) Trough – The lowest part of a wave.
(c) Length – The horizontal distance from the crest to the next.
(d) Height – The vertical distance from the crest to the trough.
(e) Period of wave length – The time taken by wave to complete one wave length.
Nature of Ocean Floor
The ocean floor is not flat like a classroom floor. It has got various relief features like plain, valleys, hills etc.
1. Continental Shelf
A gentle slopping margin of a continent. It is a shallow water extending from the coast to about 200m towards the sea. The continental shelf floor provides excellent conditions for breeding
of sea organisms like fish.
2. Continental Slope
This is a steep slope from the edge of continental shelf to deep ocean plains.
A fairly even extensive plains which have depth between 2000m to 3000m. The plains are mostly covered by mud.
These are saved parts of the ocean floor. Example mud ocean ridges. Some raised parts make plateaus.
Note: If the raised part reaches above water level it forms oceanic island.
If an island rises from continental shelf it forms continental island e.g. Zanzibar.
5. Ocean Trenches
These are narrow and deep depressions on the deep ocean plains. Some trenches are very deep to over 10,000m. E.g. Mariana Trench is 11,035m.
1. What is Weather?
It is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place observed over a short period of time. Time can be an hour, a day or a week.
Elements of Weather
Weather of a place is obtained by measuring the elements of weather. There are 7 examples of weather. They are:-
(a) Temperature (d) Rainfall (g) Cloud Cover
(b) Humidity (e) Sunshine
(c) Pressure (f) Wind
1. Weather Station
It is a place where weather elements are measured and recorded. Weather measuring instruments are kept at a weather station. These include:
Temperature Thermometer
Pressure Barometer
Humidity Hydrometer
2. What is Climate?
It is the average weather condition of a particular place observed over a long period of time. The time can be over 30 years.
Temperature
What is temperature?
Is the degree of heat in a body?
How do we measure temperature?
By using thermometer – it is expressed in degrees Centigrade or Fahrenheit.
Types of Thermometer
Maximum Thermometer
Minimum Thermometer
Stevenson Screen
It is a wooden box where thermometers are kept. It has 4 sides which are built to allow circulation of air. The box is painted white to improve insulation. It has a double roof to prevent direct
sun rays
The instruments kept in Stevenson Screen are:-
(a) Minimum Thermometer
(b) Maximum Thermometer
(c) Dry bulb Thermometer
(d) Wet bulb Thermometer
1. Minimum Thermometer
2. Maximum Thermometer
Maximum Thermometer is made up of a glass tube with a bulb at one end containing mercury and has a metal index.
How it works
When temperature rises, mercury expands and the length of mercury column increases and pushes the metal index up the glass tube. When temperature falls, the mercury column contracts
leaving the metal index up in the glass tube. Maximum temperature is obtained by reading the scale from the side of the metal index nearest to the mercury.
Note: After reading is done the metal index is returned to the mercury by a magnet.
3. Six’s Thermometer
It is used to measure maximum and minimum temperatures of a day at the same time. It is made up of a U-shaped glass tube. It has mercury, alcohol and metal index inside.
How it works
When temperature rises the alcohol in the left hand limb expands and pushes mercury column down the left hand limb and up the right hand limb.
Temperature Maps
Mean Monthly Temperature for a particular month e.g. January for different stations can be plotted on a map.
y1 + y2 + y3 +…….y30
30 years
All points with the same temperature are joined with a line. This line is called ISOTHERM.
Isotherm is a line which joins all places with the same Mean Monthly Temp.
Temperature Scales
There are two common scales:
– Fahrenheit Scale (°F)
It is based on the boiling point of water which is 212° and freezing point which is 32°.
– Centigrade (Celsius) Scale
It is based on boiling point of water which is 100° and freezing point which is 0°.
1. Altitude
2. Latitude
Temperature decreases with increase in latitude. From the equator temperature decreases polewards.
Explanation
Rays A and B are equal rays falling on different latitudes on the earth’s surface.
Ray A is received on the earth’s surface at a high angle. It is spread over a small area therefore higher temperature.
Ray B falls on a surface at low angle and is spread over a large area therefore low temperature.
Secondly, Ray A has traveled a shorter distance through the atmosphere and less insulation is lost therefore more heat along the equator which rises the temperature.
Ray B has traveled a longer distance through the atmosphere therefore more insulation is lost and so less heat at high altitude and low temperature.
3. Ocean Currents
Winds blowing over warm ocean currents transport the temperature of ocean current to adjacent coastal land. E.g. Along East Africa, warm Mozambique currents raise the temperature of
the coastal areas. While in South Africa, cold Banguela currents lower the temperature of coastal areas.
4. Distance from the sea
Places which are far away from seas or ocean show great range of temperature because they do not have the moderating effects of oceans/seas.
5. Humidity
It is the moisture content in the atmosphere. It is in form of water vapour which is in gas state which makes it colourless like other gases.
Sources of moisture:-
(i) Evaporation (ii) Evapo-transpiration
Humidity is measured with an instrument called Hygrometer. It has two ordinary thermometers. One is wrapped in muslin cloth which is dipped in distilled water and the second is not
treated in the same way.
How it works
When the air is not saturated, evaporation from the muslin cloth takes place and cools the wet bulb thermometers where the mercury contracts. The two thermometers will record different
temperature readings:-
When there is no difference between DBT and WBT, the air is SATURATED.
When there is small difference, humidity is high.
When there is a large difference between DBT and WBT, humidity is low.
Absolute Humidity
Relative Humidity
Is the amount of water vapour present in a mass of air expressed in percentage of the total amount of vapour that would be present when the air is saturated at the temperature.
Note: Saturated air cannot take additional water molecules at that temperature.
Formula: Relative Humidity = ___Vapour Pressure x 100
Saturated Vapour Pressure
Precipitation
It refers to the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface. It includes dew, frost, snow, mist, fog, hail, sleet and rain.
Rain
– Is formed when small droplets combine together to form large drops.
– When the drops are too heavy to remain in the atmosphere, it falls to the earth as rain.
– Three main processes that make up rainfall:-
(a) Evaporation – Is a process in which water is converted to water vapour.
(b) Condensation – Is a process where water vapour is converted into tiny droplets of water.
– It occurs when water vapour is cooled.
(c) Precipitation – Is the process by which condensed water vapour falls to the ground in various forms such as snowfall.
ISOHYTES
Are lines on a map joining places with the same precipitation.
Types of Rainfall
1. Relief
2. Convectional
3. Cyclonic
1. Convectional
2. Cyclonic
– Is a type of rain formed when large masses of air with different characteristics meet.
– Warm air tends to rise, over cooled air pressure decreases and air expands and cools.
– At high altitude the warm air cools and water vapour condenses to form clouds where it finally rains.
– In tropical regions, two air masses with similar physical properties meet to form tropical cyclone over oceans between latitudes 8°N and 8°S.
– It usually brings heavy rainfall associated with thunderstorm, lightning and very fast moving winds.
Tropical cyclones are known by different names in different areas. E.g. China – Typhoon.
3. Relief
When on shore moist winds are forced to rise up by the presence of a hill or mountain. As the moist air rises, it cools and condenses to form water droplets which fall on to the ground as
rain.
Explanation
The side of the mountain facing the direction of the wind is called WINDWARDSIDE. This side gets plenty of rain. The side of the mountain facing away from the wind is called
JEEWARD. This side has less or no rain.
Occurrence –Relief rainfall can occur at any place where mountains or hills are available.
Measurement of Rainfall
The instrument used is Rain gauge.
This consists of:
a) Cylindrical copper container about 12.8cm in diameter.
b) A copper receiver (jar).
c) A funnel which fills the top.
d) A graduated measuring cylinder.
Reading
Reading is taken in a specific time everyday.