Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211 – 224

www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Research paper

Microbially originated wrinkle structures on sandstone

and their stratigraphic context: Palaeoproterozoic
Koldaha Shale, central India
S. BanerjeeT, S. Jeevankumar
Department of Earth Sciences, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai-400076, India
Received 21 April 2004; received in revised form 8 November 2004; accepted 20 December 2004

Abstract

Wrinkle structures on sandstone beds are abundant and present in diverse forms in the Palaeoproterozoic Koldaha Shale,
Vindhyan basin, central India. The inferred palaeogeography of sedimentation ranges from offshore marine to terrestrial, the
wrinkled sandstones belonging to the relatively deeper marine part. Good preservation of ultramicroscopic microbial elements
within these sandstones strongly supports a microbial mat origin of the wrinkles, which was facilitated by development of an
oxygen depleted condition immediately beneath the sediment–water interface, as depicted in early pyrite growth. Later,
impermeable shale encasing the sandstone beds arrested further scope for destruction of the microbial elements. Trapping of
fine detritus by microbial filaments is documented by the invariable occurrence of a silty clay veneer on the wrinkled surfaces,
and by its characteristic texture.
Wrinkle morphology has been classified and an attempt has been made to understand the origin of each of the varieties, and
to visualize the processes that acted upon the microbial mats to produce the wrinkle structures in their specific palaeogeographic
context. The general palaeogeographic bias in occurrence of the sandy wrinkles is well reflected in their concentration in the
lower part of the highstand systems tracts (HST’s), one superposed above the other, comprising the Koldaha Shale. The smaller-
scale palaeogeographic control is indicated by compartmentalization of two wrinkle varieties in the upper and the basal intervals
of the HST’s, and overlapping occurrence of other varieties in the medial interval with apparent preference for either the upper
or the lower levels.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Palaeoproterozoic sand wrinkles; Microbial mat; Genetic process; Stratigraphic context; Koldaha Shale

1. Introduction

Microbial mat growth must have been far more

T Corresponding author. widespread in the Proterozoic than at present, but is
E-mail address: santanu@iitb.ac.in (S. Banerjee). seldom reported from siliciclastic rocks in their
0037-0738/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2004.12.013
212 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224

stratigraphic context. Ancient microbial signature is
generally difficult to recognize in siliciclastic sedi-
mentary rocks and is better known from carbonates.
The absence of early cement in the former renders
microbial remains readily degradable and makes
characteristic microbial textures unrecognizable
within the first few hundred years of burial (Park,
1977; Krumbein and Cohen, 1977). Diagenesis also
commonly obliterates microbial mat structures in
siliciclastic sediments. Growth, metabolism, physical
destruction and decay of microbial mats may, none-
theless, leave indirect signatures (Schieber, 1998a,
1999, 2004; Gerdes et al., 2000; Noffke et al., 2001)
recognizable in the field. Features indicative of
microbial mats in sandstones include wrinkle struc-
tures (Hagadorn and Bottjer, 1997, 1999; Pflüger,
1999; Bouougri and Porada, 2002; Banerjee and
Sarkar, 2002; Pruss et al., 2004), cracks (Pflüger,
1999; Porada and Löffler, 2000; Bouougri and Porada,
2002; Prave, 2002), roll-up structures (Eriksson et al.,
2000; Sarkar et al., 2004), sand chips (Pflüger, 1999;
Gerdes et al., 2000), gas domes (Schieber, 1999;
Bouougri and Porada, 2002; Noffke et al., 2001),
petee structures (Krumbein et al., 1994), palimpsest
ripples (Pflüger, 1999; Seilacher, 1999), multidirec-
tional ripple marks (Noffke, 1998), mat fragment
impressions and micro fault sets (Pflüger, 1999).
Recently Schieber (2004) and Sarkar et al. (2004)
tried to categorize the microbial mat features in
siliciclastic sediments and sedimentary rocks. Fur-
thermore, Sarkar et al. (this volume) discussed how
microbial mats may have influenced sequence strati-
graphic architecture of Precambrian clastic sediment
depositional settings.

Fig. 1. (a) Geological map showing outcrop distribution of the Vindhyan Supergroup in the Son Valley area, with necessary stratigraphic
elaborations (modified after Auden, 1933; Bose et al., 2001). The present paper deals with the findings from the Semri Group from the
easternmost end of the Vindhyan basin, near Amjhore (map of India within inset). (b) Location map of the study area.
 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224
Of specific interest in this paper are the various
kinds of wrinkle structures observed in the Palae-
oproterozoic Koldaha Shale, Kheinjua Formation,
Vindhyan Supergroup, Son valley, central India (Fig.
1a,b) and their stratigraphic affinity. Wrinkle struc-
tures in sandstone are most widely reported from the
Proterozoic, but have also been noticed in modern
settings (Hagadorn and Bottjer, 1997). The term
bwrinkleQ is descriptive and includes a wide variety
of sedimentary structures, commonly known as
runzelmarken, Kinneyia-style ripples, micro-ripples
and related structure such as belephant skinQ (Haga-
dorn and Bottjer, 1997). In general, wrinkle structures
are characterized by oddly contorted, wrinkled, quasi-
polygonal, commonly minute-scale, steep relief that
can occur on top of, or as casts at the sole of beds
(Hagadorn and Bottjer, 1999). Their ancient counter-
parts are reported from a wide variety of marine as
well as terrestrial settings (Fedo and Cooper, 1990;
Hagadorn and Bottjer, 1997; Prave, 2002; Pruss et al.,
2004). Sandstones bearing wrinkle structures are
commonly reported from mud-free and fine-grained
varieties (Noffke et al., 2002; Prave, 2002), as they are
within the Koldaha Shale. Wrinkle structures on
sandstones may, however, be abiogenic also (Allen,
1985).
Wrinkle structures are generally considered as
microbially originated; but the wrinkle formation has
been attributed to different mechanisms. Hagadorn
and Bottjer (1997) and Bouougri and Porada (2002)
thought that traction currents on microbially covered
sandy surfaces generated the wrinkles. Pflüger (1999),
however, considered that expulsion of gases from
beneath a mat may have caused formation of the
Kinneyia wrinkles in the Silurian sandstones of Libya.
Noffke et al. (2002) attributed loading as the main
factor for developing the wrinkle structures observed
in the Neoproterozoic Nama Group, Namibia.
Recently, Schieber (2004) considered that most of
the wrinkle structures represent surface textures
related to growth of microbial mats on sandy
substrata. Wrinkle structures in the Koldaha Shale
differ widely in shape, size and elevation and may not
be related to any single mechanism discussed above.
This paper proposes a morphologic classification
of wrinkle structures in sandstone within the Koldaha
Shale, strives to visualize interaction of microbial
mats with varied kinds of physical forces generating
213
these structures, and investigates the possible prefer-
ential palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphic occur-
rence of these structures.
2. Geological background
The Koldaha Shale occupies the lower part of the
Kheinjua Formation that, in turn, belongs to the lower
of the two tiers of the Vindhyan Supergroup (Fig. 1a;
Bose et al., 2001 for latest review). Its age has
recently been bracketed between 1.63 Ga and 1.60 Ga
on the basis of U/Pb SHRIMP data derived from
zircon grains from acid volcanic rocks in the bound-
ing formations, the Porcellanite and Rohtas (Rasmus-
sen et al., 2002). The Vindhyan succession is
dominantly marine and the Koldaha Shale was
deposited largely on a storm-dominated shelf (Bose
et al., 1997; Banerjee, 2000; Banerjee and Jeevanku-
mar, 2003). The tectonic setting of deposition was an
intracratonic rift (Bose et al., 1997, 2001). The entire
Vindhyan succession is very mildly deformed, leading
to superb preservation of delicate microbial mat
imprints, like wrinkle structures in the study area.
Microbial mat-related structures of varied kinds,
including Kinneyia ripples, are reported from the
immediately overlying Chorhat Sandstone (Pflüger
and Sarkar, 1996; Banerjee, 1998; Banerjee and
Sarkar, 2002; Sarkar et al., 2004), but have yet to be
described from the Koldaha Shale.
3. Methodology
Depositional facies were identified mainly on the
basis of lithology, sedimentary structures and bed
geometry. All the facies constituents were scanned
thoroughly for the wrinkle structures. Facies logs were
erected from measurement of spot thicknesses of the
facies constituents in cliff sections and small quarries,
along a roughly E–W depositional dip-oblique stretch
of 25 km. Correlating facies contacts was achieved by
walking out the distance between these sections,
enabling a two-dimensional panel to be erected.
Wrinkle structures were identified in the field. Thin
sections of the sandstone samples containing wrinkle
structures were examined and photographed, with the
help of a Nikon Eclipse E 600 Pol microscope with
214 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224

attached Nikon coolpix 8700 digital camera. Fresh
samples were chosen for ultramicroscopic studies
under a JEOL JSM 840A Scanning Electron Micro-
scope (SEM) with KEVEX Winstation EDS attached
to it. SEM samples were prepared using the method of
O’Brian and Slatt (1990). First, a narrow groove was
cut completely around the rock chips with a diamond
coated grinding disc. Only a few mm of the sample
was left uncut. Careful breaking of the chips along the
groove produced a freshly fractured, nearly flat
surface (for details of sample preparation see O’Brian
and Slatt, 1990). This methodology ensured the least
contamination of the surface. The fresh surfaces are
not touched prior to the examination under SEM. Care
was taken to retain the clayey veneer (see Section 5)
often found adhering to the wrinkled surfaces of the
sandstones. Chips so prepared were mounted on stubs
by double-sided adhesive tapes, and gold-coated
under a sputter coater; the thickness of the film was
200 2.
4. Facies architecture in the Koldaha Shale
A brief summary of the facies constituents, shale, a
heterolithic facies, fine sandstone and coarse sand-
stone of the Koldaha Shale, as described by Banerjee
and Jeevankumar (2003) and their refined interpreta-
tions, are given in Table 1. All the facies thin
westward, but the coarse sandstone facies does so
more rapidly than the others and generally remains
confined to the eastern part of the study area (Fig. 2).
All of them recur in the two discrete segments that
comprise the Formation.
The shale facies contains thin (b2 cm) sandstone
interbeds. It gradationally passes over to the hetero-
lithic facies upward in both the stratigraphic segments.
Shale-sandstone interbeds characterize the heterolithic
facies, but the sandstone beds are thicker (N3 cm and
up to 38 cm) here as compared to those in the shale
facies. However, sandstone beds in both the facies
bear wave imprints. Heterolithic and shale facies are
accordingly inferred to have originated on the shelf,
proximal and distal respectively, extending down
almost up to the storm wave-base. The heterolithic
facies shows an overall shallowing-upward trend and
gradationally passes upward to the fine sandstone
facies (Fig. 3). The latter is a thoroughly wave
imprinted sandstone and is almost devoid of mud. It
coarsens upward and depicts overall progradation.
The fine sandstone facies possibly represents shore-
face deposits; occurrence of slump folds in its upper
part suggests extension of the palaeogeography of the
facies into the upper shoreface. The coarse sandstone
facies, overlying the fine sandstone facies, is minera-
logically as well as texturally immature. It resembles

Table 1
Description and interpretation of facies constituents of the Koldaha Shale
Facies Description Interpretation
Coarse sandstone Texturally and mineralogically immature granular sandstone Fluvial braid-plain deposit with little lithologic
that bears tabular and trough cross-strata in unimodal orientation. difference between channel and interchannel areas
Generally arranged in fining upward channel-fill bodies bounded
between successive broadly undulated master erosion surfaces.
Fine sandstone Moderately well sorted fine sandstone characterized by planar and Shoreface extending up to the relatively steep
wavy laminae, locally tabular cross-bedding, Facies units are upper shoreface
coarsening upward with thin (b1.5 cm) shale interbeds at base.
Their tops bear slump folds and convolutes.
Heterolithic Rhythmic interbedding between shale and fine grained sandstone Innershelf, mostly between fairweather and storm
(N3–b38cm thick) having sharp base sculpted with prominent tool wave bases
marks (prod marks bipolar), planar and wavy laminae inside and
less sharp with wave ripples on top. Stromatolitic and microbial
laminated carbonate bodies in patches, on the western side of the
study area. The facies units are coarsening upward, sandstone
beds thickening at the expense of shale interbeds.
Shale Greenish grey shale with rare thin (b2 cm) planar laminated fine Outer shelf, near the storm wave base
sandstone beds having fine tool-marked sharp planar base and less
sharp top undulated with small wave ripples.
 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224 215

Fig. 2. Panel diagram showing vertical and lateral facies variation within the Koldaha Shale Member in the study area. Note westward thinning
of the shale, heterolithic and fine sandstone facies and rapid wedging out of the coarse sandstone facies. Also note that the Koldaha Shale,
bounded between the Porcellanite Formation and Chorhat Sandstone Member consists of two highstand systems tracts (HSTTs) separated from
each other by a granular transgressive lag. For section locations, see Fig. 1b.

Fig. 3. Vertical section through the heterolithic facies in the lower part of the upper HST (Fig. 2, Amahuan section) documenting a number of
parasequences within its overall shoaling-upward trend. Note that all wrinkle structures have been observed in the lower part of the HST, and
that there too, the different kinds of wrinkle structures have different preferential levels of occurrence.
216 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224

an alluvial body with little lithologic difference

between channel and interchannel areas. Absence of
marked incision at the base of the coarse sandstone
facies suggests a braid plain origin for this facies.
Delta formation was apparently denied, possibly
because of a slow rate of fluvial sedimentation that
allowed waves to rework almost the entire mass of
sediment supplied to the sea. The coarse sandstone
facies at the medial-level of the Koldaha Shale is
again sharply overlain by the shale facies, with
granular lag at their contact (Fig. 2).
All the facies units are individually overall shoal-
ing-upward (see Figs. 2 and 3). Facies stacking
reveals the existence of two decametre-scale overall
coarsening-upward segments of the formation. These
segments are separated from each other by the thin
and sheet-like granular lag. Since this lag is immedi-
ately overlain by a shale facies of most distal shelf
origin, it is interpreted as a transgressive lag. Both the
segments, below and above the transgressive lag, are
capped by fluvial sediments indicating emergence.
Both segments are constituted by a large number of
coarsening- and shallowing-upward metre-scale para-
sequences, as illustrated from one of the heterolithic
facies units in Fig. 3. The storm sandstone beds,
thickening at the expense of shale interbeds, give rise
to the trend in the illustrated parasequences. The
larger-scale overall coarsening- and shoaling-upward
segments are thus considered as highstand systems
tracts (HST’s), even the one at the top that rests on a
transgressive lag. Transgression prior to the develop-
ment of the latter is recorded only in the transgressive
lag.

5. Microbial signature in wrinkle structures

Wrinkle structures on sandstone beds within the

Koldaha Shale were recorded mostly from the
heterolithic facies and the rest from the shale facies.
Thin sections cut vertically across the wrinkled
surfaces generally reveal the existence of a 0.2–0.4
mm-thick dark clay veneer under the microscope. The
veneer contains thinner and darker wavy seams
interspersed with unabraded silt-sized quartz grains,
sprinkled all over the veneer (cf. Schieber, 1986),
locally in little clusters, and pyrite in framboidal and
in disseminated form (Fig. 4a,b,c). A few of the
Fig. 4. (a) Photomicrograph in transmitted light showing the vertical
contact between clayey veneer and underlying sandstone. Note the
textural differences between the two. Also note floating quartz
grains within the clay veneer (arrowed). Bar=0.1 mm. (b) Photo-
micrograph in transmitted light showing clustered quartz grains
within the clay seam in a vertical section (arrow). Note the dark
boundaries of the individual grains within the cluster. Also note
presence of opaque minerals (bar=0.1 mm). (c) SEM image
showing framboidal pyrite with octahedral faces within the clay
veneer.
 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224
Fig. 5. SEM images of possible microbial remains within the clay
veneer, exemplified from the top of fine linear wrinkles: (a)
fibrillous texture showing possible microbial filaments; (b) back-
scattered SEM image showing detailed view of the filamentous
forms; (c) rod-like bacteria with mineral encrustation.
217
samples also reveal a fibrillous mesh of filamentous,
tubular and rod-like elements under the Scanning
Electron Microscope (Fig. 5a,b,c), possibly indicating
microbiota. EDS data show that all these submicro-
scopic features are highly enriched in silica.
The clay veneers possibly represent degenerated
microbial mats and the fine quartz grains suggest
possible grain-trapping and binding actions of micro-
bial filaments. Preservation of microbial elements
within the sandstones studied here is, no doubt,
fortuitous. The presence of pyrite in framboids and
in disseminated form suggests dysoxic to anoxic
conditions within the clay veneer, that might have
promoted preservation of these fine biogenic elements
(Schieber, 1998b). The overlying impermeable shale
beds also curtailed further possibility of post-deposi-
tional alteration.
6. Wrinkle classification
The wrinkles observed in the Koldaha Shale are
classified below on the basis of their relief, geometry,
lateral continuity, asymmetry, number of sets and
interrelationships between sets, noting also their
respective position in the HST’s. The goal is to reveal
the stratigraphic and genetic framework of the differ-
ent types of wrinkles encountered. Observations made
from freshly exposed surfaces only were used.
6.1. Fine linear wrinkles
These slightly crinkled fine linear ridges, present in
closely-spaced parallel rows on the thinnest (b2 cm)
and finest sandstone beds, are found only in the basal
part of the HST’s (Fig. 3). These occur in patches that
fade out laterally, but individual wrinkles within the
patches present an uninterrupted appearance (Fig. 6a).
In profile they appear almost symmetric. Their
amplitudes are generally b1 mm.
Gentle wave action on a microbially mediated,
cohesive sand surface possibly generated these
wrinkles (cf. Bouougri and Porada, 2002). Strati-
graphic position of these wrinkles at the base of the
HST’s is consistent with this interpretation. In the
deeper offshore, beneath the fairweather wave-base,
even the strongest storms could possibly agitate sea
bottom only mildly and the wrinkles once generated
218 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224
were not further reworked. However, the wave-base
in the Vindhyan epeiric sea, which was segmented
into rows of half-grabens, had presumably been
considerably shallower than its counterparts in
modern open seas (Bose et al., 1997). Lateral fading
out of the wrinkles is not likely to be a result of
erosion, but more probably was related to patchy
growth of microbial mat in a relatively oxygen-
depleted environment.
6.2. Larger ridges
The following kinds of wrinkles occur on the
thicker (N4 cm) storm sandstone beds, preferably
within the upper part of the marine segments of the
HST’s (Fig. 3).
6.2.1. Dissected parallel wrinkles
These ridges of distinctly larger dimensions main-
tain mutual parallelism roughly, and because of
intermittent dissection appear as small spaghetti-like
strings (Fig. 6b, see also Fig. 3). The ridges are steep-
sided with discernible preferred asymmetry despite
having rounded tops, and amplitude is 3–5 mm. They
have comparably greater widths, of 2–4 mm, and
close spacing of 3–6 mm. Length of individual ridges
varies from 3.5–5 cm and their dissected parts are a
millimeter or less wide.
Unidirectional wave propagation was possibly
responsible for generation of these wrinkles. Larger
dimensions and steep flanks of these ridges indicate
strong wave energy. Microbiota-mediated cohesive
sand is considerably more resistant to flow shear than
non-cohesive sand (Paterson, 1997) and merely
wrinkled to resist the wave action. Preferred asym-
metry of the wrinkles, however, suggests existence of
a weak current component in the flow. Dissection of
the ridges, most probably, took place because of a
secondary flow operating at an acute angle to the
existing ridges. Already wrinkled mat is likely to be
relatively easily erodable because of fluid entrapped
underneath. Irregular placement of the dissection
Fig. 6. Field photographs of the positive relief sandy wrinkle
structures: (a) fine linear wrinkles (coin diameter=2.5 cm); (b)
dissected parallel wrinkles; note that the ridges show the steeper
faces towards the bottom of the photo (match-stick length=4 cm);
(c) cross-cutting wrinkles; note cross-cutting by the secondary set at
places (coin diameter=1.8 cm); (d) domal wrinkles; note two distinct
trends of the ridges at places (for example, bottom left) (coin
diameter=1.8 cm).
 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224
points had possibly been dictated primarily by
laterally variable buoyancy of the wrinkled mat,
imparted by the entrapped fluid.
6.2.2. Cross-cutting wrinkles
One set of wrinkles cuts across another set at a
low angle (Fig. 6c). Both sets of ridges have, more
or less, similar amplitude, 1–1.5 mm, but one of
them is relatively more readily traceable. On
average they have 1–5 cm length and 2.5–4 mm
width. The ridges are more closely spaced than in
the previous case and are symmetric in profile. In
contrast to the previous case, crests of the ridges are
flat.
The two sets of wrinkles presumably resulted from
two differently-directed flow shears. Since one set is
better preserved, the two shears possibly operated at
different times. However, the secondary flow had not
been strong enough to tear away the mat to effect
dissection as in the previous case.
6.2.3. Domal wrinkles
In this case the wrinkles appear mostly in the form
of domes, but locally with short ridge-like extensions
in two directions at low angles to each other. The
domes have a relief of about 1.5 mm and a basal
diameter of about 2.3 mm, spacing between adjacent
domes being less than 2.4 mm (Fig. 6d, see also
Fig. 3).
Two differently-directed shears on the mat can be
contemplated in this case also, but they perhaps acted
simultaneously as may happen only in the case of
waves. The domes developed where the ridges cut
across each other. These minute domes could have
developed also because of accumulation of gas under
the mats (Schieber, 2004).
6.2.4. Environmental setting of the larger ridges
When considering the dissected and cross-cutting
wrinkles, it should be noted that the former is
asymmetric and its mat cover was likely eroded in
places by the secondary flow, suggesting its formation
in a relatively shallower domain. In a shallower
domain, grounding of the waves presumably imparted
the unidirectional flow propagation. In contrast, the
cross-cutting wrinkle is not only smaller in relief and
symmetric in profile, but also its inferred mat cover
remained intact despite being affected by a secondary
219
wave. For the domal wrinkle, had it been a product of
conflicting waves, its environmental context likely
overlapped with that of the cross-cutting wrinkles.
Gas-trapping under a mat cannot, however, be
environment-specific.
6.3. Negative relief wrinkles
These wrinkles are distinctive from the others by
having negative relief. These are relatively more
common on relatively thicker beds in the upper
marine segment of the HST’s. These structures are
also known as Kinneyia ripples (Pflüger, 1999). Three
different kinds of them, viz. near-circular, oval and
sinuous or bwrigglingQ have been observed in the
Koldaha Shale.
The near-circular variety appears as minute
circular pits on a flat bed surface. The pits have no
raised rims around them as generally found in
raindrop imprints and are round bottomed. On a
bed surface the pits are generally of uniform
diameter, about 3.5 mm, with depth about 1.5 mm.
(Fig. 7a, see also Fig. 3).
The oval pits differ from the previous kind by
having a long axis up to 1.1 cm, although width and
depth remains the same as in the preceding variety.
Significantly the pits have a preferred orientation (Fig.
7b). The oval pits show longitudinal asymmetry, with
one end being shallower.
The bwrigglingQ pits appear as thin crinkled
grooves on a flat bed surface, maintaining a broad
parallelism (Fig. 7c). Their length has been recorded
up to 3.6 cm, although width and depth remain
roughly the same as in the previous cases.
Bed surfaces bearing these wrinkles characterized
by negative relief also have a dark clay veneer, with
interspersed darker organic-rich clay seams that show
minute deformations and lateral discontinuities (Fig.
7d). Elongated silt-sized quartz grains show a
distinct tendency to dip convergently towards the
depressions created on account of this deformation
(Fig. 7e). The sandstone immediately underneath the
clay veneer bears clay galls incorporating isolated
quartz grains, possibly fragments of pre-existing mat
(Fig. 7f). Clay seams at the interface with the
underlying sandstone are locally folded with their
terminals frayed and resemble miniature mat roll-up
structures (Fig. 7g; see also Eriksson et al., 2000). In
220 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224

certain cases clay seams also show miniature mud

flame structures (7 h).
The near-uniformity in width and depth of the pits
and absence of raised rims make these pits different
from raindrop imprints. Dipping of elongated quartz
grains into the depressions within the minute hollows
on the darker seams suggests sagging. The clay seam
evidently behaved thixotropically, most probably
against sand particles hitting a mat surface. Elongation
of the pits probably depended on the angle the
trajectory of impacting grains made with the mat. A
role for, more or less, steady flow can be conjectured
in case of unidirectional oval pits, but the bwrigglingQ
pits arose possibly from diverse directions of trajec-
tories of impacting grains in a relatively less
consistent flow, or from conflict between waves of
somewhat different directions of propagation.
Pflüger (1999), however, created Kinneyia struc-
tures experimentally by expelling gas, that might be
generated in natural settings by decomposition of
the basal portion of a microbial mat. The sagging
noted might have taken place because of foundering
of mat on displacement of gas from beneath. The
folded clay seams, however, attest to the existence
of a shear on top of the bed, possibly created by a
strong flow. Broad parallelism between the long
bwrigglingQ wrinkles further corroborates existence
of the flow shear. Nonetheless, impact of grains can
facilitate gas expulsion and the flame structures do
suggest a role for fluid escape in some of the
examples cited above.

Fig. 7. Field photographs and petrographic features (plane polarized

light) of the negative relief wrinkle structures (also known as
Kinneyia) including: (a) circular pits; (b) oval pits; (c) sinuous or
bwrigglingQ pits (coin diameter=2.2 cm, match-stick length=4 cm);
(d) Photomicrograph showing detailed texture of the clay veneer,
with wavy and carbonaceous seams and incorporated quartz grains
(bar=0.1 mm) from a vertical thin section; (e) Photomicrograph
showing arrangement of elongated quartz grains (see arrow) within
the clayey veneer (bar=1 mm) in vertical section; (f) Photomicro-
graph showing isolated clay galls (arrowed) within the sandstone
immediately under the clayey veneer. Also note opaque minerals
within sandstone (bar=0.3 mm); (g) Photo-mosaic showing folded
nature of a clay seam with frayed edges (arrowed) at the contact
with underlying sand (bar length=3 mm) in a vertical section; (h)
Photomicrograph in transmitted light showing the top of the clayey
seam with miniature flame structures, in a vertical section. Note
numerous floating quartz grains within the clay veneer (bar
length=0.2 mm).
S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224 221

Fig. 7 (continued).
222 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224
7. Stratigraphic context of wrinkle occurrences
The Koldaha Shale encompasses two decametre-
scale shallowing-upward cycles, comprising shale,
heterolithic, fine sandstone and coarse sandstone
facies, giving rise to two highstand systems tracts
separated by a granular transgressive lag (Fig. 2).
The wrinkle structures described here were observed
on the storm-laid sandstone interbeds of the shale
and heterolithic facies, in the lower part of the
marine segments of the HST’s. Possibly, a slow rate
of offshore mud settling after waning of storms
facilitated mat growth and helped preservation of
the delicate wrinkles developed on the mats.
Wrinkle structures are more abundant in the lower
part of the two HST’s and the proportion of
wrinkle-marked sandstones beds are found to
become reduced from the base of the shale facies
to the top of the heterolithic facies. The fine
sandstone facies and the coarse sandstone facies,
occurring at the top of the HST’s, are totally devoid
of wrinkle structures. In general, wrinkle structures
are abundant within the lower part of the individual
parasequences, particularly those occurring in the
lower parts of the HST’s; more than 50% of the
sandstone bed-tops in the three oldest parasequences
of the HST detailed in Fig. 3 bear wrinkle
structures.
This more frequent occurrence of mat-related
structures in what is interpreted to be the relatively
offshore region of the Proterozoic Koldaha Shale
palaeoenvironment is in contrast to the greater
concentration of modern mats in the shore zone,
and particularly in the intertidal and supratidal
portions thereof. In modern subtidal, areas grazers
being abundantly present, mats have low preserva-
tion potential, but the grazers are severely restricted
in the shore zone because of high temperature and
salinity fluctuations (Browne et al., 2000). Scarcity
of mat structures in nearshore sandstones of the
Koldaha Shale is possibly due to frequent erosion.
This palaeogeographic bias in mat preservation is
reflected in the preferred occurrence of wrinkle
structures on sandstones in the lower part of the
HST’s comprising the Palaeoproterozoic Koldaha
Shale. The relative positions of the different kinds
of wrinkles within the lower part of the HST’s were
apparently dictated by palaeogeography-related var-
iation in hydrodynamic processes. Fine linear
wrinkles are found from the shale facies occurring
at the base of HST’s (Fig. 3). Domal wrinkles and
cross-cutting wrinkles are commonly found in the
lower part of the heterolithic facies and are most
abundant within the lower parasequences comprising
the HST’s (Fig. 3). Dissected parallel wrinkles and
various types of negative relief wrinkles are
commonly found from the parasequences occurring
at the top part of the HST’s (Fig. 3).
8. Conclusions
An association of inferred microbial remains
corroborates the postulated microbial mat origin of
wrinkles on top of storm sandstone beds within the
Palaeoproterozoic Koldaha Shale, Vindhyan basin,
central India. Preservation of microbial elements in
sandstone had been facilitated by oxygen-depleted
conditions on and immediately under the sea floor
and later by impermeable shale encasing the sand-
stone beds.
The range of morphologic variation in wrinkle
structures within the Koldaha Shale is related to
interaction of microbial mats with physical pro-
cesses, especially hydrodynamic, varied in kind and
intensity. The variation is thus essentially palae-
ogeography-related.
Wrinkles structures on sandstone beds are con-
centrated in relatively deeper-deposited sandstones
within the entire palaeogeographic range of the
Koldaha Shale, from deep marine offshore, to
terrestrial through the nearshore settings. The skewed
distribution of the wrinkles is ascribed to the absence
of grazing organisms in Palaeoproterozoic time.
Scarcity of the wrinkles in nearshore sandstones is
attributable to frequent sediment reworking by waves
and currents.
This palaeogeographic preference is well reflected
in stratigraphic architecture, wrinkle structures on
sandstone remaining virtually confined to the basal
parasequences of the two HST’s, one stacked over
the other, comprising the Koldaha Shale. Also within
the basal part of the HST’s, some of the wrinkle
varieties are restricted to the lowest or the highest
intervals, whereas others overlap somewhat within
the medial interval.
 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Department of
Science and Technology, Government of India for
financial support. They also acknowledge the Depart-
ment of Earth Sciences, IIT Bombay for providing the
infrastructural facilities. We thank J.W. Hagadorn and
H.N. Bhattacharyya for their critical comments on an
earlier version of the manuscript. We also acknowl-
edge S. Dutta and S. Kumar for their assistance during
the fieldwork.
References
Allen JRL. Wrinkle-marks: an intertidal sedimentary structure due
to aseismic soft sediment loading. Sediment Geol 1985;41:
75 – 95.
Auden JB. Vindhyan sedimentation in the Son valley, Mirzapur
District. Mem-Geol Surv (India) 1933;62:141 – 250.
Banerjee S. Facets of Mesoproterozoic Semri sedimentation, Son
valley, M.P. PhD thesis (unpubl.), Jadavpur University, Kolkata,
India, 1998. 173 pp.
Banerjee S. Climate versus tectonic control on the storm cyclicity in
Mesoproterozoic Koldaha shale, Vindhyan Supergroup, Central
India. Gondwana Res 2000;3:521 – 8.
Banerjee S, Jeevankumar S. Facies motif and paleogeography of
Kheinjua Formation, Vindhyan Supergroup, eastern Son valley.
Gondwana Geol Mag, Spec Vol 2003;7:363 – 70.
Banerjee S, Sarkar S. Prolific mat growth on marine storm beds and
its palaeogeographic implications: 16 Ga Chorhat Sandstone,
central India. 16th International Sedimentological Congress,
Abstracts with Program. Johannesburg7 Rand Afrikaans Uni-
versity; 2002. p. 23.
Bose PK, Banerjee S, Sarkar S. Slope-controlled seismic deforma-
tion and tectonic framework of deposition of Koldaha Shale,
India. Tectonophysics 1997;269:151 – 69.
Bose PK, Sarkar S, Chakraborty S, Banerjee S. Overview of the
Meso-to Neoproterozoic evolution of the Vindhyan basin,
Central India. Sediment Geol 2001;141:395 – 419.
Bouougri E, Porada H. Mat related sedimentary structures in
Neoproterozoic peritidal passive margin deposits of the West
African Craton. Sediment Geol 2002;153:85 – 106.
Browne KM, Golubic S, Seong-Joo L. Shallow marine microbial
carbonates. In: Riding RE, Awramik SM, editors. Microbial
sediments. Berlin7 Springer-Verlag; 2000. p. 233 – 49.
Eriksson PG, Simpson EL, Eriksson KA, Bumby AJ, Steyn GL,
Sarkar S. Muddy roll-up structures in siliciclastic interdune beds
of the c 18 Ga Waterberg Group, South Africa. Palaios 2000;15:
177 – 83.
Fedo CM, Cooper JD. Braided fluvial to marine transition: the basal
Lower Cambrian Wood Canyon Formation, southern Marble
Mountains, Mojave Desert, California. J Sediment Petrol 1990;
60:220 – 34.
223
Gerdes G, Klenke T, Noffke N. Microbial signatures in peritidal
siliciclastic sediments: a catalogue. Sedimentology 2000;47:
279 – 308.
Hagadorn JW, Bottjer DJ. Wrinkle structures: microbially mediated
sedimentary structures common in subtidal siliciclastic settings
at the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic transition. Geology 1997;25:
1047 – 50.
Hagadorn JW, Bottjer DJ. Restriction of a Late Neoproterozoic
biotope: suspect-microbial structures and trace fossils at the
Vendian-Cambrian transition. Palaios 1999;14:73 – 85.
Krumbein WE, Cohen Y. Primary production, mat formation and
lithification: contribution of oxygenic and facultative anoxy-
genic cyanobacteria. In: Flugel E, editor. Fossil Algae. New
York7 Springer-Verlag; 1977. p. 37 – 56.
Krumbein WE, Paterson DM, Stal LJ, editors. Biostabilization of
Sediments. Oldenburg7 BIS-Verlag; 1994. 526 pp.
Noffke N. Multidirected ripple marks arising from bacterial
stabilization counteracting physical reworking in modern sandy
deposits (Mellum Island, southern North Sea). Geology 1998;
26:879 – 82.
Noffke N, Gerdes G, Klenke T, Krumbein WE. Microbially induced
sedimentary structures—a new category within the classification
of primary sedimentary structures. J Sediment Res 2001;71:
649 – 56.
Noffke N, Knoll AH, Grotzinger JP. Sedimentary controls on the
formation and preservation of microbial mats in siliciclastic
deposits: a case study from the Upper Neoproterozoic Nama
Group, Namibia. Palaios 2002;17:533 – 44.
O’Brian NR, Slatt RM. Argillaceous rocks. New York7 Springer-
Verlag; 1990. 141 pp.
Park RK. The preservation potential of some recent stromatolites.
Sedimentology 1977;24:485 – 506.
Paterson DM. Biological mediation of sediment erodibility: ecology
and physical dynamics. In: Burt N, Parker R, Watts J, editors.
Cohesive Sediments. London7 Wiley; 1997. p. 215 – 29.
Pflüger F. Matground structures and redox facies. Palaios 1999;
14:25 – 39.
Pflüger F, Sarkar S. Precambrian bedding planes—bound to remain.
Geol Soc Am, Abstr Programs 1996;28:491.
Porada H, Löffler T. Microbial shrinkage cracks in silici-clastic
rocks of the Neoproterozoic Nosib Group (Damara Supergroup)
of central Namibia. Rec Geol Surv Namibia 2000;12:63 – 72.
Prave AR. Life on land in the Proterozoic: evidence from the
Torridonian rocks of northwest Scotland. Geology 2002;
30:811 – 4.
Pruss S, Frasier M, Bottjer DJ. Proliferation of Early Triassic
wrinkle structures: implications for environmental stress follow-
ing the end-Permian extinction. Geology 2004;32:461 – 4.
Rasmussen B, Bose PK, Sarkar S, Banerjee S, Fletcher IR, Mc
Naughton NJ. 1.6 Ga U–Pb zircon ages for the Chorhat
Sandstone, Lower Vindhyan, India: possible implication for
early evolution of animals. Geology 2002;30:103 – 6.
Sarkar S, Banerjee S, Eriksson PG. Microbial mat features in
sandstones illustrated. In: Eriksson PG, Altermann W,
Nelson DR, Mueller WU, Catuneanu O, editors. The
Precambrian Earth: Tempos and Events. Amsterdam7 Elsev-
ier; 2004. p. 673 – 5.
224 S. Banerjee, S. Jeevankumar / Sedimentary Geology 176 (2005) 211–224
Sarkar S, Banerjee S, Eriksson PG, Catuneanu O. Microbial mat
control on siliciclastic Precambrian sequence this stratigraphic
architecture: examples from India. Sediment. Geol. 2005;
176:191–205 [this volume].
Schieber J. The possible role of benthic microbial mats during the
formation of carbonaceous shales in shallow Mid-Proterozoic
basins. Sedimentology 1986;33:521 – 36.
Schieber J. Possible indicators of microbial mat deposits in shales and
sandstones: examples from the Mid-Proterozoic Belt Supergroup,
Montana, USA. Sediment Geol 1998a;120:105 – 24.
Schieber J. Sedimentary features indicating erosion, condensation
and hiatuses in the Chattanooga Shale of central Tennessee:
relevance for sedimentary and stratigraphic evolution. In:
Sethi PS, Zimmerle W, Sethi PS, editors. Shales and mudtsones.
Stuttgart7 E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung; 1998b.
p. 187 – 215.
Schieber J. Microbial mats in terrigenous clastics: the challenge of
identification in the rock record. Palaios 1999;14:3 – 12.
Schieber J. Microbial mats in the siliciclastic rock record: a
summary of the diagnostic features. In: Eriksson PG, Altermann
W, Nelson DR, Mueller WU, Catuneanu O, editors. The
Precambrian Earth: Tempos and Events. Amsterdam7 Elsevier;
2004. p. 663 – 73.
Seilacher A. Biomat-related lifestyles in the Precambrian. Palaios
1999;14:86 – 93.