𝑁−1 𝑁−1

−𝑗
2πkn 1 2πkn
𝑋 (𝑘 ) = ∑ 𝑥 (𝑛 )𝑒 𝑁 𝑥(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑋 (𝑘)𝑒 𝑗 𝑁
DFT IDFT 𝑁
𝑛=0 𝐾=0
k = 0, 1 ,2, …, N -1 n = 0, 1, 2, ……, N -1
1 1 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔[𝑋(𝑘)]
Amplitude 𝐴𝑘 = |𝑋 (𝑘 )| = √(𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙[𝑋(𝑘)])2 + (𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔[𝑋(𝑘)])2 Phase 𝜙𝑘 = tan−1 ( )
Spectrum 𝑁 𝑁 Spectrum 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙[𝑋(𝑘)]
k = 0, 1, 2, …, N -1 k = 0, 1, 2, …, N -1
1 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 = cos(𝑥) + 𝑗sin(𝑥)
Power 𝑃𝑘 = 2 |𝑋(𝑘)|2 = {(𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙[𝑋(𝑘)])2 + (𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔[𝑋(𝑘)])2 }
𝑁
Spectrum
k = 0, 1, 2, …, N -1 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 = cos(𝑥) − 𝑗sin(𝑥)

Window Functions 𝑥𝑤 (𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛)𝑤(𝑛)

2π𝑛
Rectangular 𝑊𝑅 (𝑛) = 1, Hamming 𝑊ℎ𝑚 (𝑛) = 0.54 − 0.46 cos ( ),
window 0≤𝑛 ≤𝑁−1 window 𝑁−1
0≤𝑛 ≤𝑁−1
|2𝑛 − 𝑁 + 1| 2π𝑛
Triangular 𝑊𝑡𝑟𝑖 (𝑛) = 1 − , Hanning 𝑊ℎ𝑚 (𝑛) = 0.5 − 0.5 cos ( ),
window 𝑁−1 window 𝑁−1
0≤𝑛 ≤𝑁−1 0≤𝑛 ≤𝑁−1

DFT Properties
DFT Property Time Domain Frequency Domain
Linearity 𝑥3 (𝑛) = 𝑎𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑛) 𝑋3 (𝑘) = 𝑎𝑋1 (𝐾) + 𝑏𝑋2 (𝐾)
2πk
Shift 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑚) 𝑒 −𝑗(𝑁
)𝑚
𝑋(𝑘)
𝑁−1

convolution 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (2) = ∑ 𝑥1 (𝑘)𝑥2 ((𝑛 − 𝑘)𝑁) 𝑋1 (𝐾). 𝑋2 (𝐾)

𝑘=0
Duality 𝑋(𝑛) 𝑁 𝑥(−𝑘)

Frequency: fs: Sampling rate

Frequency bin (k) Resolution (step) Folded Frequency
𝑘𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠 𝑁 𝑓𝑠
𝑓= △𝑓 = △𝑓 =
𝑁 𝑁 2 2

Z-Transform Properties
Property Time Domain z- Domain
Linearity 𝑎𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑛) 𝑎𝑍(𝑥1 (𝑛)) + 𝑏𝑍(𝑥2 (𝑛))
Shift 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑚) 𝑧 −𝑚 𝑋(𝑧), 𝑚 ≥ 0
∞

convolution 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛) = ∑ 𝑥1 (𝑛 − 𝑘)𝑥2 (𝑘) 𝑋1 (𝑧). 𝑋2 (𝑧)

𝑘=0

Initial value theorem 𝑥(0) = lim 𝑋(𝑧) 𝑋(𝑧)

𝑧→∞

Final value theorem 𝑥(∞) = lim[𝑋(𝑧)] 𝑋(𝑧)

𝑧→1
Multiplication by an 𝑋(𝑧⁄𝑧𝑜 )
𝑧0𝑛 [𝑛]
Exponential Sequence
𝑑𝑋(𝑧)
Differentiation of (z) 𝑛𝑥[𝑛] −𝑧
𝑑𝑧
Time-reversal property 𝑥 ∗ [−𝑛] 𝑋 ∗ (1⁄𝑧 ∗ )
Line Region of
x(n), n≥0 z-Transform X(z)
No. Convergence
∞

1. 𝑥(𝑛) ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0
2. 𝛿(𝑛) 1 |𝑧| > 0
𝑎𝑧
3. 𝑎𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > 1
𝑧−1
𝑧
4. 𝑛𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > 1
(𝑧 − 1)2
𝑧(𝑧 + 1)
5. 𝑛2 𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > 1
(𝑧 − 1)3
𝑧
6. 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > |𝑎|
𝑧−𝑎
𝑧
7. 𝑒 −𝑛𝑎 (𝑛) |𝑧| > 𝑒 −𝑎
(𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑎 )
𝑎𝑧
8. 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > |𝑎|
(𝑧 − 𝑎)2
𝑧sin(𝑎)
9. sin(𝑎𝑛)𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > 1
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧cos(𝑎) + 1
𝑧[𝑧 − cos(𝑎)]
10. cos(𝑎𝑛)𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > 1
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧cos(𝑎) + 1
[𝑎sin(𝑏)]𝑧
11. 𝑎𝑛 sin(𝑏𝑛)𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > |𝑎|
𝑧 − [2𝑎cos(𝑏)]𝑧 + 𝑎2
2

𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑏𝑛)𝑢(𝑛) 𝑧[𝑧 − 𝑎cos(𝑏)]

12. |𝑧| > |𝑎|
𝑧 2 − [2𝑎cos(𝑏)]𝑧 + 𝑎2
𝑒 −𝑎𝑛 sin(𝑏𝑛)𝑢(𝑛) [𝑒 −𝑎 sin(𝑏)]𝑧
13. |𝑧| > 𝑒 −𝑎
𝑧 2 − [2𝑒 −𝑎 cos(𝑏)]𝑧 + 𝑒 −2𝑎
𝑒 −𝑎𝑛 cos(𝑏𝑛)𝑢(𝑛) 𝑧[𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑎 cos(𝑏)]
14. |𝑧| > 𝑒 −𝑎
𝑧 2 − [2𝑒 −𝑎 cos(𝑏)]𝑧 + 𝑒 −2𝑎
2|𝐴||𝑃|𝑛 cos(𝑛𝜃
+ 𝜙)𝑢(𝑛)
where P and A are 𝐴𝑧 𝐴∗ 𝑧
15. complex constants +
defined by 𝑧 − 𝑃 𝑧 − 𝑃∗
𝑃 = |𝑃|∠𝜃, 𝐴
= |𝐴|∠𝜙
 FORMAT OF DIFFERENCE EQUATION

Z-Transform Shift Property with Initial condition

If the input or output has initial conditions

If all initial conditions are zero