INTRODUCTORY AGROMETEOROLOGY

(AMT 101) (2+0)

Prepared by
Roshan Babu Ojha
Department of Soil Science and Agri-
Engineering
 Introduction
World meteorological day – 23rd march (2013 theme –
Watch the weather to protect life and property). It shows
the significance of meteorological parameters in relation
with life and property)

Meteorology is the study of phenomena of the

atmosphere – includes the dynamics, physics, and
chemistry of the atmosphere. (from the Greek meteōros – ‘lofty’)

More commonly thought of as restricted to the dynamics

and thermodynamics of the atmosphere as it affects
human life.
 Why study meteorology?
• Warning of severe weather
• Agriculture
– Timing of planting, harvesting,
etc to avoid bad weather,
hazards to livestock
• Transport & services
– Shipping, aviation, road gritting,
flood warnings,…
• Commerce
– Should a supermarket order
BBQs and icecream, or
umbrellas?
November 14, 1854: A sudden storm
devastated a joint British-French fleet
near Balaklava in the Black Sea.
French astronomer Urbain Jean Joseph
Le Verrier (1811-1877) demonstrated
that telegraphed observations could
have given the ships a day to prepare.
In England, Capt. Robert FitzRoy
(1805-1865) started the
Meteorological Office as a small
department of the board of trade. On
September 3rd 1860, 15 stations
began reporting 8am observations.
February 5,1861 started issuing storm
warnings to ports.
 Branches of Meteorology

Based on method of approach, function, scale and region it can be

divided into several branches. On the basis of method of approach
it can be divided into four branches

a. Synoptic meteorology – it deals with the conditions of the

atmosphere at a given moment and attempts to predict changes
from initial condition to a period of between a few hours and few
days ahead, by means of preparation and analysis of weather maps
including upper air charts, aerological diagrams and satellite
imagery on cloud movement.

b. Dynamic meteorology – it is back bone of synoptic

meteorology. It explains the motions and energy transformations,
which occurs in the atmosphere, using the tools of mathematics
and physics.
c. Physical meteorology – it deals about the practical or
experimental physics rather than mathematical or
theoretical physics. It connects the meteorology with other
branches of sciences. If the general principles that governs
the transmission, absorption, emission, and dispersion of
electromagnetic energy through the atmosphere are
considered, what happens to the radiation during this time
is a concern of physical meteorology.

d. Statistical meteorology – This branch deals with the

mean state of the physical properties of air. It is popularly
known as climatology. From the operational point of view,
climatology and meteorology can be considered as one and
the same.
 AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY/ AGRICULTURAL
CLIMATOLOGY

Aspects of meteorology – direct relevance with
agriculture.

Science of meteorology to the service of agriculture.

Agro meteorology is defined as (Moscow meeting, 1951)

a science in investigating the meteorological,
climatological, and hydrological condition which are
significant for agriculture owing to their interaction with
the objects and processes of agricultural production.

So, by definition –
 strategies to weather and climate in raising crops, trees,
livestock and fish.
It studies water, heat air, and related biomass development in the
agricultural production environment including disasters and their
socio-economic consequences for farmers as decision makers.

It leads to agro meteorological services for response farming with

irrigation scheduling, early warnings, microclimate manipulation, and
the application of weather and climate forecast in a changing and
increasingly variable climate.

Dimensions of agrometeorlogy.

Weather monitoring

Agrometeorological forecasting

Weather crop relation

Crop zonation and crop planning

Climatic control

Agricultural pest management (pest outbreak planning)

Crop growth simulation modeling, drought management
 Metrology and Agrometeorlogy
1. It is branch of atmospheric 1. Either a branch of applied
physics. meteorology, or a branch of
agriculture as it deals with
agriculture.
2. It is weather science. 2. It is a product of agriculture and
weather science.
3. It is physical science. 3. It is a biophysical science.
4. It aims at weather 4. It aims at improving quantity and
forecasting. quality of crop production through
meteorological skills.
5. Weather service is the 5. Agroadvisiory service to the farmers
concern. is concern based on weather
forecast.
6. It is a linking science to the 6. It is a linking science to the farming
society. community.
Importance and Objectives of Agrometeorology

Understanding the physical principles of climatic parameters such
as radiation, temperature, precipitation, Evapotranspiration, and
others together with the understanding of the life process of plants
and animals in relation to climate variables is of primary importance
in the struggle to supply food.

Yield and productivities analysis is one of the final goal of an

agrometeorological studies.

Important in crop protection.

In weather monitoring and agrometerological forecast.

Evaluating agricultural production and controlling climate

(protected horticulture, animal husbandry)
 Modern Approach of Agrometeorology.

Agrometeorology deals with all the weather sensitive

elements of agricultural production.

Sowing – intercultural operation – harvest – storage –

transport - distribution – consumption.

From production to consumption, all are weather

sensitive. Agrometeorology now relies on a package of
new tools, which define ‘modern agrometeorlogy’. It
includes data acquisition techniques (ground observation,
air crafts and satellite), data transmission techniques
(including internet), and data analysis (model or other
softwares).
Meteorological Variables
 SOIL MOISTURE

Macro pores (˃0.08mm): gravitational water

Micro pores (˂0.08mm): capillary pore

-water holding capacity depends upon the

porosity.

Moisture content can be determined by

following methods:
•Gravimetric method (oven dry method)
•Electric resistant blocks
•Tensiometer
Soil water classes:
Gravitational water
a) Water contained at macro pores are affected by gravity.
b) It is the water in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water.
c) not available to the plants.
d) it is the amount of water between saturation capacity and field capacity.
So, FC is lower limit of gravitational water.

Capillary water
a) Water retaining in micro pores after drain off of gravitational water.
b) It is held in capillary pores by surface tension.
c) It is principle source of water for plant growth.
d) It is the amount of water present between FC and PWP.
So upper limit is FC and lower limit is PWP.

Hygroscopic water
Water absorbed by dry soil particles from atmosphere and is held as a very thin
film on the surface of soil particles due to adhesive force. Its upper limit is PWP. It
is not available to plants.
Soil moisture constant (SMC)
It is the imaginary concept of soil moisture content that is named according to
available to the plant.

Saturation capacity (SC):

Maximum water holding capacity of soil, all pores filled with water.
Soil moisture tension = 0 atm.

Field capacity (FC)

It is the maximum water holding capacity against gravity.
It is the upper limit of water available to the plants.
Also called as field carrying capacity, normal moisture capacity, and capillary capacity.
Tension of FC = 1/10 to 1/3 atm from coarse textured soil to fine textured soil.
After 24 hrs. to (3- 4) days of water drained out from saturation capacity, depending
upon soil type, field comes to field capacity.

Permanent wilting point (PWP)

It is the lower limit of water available to the plant which is also called as coefficient or
permanent wilting percentage
Tension 7 to 32 atm (coarse to clayey soil).
Temporary wilting
Plant wilted due to high sunlight intensity and wind. Plant can’t meet the
transpiration. When there is cool cells becomes turgid and regains its shape, it doesn’t
have relation to moisture.
So PWP is the amount of water that plant is permanently wilted I.e. Cannot regain its
turgidity when exposed to saturated atmosphere (100 % ).
Water availability of coarse textured soil is 1/10 to 7 atm and for clay soil is 1/3 to 32
atm.

Ultimate wilting (UW)

Plant is completely wilted and dies at the tension˃ 60 atm.

Wilting range (WR)

If little water add to PWP, plant can continue its growth and development. Further
depletion of soil moisture results plant dead, no effect of any supplied moisture.
So at WR, plant hardly derives water and more tension will require.
PWP is nearly equal to FC / (2 to 2.4)
When silt is low, PWP= FC / 2
when silt is high, PWP = FC/2.4

Ultimate wilting (UW) = 67% of PWP; i.e. Hygroscopic coefficient = 67% of PWP.
Soil moisture characteristic curves (SMCC)
The functional relationship of the soil moisture tension with respect to its
available moisture content of the soil is called as SMCC.
Soil moisture tension is inversely proportional to soil moisture content and it
varies with different soil textural classes.it is useful in predicting the amount of
water available to the plant, infilteration rate, percolated, amount of water
irrigation etc.
Storage capacity of soil:
The percentage of moisture present between FC and PWP is storage capacity of soil.
The amount of water can be stored in the soil for evaporation and used by plants. It is
determined by
Ds = (FC-PWP)/100 ×A×D, (cm)
Where FC = Field capacity
PWP = permanent wilting point.
A = apparent specific gravity
D = effective root zone depth

Water Availability Theory

Three concepts:
Water Availability Theory
A. Equal amount of water is available between PWP and FC.

B. When water used by plant from FC to PWP i.e. Moisture

decreases, plant growth rate also decreases.

C. There is critical moisture level in available moisture range and

beyond this, there is decreasing availability of moisture to plant
as PWP is reached. Significant decrease in growth of plant is
noticed below this critical moisture tension(CMT).yield of several
crops are not reduced if irrigation is scheduled at 50% available
moisture depletion.
Infiltration
It is the process of entry of water from the surface to soil, downward
movement of water.
Infiltration rate (mm/hr, mm/min, cm/hr)
Percolation :At saturation or nearly saturated soil. Downward movement
of water occurs called percolation.
Seepage :It is the infiltration of vertically or downward movement as well
as laterally movement into soil or from source of water supply(irrigation
canal).

Factors affecting infiltration rate

1. Initial moisture condition
SM decreases = IR increases
2. Condition of soil surface ( Dry surface : IR more)
3. Hydraulic conductivity
4. Texture ( fine texture low IR)
5. Vegetation covered ( bare land : low IR and vegetation covered: high
IR)
6. Duration of irrigation and rainfall
7. Viscosity of water: viscosity is low at high temperature: low IR)

300c (high temperature) - less viscosity - high IR

100c (low temperature) - high viscosity - less IR
 Precipitation

Component of Hydrological cycle

Water falling in the solid or liquid form on the earth

(rain, hail, sleet)

It is different with dew, frost, and mist.

Mechanism of Rainfall or precipitation

First step is condensation – cloud droplets are formed
which must be overcome normal buoyancy and updraft in
the atmosphere.

Cloud droplets are so small (10 micrometer) – millions

of cloud droplets are required to form a single raindrop of
fairly good size (200 – 700 micrometer).

Process of cloud droplets joins to form large raindrop is

not fully understood yet. However, two mechanisms are
proposed:
a) Ice crystal theory of Bergeron
b) Collision coalescence theory
A. Ice crystal theory of Bergeron

It is for Clouds below freezing level (0˚C). Cloud droplets

do not freeze at 0˚C and can remained in liquid state
below – 40˚C, called as super cooled water.

Such super cooled droplet freeze only when they come in

contact with tiny solid nucleus called freezing nucleus.

Freezing nuclei are formed by sublimation process in

upper part when RH is 100%.

Super cooled cloud droplets coagulate around freezing

nuclei and increase in size and mass and slowly drops
down, it becomes bigger and bigger, somewhere it splits.
Ice crystal theory contd…….

As it goes down to the earth surface, the temperature of the

earth atm. increases, it melted and falls as rain, if the
temperature of earth atmosphere is cold, it falls snow flakes.

This mechanism is based upon two metrological properties of

water.
a. Super cooling property
b. Saturated vapor pressure is more over the surface of water
than over the surface of ice. So, vapor diffuse rapidly from air
to ice crystal.

B. Collision coalescence theory

It is for the cloud less than 0 degree celcius.

Condensation nuclei is needed.

Collision coalescence theory contd……

Cloud droplets get accumulated around the condensation nuclei
and get larger in size and down by gravity force.

Such large mass or size of such droplet overcome the force of

cloud and fall into the ground as rain.
Forms of precipitation

i. Rain: most common form – liquid water droplet of size

bigger than 0.5 mm diameter.
ii. Drizzle: fine droplet of water diameter <0.5 mm and very
close to the one another. RH is 100% - no evaporation
occurs
iii. Snow: it is the precipitation of white or opaque grain of
ice in the form of hexagonal crystal or star.
iv. Sleet: In USA it is called frozen rain (< 5 mm) and In
Britain – mixture of rain and water.
v. Hail: precipitation of small ball or piece of ice about
diameter 5 – 50 mm. These are frozen rain drop while
falling through super cooled cloud droplets
Measurement of precipitation

Measured in terms of
Depth – unit of measurement, mm
Intensity – unit of measurement, mm/hr

Two types of Rain gauge

i. Non - Recording type rain gauge
ii. Recording type rain gauge

i. Non-recording type

It does not record the rain but only collect the rain

(vol. of water collected in cm3 ) / (area of the aperture of

collector, cm2 ) = depth of water, cm

Two types of Non – recording rain gauge

a. Symon’s Rain gauge
b. Standard Rain gauge
2.5
2. cm
8m collector

Funnel

Metal
case

Glass
bottle

Concrete floor
(60 × 60 × 60 cm)
B. Recording type Rain gauge
It produce a record of cumulative rain in time in the form of
graph, which is known as mass curve.

Slope of curve / intensity

Rainfall of rainfall.= y/x
mm
= (P2 – P1) / (t2 – t1)

time
Recording type rain gauge contd…..

Recording type rain gauge are of three type

a. Tipping Bucket type
b. Weighing type
c. Floating type

a. Tipping Bucket type gauge

It consists of tipping bucket – two compartment each of

0.25 mm capacity.

When one compartment full of 0.25 mm rain water it
empties into the reservoir and moving the second
compartment into the place beneath the funnel.

Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing
an increase to make on a cumulative measurement.
b. Weighing Type gauge

It consists of clock driven drum which is fitted to the recording
chart.

Gauge element consists of spring balance with platform lever

balance or any other weighing mechanism.

c. Floating / Siphon type

Rain water enters through a funnel into a chamber which contains
a float.

Rainwater collected – float chamber rise – activate pen connected

to self revolving chart fitted drum.

Rainfall is plotted against time gives mass curve of rainfall.

When float chamber completely filled with water it is automatically

empties by means of siphon.
Calculation of Average Depth of Rainfall of an area
a. Arithmetical Mean Method
It is used in the area where stations are uniformly distributed over
the area and rainfall rate doesn’t differ at various station.

P = (P1 + P2 + P3 + ………………….. + Pn ) / n
Where
P1, P2 , P3 …… Pn are the respective precipitation of the station.
1, 2, 3, ………., n are total number of the stations.

b. Thissen’s Polygon method

Topographic map transfer to the graph and trace the station.
According to map by adjusting latitude and longitude, make
network of triangle.

Perpendicular bisector of each triangle drawn and extended to
the side of the map, each station made polygon called Thissen
Polygon.

Planimeter is used to measure the area.

P2
P1

A1 A2 P = (P1A1 + P2A2 + ……. +

PnAn) /(A1 + A2 + ……. + n)

A3
A4

P4
P3
c. Isohyetal Method
Isohyets are the line joining the points of equal rainfall.
Rainfall of each station are plotted and adjacent area of isohyets are
measured by graph.

A1
P = A1 (P1 + P2)/2 + A2 (P2 +P3)/2 +
A2
…….. An (Pn+An)/n / (A1 + A2 +…… +
A3
An)
A4
12.6
9 mm 10.5 mm
11.4
mm
mm
P1 =
10 mm
P2 = P3 =
11 mm 12 mm
Types of precipitation
a. Orographic precipitation

responsible for most heavy rainfall in Nepal (esp. hilly region).

greatest precipitation occurs in the windward direction than at
leeward direction.

b. Frontal precipitation
Two air masses of different temperature and densities get strike
then so formed precipitation called frontal precipitation.

c. Convective Precipitation

In hot areas warm air goes up and cold air comes to take place.

Heated air mass goes up and cooled by surrounding air – develop
precipitation.

This type of precipitation may be in the form of light shower to
cold burst or thunderstorm depending upon the temperature
and moisture condition of atmosphere.

It is highly localized and of short duration.
Significance of Precipitation

Adds soil moisture in soil

Recharge ground water

Key to scheduling Agriculture operation
• seed bed preparation
• ploughing
• irrigation
• harvesting
• post harvest operation
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evaporation and Transpiration (Evapotranspiration)

Evaporation:- it is the change of state from liquid to
gaseous state.

During evaporation water molecules absorbs energy,

which gives them motion to escape from the surface of
liquid or evaporating body and becomes gas.

Since energy is consumed in the process of evaporation,

the remaining liquid is cooled by an equivalent amount of
energy. So, evaporation is a cooling process and provides
cooling effect on evaporating objects.

The driving force for evaporation is vapor pressure

gradient. The resistant created by soil and wind also affect
the process of evaporation.
Factors affecting rate of evaporation.
1.Temperature (increase evaporation as temp.
increases)
2.Relative humidity (RH increases evaporation
decreases)
3.Wind speed (low wind speed low evaporation)
4.Air pressure (low pressure of the surface high rate
of evaporation)
5.Soil characteristics (soil texture, soil profile
characteristics etc. At FC – soil characteristics
doesn’t affect rate of evaporation)
Measurement of Evaporation
Following methods are generally practiced to measure the rate of
the evaporation
1. Pan measurement method
2. Using Empirical formulae
3. Storage equation method
4. Energy budget method

1. Pan measurement method

A pan of certain standard dimension is taken and water is filled
upto a certain range of level.

The amount of water evaporated from the pan is measured (rate

of evaporation per unit area per unit time is calculated)

Such rate of evaporation is multiplied by a suitable pan coefficient

(because evaporation from large surface area is not same from
that small pan).
Pan measurement contd…….

Several pan are designed such as:

a. US weather bureau (USWB) Class A pan Evaporimeter
b. Colorado sunken pan
c. US Geological survey floating pan
d. ISI standard Pan
e. Pitch Evaporimeter

a. USWB Class A pan Evaporimeter

Most widely used – adopted by WMO (it correct the shortcomings
of all other evaporimeters)

It is circular pan of 122 cm diameter, 25.5 cm deep and made up of

22 gauge galvanized iron.

It is placed over the wooden framework approximately 10 cm

above the ground to facilitate air circulation beneath the pan
USWB class A pan evaporimeter contd…

Still well is found inside a pan with point gauge – serve as a

reference point for the level of free water surface at the pan.

The amount of water lost by evaporation from the pan in any given
interval of time is measured by adding known quantities of water to
the pan from a graduated cylinder till the water level touches the
reference point

During rainy day, if water level above the reference point, excess
water is lifted out till water level touches the reference point and this
amount is subtracted from rainfall to calculate evaporation.

At heavy rainfall, if pan overflows, evaporation is taken as zero.

Pan coefficient = 0.6 – 0.8 (0.7)

b. Sunken pan

It is buried in the ground, water level maintained at the
ground level.

Gives less value than class A pan evaporimeter.

c. Floating pan

It is used to measure evaporation from the water bodies.

A raft is provided at the bottom of pan. Evaporation
from pan is similar to evaporation of surrounding water
bodies.
2. Empirical method

Meyer’s formula
E = Km (es - ea) (1 + V9 / 16)
Where,
E = Evaporation from the water body
es = saturation vapor pressure of the water surface
ea = actual vapor pressure
V9 = monthly wind velocity (km/hr) at about 9 m
above ground surface.
Km = coefficient (0.36 for deep water and 0.50 for
shallow water)
3. Storage Equation or water-budget method
It is used to calculate the evaporation from river, reservoir
etc. given by the equation:
P + Qi + Qu = E + Qo ± ΔQs

Where,
P = total precipitation of water surface
Qi = total surface inflow
Qu = total underground inflow or outflow
E = Evaporation from water surface
Qo = surface outflow
ΔQs = change in storage
4. Energy – Budget method
This method is based on the principle of conservation of
heat energy and cooling produced by evaporation.

E = (Hn – Hg – Hi – Hs) / ρ.La (1 – ß)

Where,
E = Evaporation in mm
Hn = Net Heat energy received or the net incoming energy.
Hg = Heat lost to the ground
Hi = Net heat conducted out of the system by water flow.
Hs = Heat stored in water body.
ρ = density of water
La = latent heat of vaporization of water
ß = Bowen’s ratio
 Transpiration

Lost of water from the plants in the form of the water vapor.

It can be stomatal, cuticular, and lenticular.

Light, root to shoot ratio, availability of water to the plants, and leaf
characteristics affect the rate of transpiration.

Evapotranspiration (ET)

Combined loss of water to the atmosphere from soil water
and plant surface both as Evaporation and transpiration.

Availability of moisture is crucial for both process.

It is used as agroclimatic index to assess the effect of water

supply on the growth and yield of the crop.
 Potential ET (PET) and Actual ET (AET)
Potential ET (PET) Actual ET (AET)
1. When sufficient moisture is freely 1. The real ET,
available to completely meet the occurring in a
regulation of fully covered area, the specific situation in
resulting ET is PET. the field is AET
2. It depends upon the climatological 2. It depends upon the
factor rather than soil and plant factor. soil and plant
3. PET is the rate of ET of an extended characteristics.
surface of 8 – 15 cm tall green grass 3. AET is the rate of ET
cover, actively growing, completely at any conditioned
shading the ground and no short of ground surface
water.

At FC, AET / PET = 1 i.e. AET = PET

At WP, AET = 0, As moisture decreases, AET/PET < 1
Consumptive Use (CU)
CU = Evaporation + Transpiration + water used for metabolic
activities
But, the quantity of the water used in metabolic process is
insignificant compared to ET, and hence, the term CU can be
synonymously used as ET (i.e. CU = ET)

Factors affecting ET/CU

Evaporation for soil surface
Temperature
Wind
Humidity
Soil type and topography
Types of crop and cropping
pattern
Length of growing season
Stage of plant growth
Amount of foliage of plant
Methods and amount of irrigation
Quantity of readily available soil
moisture
Rainfall
Intensity of sunlight
 Measurement of ET/CU
A. Direct measurement
B. By use of Empirical formulae

A. Direct measurement
1. Soil moisture studies on plots

It is used in the plot that are uniform and depth of the
groundwater table doesn’t affect the root zone.

Numbers of samples are taken from plot and analyzed in
laboratory (Gravimetric method)

Expressed in terms of percentage of oven dry weight of soil.

Depth of water removed by ET (D) is calculated as:
D = psd/100
Where,
p = moisture % by weight
s = specific gravity of soil
d = depth if soil (cm)
2. Lysimeter method
i. Non-weighing type lysimeter

Lysimeter is a tank having diameter 1-3 m and 2-3 m depth.

It is buried in the field and crop is grown as other part of the
field.

Amount of water applied in the field and lysimeter is same.

Irrigation applied = water stored + ET + water percolated

IR = Ws + ET + Wp

IR is calculated earlier
Ws is calculated by gravimetric method
Wp is calculated by water collected at tray. And hence, ET is
calculated.
ii. Weighing type lysimeter

This type is flooded over the liquid and other conditions
are same to the surrounding field.

When water applied over it, it gets heavy and get down,
level of liquid increases and when ET occurs, water
decreases – weight of lysimeter also decreases and level of
liquid decreases.

Such decreased liquid level is used for calculation of ET.
3. Field experimental plots

Water applied to selected plot in such a way that neither
runoff nor deep percolation occurs but the quantity of the
water is sufficient for satisfactory growth of crop.

ET or CU is then given by the quantity of water applied.
4. Integration Method.
ET/CU is determined by summation of the product of:
a. CU of water for each crops times its area
b. CU of water for natural vegetation times its area
c. Evaporation from water surface times water surface area
d. Evaporation from bare soil times its area.

Entire Area CU can be determined.

5. Inflow and out flow in large area

ET = Rainfall + Irrigation – (GS1 – GS2) – Outflow

Where,
GS1 – GS2 = change in Ground Water Storage Rainfall

Irrigation

Outflow
Ground water
storage
2. Use of empirical formula

Weather parameters are considered more in this method

More experimental basis

a. Penman’s equation
In 1948, Penman proposed an equation based on the combination
of energy balance and sink strength. Most popular in today’s
world,
It states that, Qn and Ea are estimated
E0 = (ΔQn + ϒ Ea)/(Δ+ ϒ) Ea = 0.35(1 + V2/160) (Es-Ea)
Where, Where,
E0 = Evaporation from free V2 = mean wind velocity at 2 m
water surface (mm/day) height.
Δ = slope of saturation vapor Es = saturation vapor pressure
pressure Vs temperature curve. Ea = actual vapor pressure
Qn = net incoming radiation And, PET = E0 * K (K = crop factor =
ϒ = psychrometric constant 0.6 – 0.8)
Ea = an aerodynamic constant
b. Modified Penman’s Equation
Doorobnos and Pruitt (1975) propose modified penman equation
based on intensive study

Etp* = W . Rn + (1 – W) f(u) (es - ea)

Where,
Etp* = unadjusted PET
(1-W) = temperature and elevation related weightage factor for
effect of wind and humidity on ET.
W = Temperature related weightage factor
Rn = net radiation (mm of evaporable water per day)
f(u) = function of wind velocity = 0.27 (1 + u2/100)
u2 = wind velocity at 2 m height.
es and ea have same meaning earlier.

To adjust Etp*, a correction factor is introduced.

Etp = Etp* × c (c= correction factor)

c. Thornwaite formula
Thornwaite, 1948 assumed that an exponential realationship
existed between mean monthly temperature and mean
monthly CU. It is mostly used in N. America.

e = 1.6 (10 . t / I) a

Where,
e = potential evapotranspiration (cm/month), it is assumed
that all months are 30 days and 12 hours day hours
t = mean year temperature ( deg. Celcius)
I = annual or seasonal heat Index
I = Ʃi, i = monthly heat index
i = (t/5)1.514
a = an empirical exponent
a = 0.000000675I3 – 0.0000771I2 + 0.01792I + 0.49239
d. Blaney-Criddle method
Blaney and Criddle in 1950 observed that the amount of
water consumptly used by crops during their growing
season was closely correlated with mean monthly
temperature and day light hours.
According to Blaney and Criddle,

u = k . f (cm)
= k . p/40 (1.8t + 32)
Where,
u = monthly consumptive use (cm)
k = crop coefficient
p = monthly day light hours expressed in %age of day time
hours of the year
t = average temperature of the month (deg. Celsius)
e. Radiation Method
It is used where data on temperature and sunshine or
cloudness are not available. Doorebnos and Pruitt
propose following formula:

U = a + bwRs

Where,
U = consumptive use of water (mm/day)
a and b are constant (tabular value)
w = weightage factor depends on temperature and
altitude
Rs = Solar radiation in terms of mm of evaporable water
per day.
f. Christiansen Method
In 1968, Christiansen proposed an empirical formula to estimate the
pan evaporation based from climatic data, when reliable pan
evaporation data are not available.

Ep = Kep . R . Ct . Cw . Ch . Cs . Ce . Cm
Where,
Ep = Class A pan Evaporation (cm)
Kep = empirical constant = 0.473
R = extraterrestrial radiation
Ct = coefficient of temperature
Cw = Coefficient of wind
Ch = Coefficient of RH
Cs = Coefficient of sunshine
Ce = Coefficient of elevation
Cm = monthly coefficient (0.9 – 1.10)

For ET, ET = k.Ep (k = CU coefficient for different crops)

HUMIDITY
Humidity

It is water vapor content of air at any time and place

Fog, cloud or rain are not used to describe the term humidity

Water holding capacity of atmosphere is directly proportional to

rise in temperature however changing pattern shows slower at
lower temperature and rapid at higher temperature.

Specific
humidity

temperature
Fig : Relationship between the specific humidity and temperature
Terminologies
a) Vapor Pressure

Part of atmospheric pressure attributed by the water vapor in
atmosphere is vapor pressure.

It is the partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere.

As water molecules evaporates from the water surface there is

small increase in pressure in air above. Because of increasing
vapor pressure in air above, more and more of these escaping
molecules are forced to return to the evaporating body.

At last equilibrium is reached between vaporization and
condensation.

i.e. No. of molecules escaping from the surface = No. of

molecules returning to the surface.

At this condition, partial pressure of water vapor is said to be
“saturation vapor pressure”
Under saturated condition, further addition of water vapor,
atmosphere can’t hold it.
Saturation vapor pressure is the maximum water holding
capacity of air.
With increase in temperature saturation vapor pressure
(SVP) also increases.

Saturation deficit
The difference between the moisture holding capacity of air
and its actual humidity is k/a saturation deficit.

b) Absolute Humidity
Amount or weight of water vapor in a given volume of air is
referred as absolute humidity.
i.e. Absolute Humidity = Amount of water vapor/volume of
air, (g/cm2)
c) Specific Humidity
It is the weight of water vapor per weight of given mass of air
including water vapor.
i.e. Sp. Humidity = wt. of water vapor / wt. of air (dry air + water
vapor), (g/kg)

Sp. Humidity is higher at equator than at poles, higher in ocean than

at land, higher in day than at morning.

d. Mixing Ratio
It is defined as the weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air.
i.e. = wt of water vapor / wt of dry air

It is calculated as The numerical values of mixing

W = 622 e / p – e ratio differs little with specific
Where, W = mixing ratio humidity
e = vapor pressure
p = total air pressure
e. Relative humidity

It is defined as the water vapor in the air to the amount of
water vapor that air can hold at that temperature.

i.e. RH = (amt of water vapor present / amt of water vapor that

air
can hold) × 100
= (water vapor content / water holding capacity) × 100

As temperature increases RH decreases because increasing

temperature increases the water holding capacity and vice
versa.

Or, RH = vapor pressure (e)/saturation vapor pressure (es) × 100

At morning RH is high and At day/noon RH is low.

f. Dew Point

The temperature to which air must be cooled down in order to be
saturated with the amount of water vapor it contains. Below the
temperature it get saturated itself and condensed to form dew. (RH =
100%)

Cooling below dew point in general results in condensation to form

clouds, fog, dew or frost if dew point temperature is above freezing
point.

If dew point temperature is below freezing point, sublimation

results and crystal of ice or snow flakes are formed.

Three ways of atmospheric temperature lowered to reach dew point:

a. Radiation cooling – air loose heat by radiation
b. Expansion cooling – rising or lifting of air to higher altitude, where it
expands and get cooled
c. Subsidence – cooling by mixing with cold air.
Measurement of Humidity
RH is measured by using
a. Dry and wet bulb thermometer
b. Psychrometers
c. Hair Hygrometer

a. Dry and wet bulb thermometer

It contains two thermometer mounted at the wooden frame.

Bulb of one thermometer is wrapped with the wick or wet muslin

cloth, called wet bulb thermometer, and next bulb left uncovered
and exposed to air, called dry bulb thermometer.

Dry bulb temperature – wet bulb temperature = wet bulb

depression

Wet bulb depression can be converted to RH with the help of

hygrometric table.
b. Psychrometers
i. Assman psychrometer (fan is used for forced evaporation)
ii. Whirling or Sling psychrometer (wooden frame rotated 15-20
per minute)

c. Hair Hygrometer
It mainly uses the principle of hygroscopic nature of human hair

Expansion of human hair length is directly proportional to humidity

(expands as humidity increases and contract as humidity
decreases)

Change in length of human hair is monitored and calibrated with

the help of hydrograph.
 Significance of RH in crops
Low RH, high temperature, high wind – desiccation, water stress,
more ET

High humidity – fungal infection, low transpiration

High RH + High T
Low RH + low T more occurrence of pest and disease incidence
High RH + low T

Low humidity – more demand of irrigation

Extremely low humidity – plant wilted and get killed

 Microclimatic modification

Artificial control of field environment to keep the

optimum condition of plant growth and crop production.

A practice of environmental control requires a complete

knowledge of physiology of plants and physical
environment.

Modification of physical environment can be done

through:
i. Controlling wind velocity
ii. Controlling heat load
iii. Controlling water balance.
i. Controlling wind velocity
a. Shelter belts (structures or physical barriers such as buildings, wall
fences)
b. Wind breakers (biological barriers like trees, hedges etc)
But they are used synonymously

Area of protection from wind break:

It depends on barrier height

i.e. L = 17 h (Vm / V) × Cosθ

Where,
L = distance of full protection
h = barrier height
Vm = minimum wind velocity at 15 m height required to move the
most erodible soil fraction.
V = actual wind velocity at 15 m height.
θ = angle of deviation of prevailing wind direction from
perpendicular to wind break.
Wind breaks contd….

Advantages of wind breaks – control soil erosion, conserve soil
moisture, protect orchard from hot and cold wind.

Disadvantages of wind breaks – shading effect, root competition,

fungal attack, birds and predators attack.

ii. Controlling heat load

a. Heat erosion – in tropical and sub tropical
b. Heat trapping – in temperate region.

In case of high temperature In case of low temperature

 Controlled green house Poly-house or green house
 Multistoried cropping Planting in sunny side
 Irrigation Mulching
 Shelterbelts/shading Residue burning
 Lath house (cold beds) Heaters
Hot beds
iii. Controlling water balance
Irrigation
Increase infiltration and reduce run-off
Mulching
Contouring
Terracing
Reduce ET
Use of organic manures in the field
Drain out of excess water
 Agroclimatic
Regionalization and
crop zonation

Agroclimatic regionalization is more broader topic than micro-
climatic modification.

In this, we take an account of all the climatic parameters like RH,
precipitation, temperature, ET, photoperiod etc.

Agroclimate is defined as total of climatic condition rendering

the possible economic cultivation of plant species, expressed either
in the numerical value or qualitative terms based on their effects
upon plant and soil.

Agroclimatic regionalization is a scientific method or process

of delineating the climatically homogenous area and evaluating the
suitability of crops on those area after full detail analysis of the
climatic requirement of these crops.
Agroclimatic regionalization contd…

Agroclimatic index is made, for which the numerical value for each
parameters are assigned and calculate numerically and finally merge
to one single index value.

According to such agroclimatic index, ‘agroclimatic regionalization’

can be done.

eg. Krishnan and Muktha Sing’s method

Precipitation and temperature are two fundamental climatic
condition.

Moisture index (MI) = (P – PET) / PET × 100

Where, P = precipitation, PET = Potential Evapotranspiration

Heat/Thermal Index = (Tmax + Tmin) / 2

On the basis of MI there are eight agroclimatic groups

On the basis of TI there are five climatic zone

Zone Thermal Index Climatic zone

A > 28˚C Very hot

B 28-25˚C Hot

C 20-25˚C Mild

D 10-20˚C Cold

E <10˚C Very cold

Steps in Agroclimatic Regionalization

a. Delineation of climatically homogenous area based on

the topographic features and prevailing climatic
condition. This can be done by the analysis of topo map,
soil map or climatic map.

b. Identify the climatic requirement of different crops and

crop varieties.

c. Assessing the pattern of climate of the given area.

d. Matching the climate requirement of the crop.

e. Evaluating the suitability of crop.

 Crop Zonation
In brief, it is the process of distinguishing the
area into different zones and classify them
according to the suitability of different crops
after the detail analysis of the climatic condition
of that area and matching it with the climatic
requirement of different crops.
 Human Influence on climate.

Global warming

Ozone depletion

Acid rain

Please refer the documentary “an inconvenient truth” by

Al Gore.

And refer following hyperlink

Global Warming 101 (4 of 5) - Current Conditions - YouTube.FLV

Evidences of climate change

Altered precipitation (erratic rainfall)

Mosquitoes – more with increasing altitude.

Glacier melting

No winter rain

Re-occur of malaria (even in hilly region)

Drought

Pine-move to upper altitude

Night temperature increases-heavy reduction of
production

Species extinction

Swine flu re-occur (eradicated 50 years ago)
Agriculture contributes 13% GHGs (green house gases).

Nepal contributes 0.025% to global GHGs production – no

necessary to cut off GHGs production in Nepal.

Coping strategy of climate change

-Stress tolerant, drought tolerant, pest and disease
tolerant/resistant varieties should be developed.
- weather forecasting for crops
-Cut off GHGs production.
- crop and animal insurance.
- discourage deforestation and marginal land cultivation
- Stop unscientific land use practice.