A PROJECT REPORT ON

IOT BASED SMART AGRICULTURE

Submitted to

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, KAKINADA

For Partial Fulfilment of Award of the Degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

Submitted By

CH. DIVYA VALMIKA (22X41D5804)

Under the esteemed guidance of

Dr . N. NEELIMA PRIYANKA

Assistant Professor, Department of CSE

S.R.K INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AFFILIATED TO JNTU, KAKINADA)
Enikepadu, Vijayawada – 521108.
July 2023
 S.R.K INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ENIKEPADU, VIJAYAWADA.
DEPARTMENT OF CSE

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report entitled “IOT BASED SMART
AGRICULTURE” is the bonafide work of Ms Ch. Divya Valmika
(22X41D5804), in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the post
graduate degree in MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY during the academic year 2022-
2023. This Work has carried out under our supervision and guidance.

(Dr . N. Neelima Priyanka) (Dr . B. Asha Latha)

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD

Signature of the External Examiner

 DECLARATION

I CH. DIVYA VALMIKA hereby declare that the project report

entitled “SMART AGRICULTURE USING IOT” is an original work done in
the Department of Master of Technology, SRK Institute of Technology,
Enikepadu, Vijayawada, during the academic year 2022-2023, in partial
fulfilment for the award of the Degree of Master of Technology. I assure that
this project is not submitted to any other College or University.

Roll No Name of the Student Signature

22X41D5804 CH. DIVYA VALMIKA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 Firstly, I would like to convey my heart full thanks to the Almighty for the blessings on me
to carry out this project work without any disruption.

I am extremely thankful to Dr . N. Neelima Priyanka, Project guide who guided me throughout

the project. I am thankful to her for giving me the most independence and freedom throughout various
phases of the project.

I am very much grateful to Dr . B. Asha Latha, H.O.D of CSE Department, for her valuable
guidance which helped me to bring out this project successfully. Her wise approach made me to learn the
minute details of the subject. Her matured and patient guidance paved a way for completing my project
with the sense of satisfaction and pleasure.

I am very much thankful to our principal Dr . M. Ekambaram Naidu for his kind support and
facilities provided at our campus which helped me to bring out this project successfully.

Finally, I would like to convey my heart full thanks to all Technical Staff, for their guidance and
support in every step of this project. I convey my sincere thanks to all the faculty and friends who
directly or indirectly helped me for the successful completion of this project.

PROJECT ASSOCIATE
CH. DIVYA VALMIKA (22X41D5804)

ABSTRACT
Agriculture plays vital role in the development of agricultural country. In India about 70% of population
depends upon farming and one third of the nation’s capital comes from farming. Issues concerning
agriculture have been always hindering the development of the country. The only solution to this
problem is smart agriculture by modernizing the current traditional methods of agriculture. Agriculture
is an emerging concept, because IOT sensors are capable of providing information about agriculture
fields and then act upon based on the user input. This project aims at making use of evolving technology
i.e.,IOT and smart agriculture using automation. Monitoring environmental conditions is the major
factor to improve yield of the efficient crops. The feature of this paper includes development of a system
which can monitor temperature, humidity, moisture using the Blynk IOT application using
Wi-Fi/3G/4G.Smart Agriculture which includes temperature maintenance, humidity maintenance and
soil moisture which is used to know either the soil is wet or dry . Controlling of all these operations will
be through any remote smart device or computer connected to Internet and the operations will be
performed by Wi-Fi, Node MCU, Motor, Water Level Sensor,Soil Moisture Sensor.

Keywords: IoT, Node MCU, Water Level Sensor, Motor, Soil Moisture Sensor.

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is the embedded
system and is even defined as combination of both software and hardware. A general-purpose definition
of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control, monitor or assist the operation of
equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system.
At the other extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large
complex processing plant, and its presence will be obvious.
 All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are
however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer.
The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only a single function or set of
functions to meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application program that
enables the embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a specific application determines the
functioning of the embedded system. The ability to have programs means that the same embedded
system can be used for a variety of different purposes. In some cases a microprocessor may be designed
in such a way that application software for a particular purpose can be added to the basic software in a
second process, after which it is not possible to make further changes. The applications software on such
processors is sometimes referred to as firmware.
The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip”), which may itself
be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its
input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or activator which (for example)
may start or stop the operation of a machine or, by operating a valve, may control the flow of fuel to an
engine.
As the embedded system is the combination of both software and hardware
Embedded
System

Software Hardware

ALP Processor
C Peripherals
VB memory
Etc.,

Figure: Block diagram of Embedded System

Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc., and Hardware deals with Processors,
Peripherals, and Memory.
Memory: It is used to store data or address.
Peripherals: These are the external devices connected
Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task
Applications of embedded systems
 Manufacturing and process control
 Construction industry

 Transport

 Buildings and premises

 Domestic service
 Communications
 Office systems and mobile equipment
 Banking, finance and commercial
 Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support
 Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems
Processors are classified into four types like:
 Micro Processor (µp)
 Micro controller (µc)
 Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
 Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)
Micro Processor (µp):
A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and
CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a
microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to
fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:
 Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
 Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
 Clock speed : Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions
per second the processor can execute.
In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit microprocessor
that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz. In addition to
bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being either RISC (reduced instruction set
computer) or CISC (complex instruction set computer).
A microprocessor has three basic elements, as shown above. The ALU performs all arithmetic
computations, such as addition, subtraction and logic operations (AND, OR, etc). It is controlled by the
Control Unit and receives its data from the Register Array. The Register Array is a set of registers used
for storing data. These registers can be accessed by the ALU very quickly. Some registers have specific
functions - we will deal with these later. The Control Unit controls the entire process. It provides the
timing and a control signal for getting data into and out of the registers and the ALU and it synchronizes
the execution of instructions (we will deal with instruction execution at a later date).

Three Basic Elements of a Microprocessor

Micro Controller (µc):
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core,
memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or
OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM.
Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in
personal computers or other general purpose applications.

ALU

CU

Timer, Counter, serial

Memory
communication ROM,
ADC, DAC, Timers,
USART, Oscillators
Etc.,

Figure: Block Diagram of Micro Controller (µc)

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):
Digital Signal Processors is one which performs scientific and mathematical operation. Digital Signal
Processor chips - specialized microprocessors with architectures designed specifically for the types of
operations required in digital signal processing. Like a general-purpose microprocessor, a DSP is a
programmable device, with its own native instruction code. DSP chips are capable of carrying out
millions of floating point operations per second, and like their better-known general-purpose cousins,
faster and more powerful versions are continually being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within
complex "system-on-chip" devices, often containing both analog and digital circuitry.
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
ASIC is a combination of digital and analog circuits packed into an IC to achieve the desired
control/computation function

ASIC typically contains

 CPU cores for computation and control
 Peripherals to control timing critical functions
 Memories to store data and program
 Analog circuits to provide clocks and interface to the real world which is analog in nature
 I/Os to connect to external components like LEDs, memories, monitors etc.
Computer Instruction Set
There are two different types of computer instruction set there are:
1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) and
2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set computer)
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
A RISC (reduced instruction set computer) is a microprocessor that is designed to perform a smaller
number of types of computer instruction so that it can operate at a higher speed (perform more million
instructions per second, or millions of instructions per second). Since each instruction type that a
computer must perform requires additional transistors and circuitry, a larger list or set of computer
instructions tends to make the microprocessor more complicated and slower in operation.
Besides performance improvement, some advantages of RISC and related design improvements are:
 A new microprocessor can be developed and tested more quickly if one of its aims is to be less
complicated.
 Operating system and application programmers who use the microprocessor's instructions will
find it easier to develop code with a smaller instruction set.
 The simplicity of RISC allows more freedom to choose how to use the space on a
microprocessor.
Higher-level language compilers produce more efficient code than formerly because they have always
tended to use the smaller set of instructions to be found in a RISC computer.
RISC characteristics
 Simpleinstructionset:
In a RISC machine, the instruction set contains simple, basic instructions, from which more complex
instructions can be composed.
 Samelengthinstructions.
Each instruction is the same length, so that it may be fetched in a single operation.
 1machine-cycleinstructions.
Most instructions complete in one machine cycle, which allows the processor to handle several
instructions at the same time. This pipelining is a key technique used to speed up RISC machines.

Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

CISC, which stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer, is a philosophy for designing chips that
are easy to program and which make efficient use of memory. Each instruction in a CISC instruction set
might perform a series of operations inside the processor. This reduces the number of instructions
required to implement a given program, and allows the programmer to learn a small but flexible set of
instructions.
TheadvantagesofCISC
At the time of their initial development, CISC machines used available technologies to optimize
computer performance.
 Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to implement, and much less expensive than
hardwiring a control unit.
 The ease of micro-coding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines upwardly
compatible: a new computer could run the same programs as earlier computers because the new
computer would contain a superset of the instructions of the earlier computers.
 As each instruction became more capable, fewer instructions could be used to implement a given
task. This made more efficient use of the relatively slow main memory.
 Because micro program instruction sets can be written to match the constructs of high-level
languages, the compiler does not have to be as complicated.
ThedisadvantagesofCISC
Still, designers soon realized that the CISC philosophy had its own problems, including:
 Earlier generations of a processor family generally were contained as a subset in every new
version --- so instruction set & chip hardware become more complex with each generation of computers.
 So that as many instructions as possible could be stored in memory with the least possible
wasted space, individual instructions could be of almost any length---this means that different
instructions will take different amounts of clock time to execute, slowing down the overall performance
of the machine.
 Many specialized instructions aren't used frequently enough to justify their existence ---
approximately 20% of the available instructions are used in a typical program.
 CISC instructions typically set the condition codes as a side effect of the instruction. Not only
does setting the condition codes take time, but programmers have to remember to examine the condition
code bits before a subsequent instruction changes them.

Memory Architecture
There two different type’s memory architectures there are:
 Harvard Architecture
 Von-Neumann Architecture

Harvard Architecture
Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data. There are two or more
internal data buses, which allow simultaneous access to both instructions and data. The CPU fetches
program instructions on the program memory bus.
The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and signal
pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard Mark I relay-based computer,
which stored instructions on punched tape (24 bits wide) and data in electro-mechanical counters. These
early machines had limited data storage, entirely contained within the central processing unit, and
provided no access to the instruction storage as data. Programs needed to be loaded by an operator, the
processor could not boot itself.

Figure: Harvard Architecture

Modern uses of the Harvard architecture:
The principal advantage of the pure Harvard architecture - simultaneous access to more than one
memory system - has been reduced by modified Harvard processors using modern CPU cache systems.
Relatively pure Harvard architecture machines are used mostly in applications where tradeoffs, such as
the cost and power savings from omitting caches, outweigh the programming penalties from having
distinct code and data address spaces.
 Digital signal processors (DSPs) generally execute small, highly-optimized audio or video
processing algorithms. They avoid caches because their behavior must be extremely reproducible. The
difficulties of coping with multiple address spaces are of secondary concern to speed of execution. As a
result, some DSPs have multiple data memories in distinct address spaces to facilitate SIMD and VLIW
processing. Texas Instruments TMS320 C55x processors, as one example, have multiple parallel data
busses (two write, three read) and one instruction bus.
 Microcontrollers are characterized by having small amounts of program (flash memory) and data
(SRAM) memory, with no cache, and take advantage of the Harvard architecture to speed processing by
concurrent instruction and data access. The separate storage means the program and data memories can
have different bit depths, for example using 16-bit wide instructions and 8-bit wide data. They also
mean that instruction pre-fetch can be performed in parallel with other activities. Examples include, the
AVR by Atmel Corp, the PIC by Microchip Technology, Inc. and the ARM Cortex-M3 processor (not
all ARM chips have Harvard architecture).
Even in these cases, it is common to have special instructions to access program memory as data for
read-only tables, or for reprogramming.
Von-Neumann Architecture
A computer has a single, common memory space in which both program instructions and data are
stored. There is a single internal data bus that fetches both instructions and data. They cannot be
performed at the same time
The von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital computer that uses a
central processing unit (CPU) and a single separate storage structure ("memory") to hold both
instructions and data. It is named after the mathematician and early computer scientist John von
Neumann. Such computers implement a universal Turing machine and have a sequential architecture.
A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as its data, in
read-write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-program computers were advancement over the
program-controlled computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and the ENIAC, which were
programmed by setting switches and inserting patch leads to route data and to control signals between
various functional units. In the vast majority of modern computers, the same memory is used for both
data and program instructions. The mechanisms for transferring the data and instructions between the
CPU and memory are, however, considerably more complex than the original von Neumann
architecture.
The terms "von Neumann architecture" and "stored-program computer" are generally used
interchangeably, and that usage is followed in this article.

Figure: Schematic of the Von-Neumann Architecture.

Basic Difference between Harvard and Von-Neumann Architecture
 The primary difference between Harvard architecture and the Von Neumann architecture is in
the Von Neumann architecture data and programs are stored in the same memory and managed by the
same information handling system.
 Whereas the Harvard architecture stores data and programs in separate memory devices and they
are handled by different subsystems.
 In a computer using the Von-Neumann architecture without cache; the central processing unit
(CPU) can either be reading and instruction or writing/reading data to/from the memory. Both of these
operations cannot occur simultaneously as the data and instructions use the same system bus.
 In a computer using the Harvard architecture the CPU can both read an instruction and access
data memory at the same time without cache. This means that a computer with Harvard architecture can
potentially be faster for a given circuit complexity because data access and instruction fetches do not
contend for use of a single memory pathway.
 Today, the vast majority of computers are designed and built using the Von Neumann
architecture template primarily because of the dynamic capabilities and efficiencies gained in designing,
implementing, operating one memory system as opposed to two. Von Neumann architecture may be
somewhat slower than the contrasting Harvard Architecture for certain specific tasks, but it is much
more flexible and allows for many concepts unavailable to Harvard architecture such as self
programming, word processing and so on.
 Harvard architectures are typically only used in either specialized systems or for very specific
uses. It is used in specialized digital signal processing (DSP), typically for video and audio processing
products. It is also used in many small microcontrollers used in electronics applications such as
Advanced RISK Machine (ARM) based products for many vendors.
 CHAPTER-2
PROPOSED SCHEME

Block Diagram:

Power Motor
Supply

Water level Cloud

Sensor Node
MCU
Soil
Moisture
ESP826
Sensor 6
Blynk
Application

ESP8266 Node MCU

The ESP8266 is the name of a micro controller designed by Espressif Systems. The ESP8266
itself is a self-contained WiFi networking solution offering as a bridge from existing micro
controller to WiFi and is also capable of running self-contained applications.

This module comes with a built in USB connector and a rich assortment of pin-outs. With a micro
USB cable, you can connect NodeMCU devkit to your laptop and flash it without any

. Specification:
• Voltage:3.3V.
• Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP.
• Current consumption: 10uA~170mA.
• Flash memory attachable: 16M B max (512K normal).
• Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack.
• Processor: Tensilica L106 32-bit.
 • Processor speed: 80~160MHz.
• RAM: 32K + 80K.
• GPIOs: 17 (multiplexed with other functions).
• Analog to Digital: 1 input with 1024 step resolution.
• +19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode
• 802.11 support: b/g/n.
• Maximum concurrent TCP connections: 5.

2. Pin Definition:

3. Using Arduino IDE

The most basic way to use the ESP8266 module is to use serial commands, as the chip is basically a
WiFi/Serial transceiver. However, this is not convenient. What we recommend is using the very cool
Arduino ESP8266 project, which is a modified version of the Arduino IDE that you need to install on
your computer. This makes it very convenient to use the ESP8266 chip as we will be using the well-
known Arduino IDE. Following the below step to install ESP8266 library to work in Arduino IDE
environment.

3.2 Install the ESP8266 Board Package

Enter http://arduino.esp8266.com/stable/package_esp8266com_index.json into Additional Board
Manager URLs
field in the Arduino v1.6.4+ preferences.

Select ‘115200’ baud upload speed is a good place to start - later on you can try higher speeds but
115200 is a good safe place to start.

Go to your Windows ‘Device Manager’ to find out which Com Port ‘USB-Serial CH340’ is
assigned to. Select the matching COM/serial port for your CH340 USB-Serial interface.
4.2 IOT Service Segmentation
While the potential impact of the IoT is considerable, a concerted effort is required to move beyond this
early stage. In order to optimise the development of the market, a common understanding of the distinct
nature of the opportunity is required.
Another important characteristic of IoT services can be the deployment of a large number of the same
type of devices and applications. Each device and application performs the same activity and transports
information to a service centre at the same time. Regardless of the amount of data transmitted by each
device, this simple operation could cause network congestion. Mobile networks need to provide several
mechanisms to protect and better utilise their capabilities for delivering such M2M/IoT services.
Mechanisms for remotely managing such devices and applications could allow intelligent scheduling,
which would facilitate an appropriate application development and reduce the vulnerability of the
network to application misbehavior.
An additional feature of the IoT market is, that in some scenarios, devices and applications may be
deployed and actively work for a large number of years, operating on batteries or using limited power.
In this case, the communication module needs to consume very little energy to guarantee a longer device
lifetime.
In summary, the IoT will require mobile networks to offer a much more diversified set of capabilities,
while providing protection mechanisms for identifying and blocking any application misbehaviour and
guaranteeing all other services. Mobile operators are working to identify these requirements and develop
appropriate capabilities in order to support the vast range of IoT applications.
4.3 APPLICATIONS
Internet of Things industry sector categories
For consumers, connectivity provided by the IoT could enhance their quality of life in multiple ways,
such as, but not limited to, energy efficiency and security at home and in the city. In the home, the
integration of connected smart devices and cloud-based services will help address the pressing issue of
energy efficiency and security. Connected smart devices will enable a reduction in utility bills and
outages, while also improving home security via remote monitoring.

IOT smart cities applications

In cities, the development of smart grids, data analytics and autonomous vehicles will provide an
intelligent platform to deliver innovations in energy management, traffic management and security,
sharing the benefits of this technology throughout society.
IOT health applications
The IoT will also help widen access and improve quality of education and health. As demand for
healthcare doubles8, connected smart devices will help address this challenge by supporting a range of
e-health services that improve access and enable monitoring of chronic diseases and age-related
conditions in the home. In doing so, they will improve the quality of care and quality of life for patients,
while reducing the strain on the wider healthcare system.
IOT education applications
In education, mobile-enabled solutions will tailor the learning process to each student’s needs,
improving overall proficiency levels, while linking virtual and physical classrooms to make learning
more convenient and accessible.
Mobile education solutions have already been shown to improve learners’ proficiency rates and reduce
dropout rates, and have the potential to enable, by 2017, the education of up to 180 million additional
students in developing countries who will be able to stay in school due to mEducation.
IOT productivity applications
For enterprises, the ability of IoT to combine innovations in data analytics, 3D printing and sensors, will
improve productivity by enabling a step change in the quality of decision making, efficiency of
production, personalisation of retail and productivity of food production.
4.4 ADVANTAGES
The IoT will increase the range of services, each requiring varying levels of bandwidth, mobility and
latency. For example, services that are related to public safety or personal safety will generally require
low latency, but not high bandwidth per se. alternatively, services that provide surveillance might also
require high bandwidth. Due to the differing level of service demand, mobile networks may need the
ability to identify the service which is generating traffic and meet its specific needs. For example, alert
services related to public safety or personal health would require a higher priority compared to metering
information, which is a normal monitoring activity. Varying levels of mobility (the degree to which
devices and applications need to be nomadic) is another important characteristic of IoT service demand.
For nomadic services, location information and geo-fencing becomes a crucial enabler.
Proximity services in general will play an important role in the IoT ecosystem. In this context, the
mobile network faces the challenge of being able to recognise different type of devices. For example, in
the automotive sector, only cars in the proximity of an accident need to be notified, rather than every
vehicle. Conversely, there are devices and applications that are not mobile by nature, such as a smart
meter or a street lamp. Any movement of such devices/applications might indicate an anomaly in the
service.
4.5 Conclusion
The Internet of Things promises to deliver a step change in individuals’ quality of life and enterprises’
productivity. Through a widely distributed, locally intelligent network of smart devices, the IoT has the
potential to enable extensions and enhancements to fundamental services in transportation, logistics,
security, utilities, education, healthcare and other areas, while providing a new ecosystem for
application development. A concerted effort is required to move the industry beyond the early stages of
market development towards maturity, driven by common understanding of the distinct nature of the
opportunity. This market has distinct characteristics in the areas of service distribution, business and
charging models, capabilities required to deliver IoT services, and the differing demands these services
will place on mobile networks. GSMA’s Connected Living Programme is an industry initiative which
seeks to expedite the development of mobile-enabled IoT services. It is hoped that a common
understanding of the characteristics of IoT will enable industry stakeholders to collaborate more
effectively in order to propel the market forward for the benefit of consumers and society.

CHAPTER-3
HARDWARE COMPONENTS

POWER SUPPLY:

Block diagram:
Figure: Power Supply

Circuit diagram:

Description:

Transformer:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field
through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force
(EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
Figure: Transformer Symbol

(or)

Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy like a transducer.

Figure: Transformer

Basic Principle :

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron core to efficiently
raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the current
is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
Figure: Basic Principle

Transformer Working:

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as shown in figure
below. There is no electrical connection between the coils, instead they are linked by a magnetic field
created in the core.

Figure: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal loss of power.
They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing magnetic field to be
created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-down).

Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing magnetic field in
the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and the changing strength of the
magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to
a load the induced voltage will make an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage
is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f.

The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are currents produced by
the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that induced in the
secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but they are reduced to a
negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the electrical resistance of the core
without affecting its magnetic properties.

Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be safely used to
reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out / power in)
of 95% or more.

Classification of Transformer:

 Step-Up Transformer

 Step-Down Transformer

Step-Down Transformer:

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage is greater than
their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a
step down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country with a 220v supply.

Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration usually down to
a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation, power distribution, and control and
instrumentation applications. Step down transformers typically rely on the principle of magnetic
induction between coils to convert voltage and/or current levels.

Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound around a core made
of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input) it magnetizes the
iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently called the secondary or output). The
turn’s ratio of the two sets of windings determines the amount of voltage transformation.

Figure: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, a ratio of 2 to 1.

Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will mirror the "turn’s
ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have compensated secondary). A practical
application of this 2 to 1 turn’s ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage step down. Note that if the input
were 440 volts then the output would be 220 volts. The ratio between input and output voltage will stay
constant. Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the nameplate rating, but may be
operated at lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is possible to do some non-standard applications
using standard transformers.

Single phase step down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be reverse connected to step-down or
step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down transformers sized less than 1 KVA should
not be reverse connected because the secondary windings have additional turns to overcome a voltage
drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected, the output voltage will be less than desired.)

Step-Up Transformer:
A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a larger induced
voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer because the voltage output is larger than
the voltage input.

Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary
voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step up transformer
is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.

A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one voltage to another voltage.
It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction principle; it can be designed to "step-up" or
"step-down" voltage. So a step up transformer increases the voltage and a step down transformer
decreases the voltage.

The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer core and coil. The
insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one another or to ground. This is
typically comprised of Mylar, nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other materials. As a transformer has no
moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy between 20 and 25 years.

Figure: Step-Up Transformer

Applications

Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.

Turns Ratio and Voltage

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the ratio of the
voltages...
...where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np is the number of turns
on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil.

Diodes:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes
were actually called valves.

Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction. In this direction, the
diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that there will be a voltage loss of
around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be 'reverse-biased' and no current will flow
through it.

Rectifier

The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR) Rectifier converts
AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different rectification circuits, known
as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components called diodes to convert AC into DC.

The Half-wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as shown in figure .
Figure: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output. As you can see, when
the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current through. When the AC input is
negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let any current through, meaning the output
is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the diode, the peak output voltage will be 0.7V less
than Vs.

Figure: Half-Wave Rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as a power
supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and Vs-0.7V, and
secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.
The Full-wave Rectifier

The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output voltage 0V.
This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the AC waveform are
converted to DC. The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

Figure: Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure: Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are reverse-
biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are forward-biased, while
diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't suitable as
a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if
you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.
Capacitor Filter

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the Greek letter pi, is a
type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or undesired frequencies from a
signal.

Figure: Capacitor Filter

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier output, an
inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.

1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while it offers
infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an appreciable amount
of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey to the inductor L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero reactance to
the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the inductor while the AC
component is blocked.
3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As a result
only the DC component appears across the load RL.

Figure: Centered Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage

level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. There are two
types of regulator are they.

 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805 produces the
maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx:’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905 produces the
maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator

Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure: Regulator

Soil Moisture Sensor

The moisture of the soil plays an essential role in the irrigation field as well as in gardens for plants. As
nutrients in the soil provide the food to the plants for their growth. Supplying water to the plants is also
essential to change the temperature of the plants. The temperature of the plant can be changed with
water using the method like transpiration. And plant root systems are also developed better when rising
within moist soil. Extreme soil moisture levels can guide to anaerobic situations that can encourage the
plant’s growth as well as soil pathogens. This article discusses an overview of the soil moisture sensor,
working and it’s applications.

Soil Moisture Sensor Pin Configurations

The soil moisture sensor is one kind of sensor used to gauge the volumetric content of water
within the soil. As the straight gravimetric dimension of soil moisture needs eliminating, drying, as well
as sample weighting. These sensors measure the volumetric water content not directly with the help of
some other rules of soil like dielectric constant, electrical resistance, otherwise interaction with
neutrons, and replacement of the moisture content. The relation among the calculated property as well as
moisture of soil should be adjusted & may change based on ecological factors like temperature, type of
soil, otherwise electric conductivity. The microwave emission which is reflected can be influenced by
the moisture of soil as well as mainly used in agriculture and remote sensing within hydrology. These
sensors normally used to check volumetric water content, and another group of sensors calculates a new
property of moisture within soils named water potential. Generally, these sensors are named as soil
water potential sensors which include gypsum blocks and tensiometer.
This module also includes a potentiometer that will fix the threshold value, & the value can be evaluated
by the comparator-LM393. The LED will turn on/off based on the threshold value.
Working Principle
This sensor mainly utilizes capacitance to gauge the water content of the soil (dielectric permittivity).
The working of this sensor can be done by inserting this sensor into the earth and the status of the water
content in the soil can be reported in the form of a percent. This sensor makes it perfect to execute
experiments within science courses like environmental science, agricultural science, biology, soil
science, botany, and horticulture.

Specifications
The specification of this sensor includes the following.

 The required voltage for working is 5V

 The required current for working is <20mA
 Type of interface is analog
 The required working temperature of this sensor is 10°C~30°C
 Soil Moisture Sensor Applications
The applications of moisture sensor include the following.
 Agriculture
 Landscape irrigation
 Research
 Simple sensors for gardeners
This is all about the soil moisture sensor. From the above information, finally, we can conclude that this
sensor is used to gauge the soil’s volumetric water content, which makes it perfect to make experiments
in the science field like agricultural science, soil science, horticulture, environmental science, biology,
and botany.
BUZZER

A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically used in automobiles,

household appliances such as a microwave oven, or game shows.

It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that
determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light
on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or
intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system
which was identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Often these units were anchored to a wall
or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-
connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to drive a
loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to a cheap 8-ohm speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a
ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder like a Son alert which makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these
were hooked up to "driver" circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.
In game shows it is also known as a "lockout system," because when one person signals ("buzzes in"),
all others are locked out from signalling. Several game shows have large buzzer buttons which are
identified as "plungers". The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that buzzers made when they
were electromechanical devices, operated from stepped-down AC line voltage at 50 or 60 cycles. Other
sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a ring or a beep.
Water Level Sensor:
The working principle of the ultrasonic water level sensor is that the ultrasonic transducer (probe) sends
out a high-frequency pulse sound wave when it encounters the surface of the measured level (material),
is reflected, and the reflected echo is received by the transducer and converted into an electrical
signal.The water level sensor is a device that measures the liquid level in a fixed container that is too
high or too low. According to the method of measuring the liquid level, it can be divided into two types:
contact type and non-contact type. The input type water level transmitter we call is a contact
measurement, which converts the height of the liquid level into an electrical signal for output. It is
currently a widely used water level transmitter.
Working Principle:
The working principle of the water level sensor is that when it is put into a certain depth in the liquid to
be measured, the pressure on the sensor’s front surface is converted into the liquid level height. The
calculation formula is Ρ=ρ.g.H+Po, in the formula P is the pressure on the liquid surface of the sensor, ρ
is the density of the liquid to be measured, g is the local acceleration of gravity, Po is the atmospheric
pressure on the liquid surface, and H is the depth at which the sensor drops into the liquid.
Uses of water level sensors:
The uses of water level sensors include the following applications:
1. Water level measurement of pools and water tanks
2. Water level measurement of rivers and lakes
3. Marine level measurement
4. Level measurement of acid-base liquids
5. Oil level measurement of oil trucks and mailboxes
6. Swimming pool water level control
7. Tsunami warning and sea-level monitoring
8. Cooling tower water level control
9. Sewage pump level control
10. Remote monitoring of the liquid level
Benefits of water level sensors:
1. Simple structure: There are no movable or elastic elements, so the reliability is extremely high, and
there is no need for regular maintenance during use. The operation is simple and convenient.
2. Convenient installation: When using, first connect one end of the wire correctly, and then put the
other end of the water level probe into the solution to be measured.
3. Ranges are optional: you can measure the water level in the range of 1-200 meters, and other
measurement ranges can also be customized.
4. Wide range of applications: suitable for liquid level measurement of high temperature and high
pressure, strong corrosion, high pollution, and other media.
5. Wide range of measuring medium: High-precision measurement can be carried out from the water, oil
to paste with high viscosity, and wide-range temperature compensation is not affected by the foaming,
deposition, and electrical characteristics of the measured medium.
6. Long service life: Generally, the liquid level sensor can be used for 4-5 years in a normal
environment, and it can also be used for 2-3 years in a harsh environment.
7. Strong function: It can be directly connected to the digital display meter to display the value in real-
time, or it can be connected to a variety of controllers and set the upper and lower limits to control the
water volume in the container.
8. Accurate measurement: The built-in high-quality sensor has high sensitivity, fast response, and
accurately reflects the subtle changes of the flowing or static liquid level, and the measurement accuracy
is high.
9. Variety of types: liquid level sensors have various structural designs such as input type, straight rod
type, flange type, thread type, inductive type, screw-in type, and float type. It can meet the measurement
needs of all different places.

Motors
The motor or an electrical motor is a device that has brought about one of the biggest advancements in
the fields of engineering and technology ever since the invention of electricity. A motor is nothing but
an electro-mechanical device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Its because of
motors, life is what it is today in the 21st century. Without motor we had still been living in Sir Thomas
Edison’s Era where the only purpose of electricity would have been to glow bulbs. There are different
types of motor have been developed for different specific purposes. In simple words we can say a
device that produces rotational force is a motor. The very basic principal of functioning of an electrical
motor lies on the fact that force is experienced in the direction perpendicular to magnetic field and the
current, when field and current are made to interact with each other.
Ever since the invention of motors, a lot of advancements has taken place in this field of engineering
and it has become a subject of extreme importance for modern engineers. This particular webpage takes
into consideration, the above mentioned fact and provides a detailed description on all major electrical
motors and motoring parts being used in the present era.

Classification or Types of Motor

The primary classification of motor or types of motor can be tabulated as shown below,

History of Motor
In the year 1821 British scientist Michael Faraday explained the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy by placing a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field which resulted in the
rotation of the conductor due to torque produced by the mutual action of electrical current and field.
Based on his principal the most primitive of machines a DC (Direct Current) machine was designed by
another British scientist William Sturgeon in the year 1832. But his model was overly expensive and
wasn’t used for any practical purpose. Later in the year 1886 the first electrical motor was invented by
scientist Frank Julian Sprague. That was capable of rotating at a constant speed under a varied range
of load, and thus derived motoring action.
Among the four basic classification of motors mentioned above the DC motor as the name suggests, is
the only one that is driven by direct current. It’s the most primitive version of the electric motor where
rotating torque is produced due to flow of current through the conductor inside a magnetic field. Rest all
are AC electrical motors, and are driven by alternating current, for e.g. the synchronous motor, which
always runs at synchronous speed. Here the rotor is an electro - magnet which is magnetically locked
with stator rotating magnetic field and rotates with it. The speed of these machines are varied by varying
the frequency (f) and number of poles (P), as Ns = 120 f/P.
In another type of AC motor where rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor conductors, hence circulating
current induced in these short circuited rotor conductors. Due to interaction of the magnetic field and
these circulating currents the rotor starts rotates and continues its rotation. This is induction motor which
is also known as asynchronous motor runs at a speed lesser than synchronous speed, and the rotating
torque, and speed is governed by varying the slip which gives the difference between synchronous speed

Ns, and rotor speed speed Nr, It runs governing the principal of EMF induction due to
varying flux density, hence the name induction machine comes. Single phase induction motor like a 3
phase, runs by the principal of emf induction due to flux, but the only difference is, it runs on single
phase supply and its starting methods are governed by two well established theories, namely the Double
Revolving field theory and the Cross field theory.
Apart from the four basic types of motor mentioned above, there are several types Of special electrical
motors like Linear Induction motor(LIM), Stepper motor, Servo motor etc with special features that has
been developed according to the needs of the industry or for a particular particular gadget like the use of
hysteresis motor in hand watches because of its compactness.
Electrical motor in general is an electro-mechanical device that converts energy from electrical domain
to mechanical domain. Based on the type of input we have classified it into single phase and 3 phase
motors. Among 3 phase motors, induction motors and synchronous motors are more widely used.
When a 3 phase electric conductors are placed in a certain geometrical positions (In certain angle from
one another) then an electrical field is generated. Now the rotating magnetic field rotates at a certain
speed, that speed is called synchronous speed. Now if an electromagnet is present in this rotating
magnetic field, the electromagnet is magnetically locked with this rotating magnetic field and rotates
with same speed of rotating field.

Synchronous motors is called so because the speed of the rotor of this motor is same as the rotating
magnetic field. It is basically a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous
 speed and therefore no intermediate speed is there or in other words it’s in synchronism with the supply
frequency. Synchronous speed is given by

where f = supply frequency & p = no. of poles

Construction of Synchronous Motor

Normally it's construction is almost similar to that of a 3 phase induction motor, except the fact that the
rotor is given DC supply, the reason of which is explained later. Now, let us first go through the basic
construction of this type of motor. From the above picture, it is clear that how this type of motors are
designed. The stator is given is given three phase supply and the rotor is given dc supply.

Main Features of Synchronous Motors

1. Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting. They require some external means to bring their
speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
2. The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for constant supply
frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load condition
3. This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power factor. This makes it
being used in electrical power factor improvement.

Principle of Operation Synchronous Motor

 Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e two electrical inputs are provided to it. It’s stator
winding which consists of a 3 phase winding is provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is provided with
DC supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic
flux. The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering the frequency to be 50
Hz, from the above relation we can see that the 3 phase rotating flux rotates about 3000 revolution in 1
min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec. At a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of same polarity
(N-N or S-S) causing repulsive force on rotor and the very next second it will be N-S causing attractive
force. But due to inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to attractive or repulsive
force and remain in standstill condition. Hence it is not self starting. To overcome this inertia, rotor is
initially fed some mechanical input which rotates it in same direction as magnetic field to a speed very
close to synchronous speed. After some time magnetic locking occurs and the synchronous motor
rotates in synchronism with the frequency.

Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor

1. Motor starting with an external prime Mover : Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled
with another motor. It could be either 3 phase induction motor or DC shunt motor. DC excitation is
not fed initially. It is rotated at speed very close to its synchronous speed and after that DC excitation
is given. After some time when magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.
2. Damper winding : In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional winding is placed in
rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill, relative speed between damper winding and rotating
air gap flux in large and an emf is induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed
approaches synchronous speed, emf and torque is reduced and finally when magnetic locking takes
place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous is first run as three phase induction
motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the frequency.

Application of Synchronous Motor

1. Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power factor improvement.
Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical power factor, it is used in power system in
situations where static capacitors are expensive.
2. Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500 rpm) and high power
is required. For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size, weight and cost of the
corresponding three phase induction motor is very high. Hence these motors are preferably used. Ex-
Reciprocating pump, compressor, rolling mills etc.
 3. An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into a
mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC operation, most widely used motor is Three phase
induction motor as this type of motor does not require any starting device or we can say they
are self starting induction motor.For better understanding the principle of three phase
induction motor, the basic constructional feature of this motor must be known to us. This Motor
consists of two major parts: Stator: Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of
numbers of slots to construct a 3 phase winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source.
The three phase winding are arranged in such a manner in the slots that they produce a rotating
magnetic field after 3Ph. AC supply is given to them. Rotor: Rotor of three phase induction
motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots that can carry conductors.
Conductors are heavy copper or aluminum bars which fits in each slots & they are short circuited
by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a
little skewed because this arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of
motor.

Working of Three Phase Induction Motor

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical angle of 120°. When the
primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic
field which rotates at the synchronous speed. Secrets Behind the Rotation: According to Faraday’s law
an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage through the circuit.
As the rotor winding in an induction motor are either closed through an external resistance or directly
shorted by end ring, and cut the stator rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the rotor copper bar
and due to this emf a current flows through the rotor conductor. Here the relative speed between the
rotating flux and static rotor conductor is the cause of current generation; hence as per Lenz's law the
rotor will rotate in the same direction to reduce the cause i.e. the relative velocity.
Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor it may observed that the rotor speed
should not reach the synchronous speed produced by the stator. If the speeds equals, there would be no
such relative speed, so no emf induced in the rotor, & no current would be flowing, and therefore no
torque would be generated. Consequently the rotor can not reach the synchronous speed. The difference
between the stator (synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is called the slip. The rotation of the magnetic
field in an induction motor has the advantage that no electrical connections need to be made to the rotor.
Thus the three phase induction motor is:
 Self-starting.
 Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of commutators and brushes that
may cause sparks.
 Robust in construction.
 Economical.
 Easier to maintain.
Induction motor is also called asynchronous motor as it runs at a speed other than the synchronous
speed. Like any other electrical motor, induction motor have two main parts namely rotor and stator.

Stator
As the name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A three phase supply is given to the
stator of induction motor.

Rotor
The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical load through the
shaft. The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as-
1. Squirrel cage rotor,
2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
Depending upon the type of rotor used the three phase induction motor are classified as-
1. Squirrel cage induction motor
2. Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound induction motor
The construction of stator for both the kind of three phase induction motor remains the same and is
discussed in brief in next paragraph. Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor The stator of the three
phase induction motor consists of three main parts:
1. Stator frame
2. Stator core
3. Stator winding or field winding
4. Stator Frame: It is the outer most part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function is
to support the stator core and the field winding. It acts as a covering and provide protection and
mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the machine. The frame is either made up of die cast
or fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction motor should be very strong and rigid as
the air gap length of three phase induction motor is very small, otherwise rotor will not remain
concentric with stator which will give rise to unbalanced magnetic pull.
 5. Stator Core : The main function of the stator core is to carry alternating flux. In order to reduce
the eddy current losses the stator core is laminated. This laminated type of structure is made up
of stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping are stamped together to form
stator core, which is then housed in stator frame. The stampings are generally made up of silicon
steel, which reduces the hysteresis loss.
6. Stator Winding or Field Winding : The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three phase
induction motor carries three phase windings. This three phase winding is supplied by three
phase ac supply. The three phases of the winding are connected either in star or delta depending
upon which type of starting method is used. The squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star-
delta stater and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor are delta connected. The slip ring three
phase induction motor are started by inserting resistances so, the stator winding can be connected
either in star or delta. The winding wound on the stator of three phase induction motor is also
called field winding and when this winding is excited by three phase ac supply it produces
rotating magnetic field.
MOTOR DRIVER
L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as current amplifiers
since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current signal. This higher current
signal is used to drive the motors.
L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation, two DC motors
can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The motor operations of two
motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic 00 or 11 will stop the
corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise and anticlockwise directions,
respectively. Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start
operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled. As a result, the outputs
become active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input is low, that driver is
disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state.

Pin Diagram:
Pin Description:

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2
2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1
3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1
4 Ground (0V) Ground
5 Ground (0V) Ground
6 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 2
7 Input 2 for Motor 1 Input 2
8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Vcc 2
9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4
10 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 3
11 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 3
12 Ground (0V) Ground
13 Ground (0V) Ground
14 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 4
15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4
16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V) Vcc 1

Working
A power sensor tag with interference reduction for electricity monitoring of two-wire
household appliances consists of transmitter and receiver section separately. Mainly this project is
 used for reducing human effect and for increasing water usage in the field of agriculture
automatically.
First these kits are connected to the main supply (230V A.C).then it is step down to 5V d.c
supply. 230V A.C supply is given as input to the step down transformer then it is step down that
voltage to some 18V A.C supply. Then it is given to the Bridge wave Rectifier. This converts A.C to
Pulsating D.C. then this is given to the filter circuit. Here capacitive filter is used. So it converts that
pulsating D.C to pure D.C. next this is connected to 7805 regulator. It produces our required 5V D.C
supply.
Electricity can be monitored by using the parameters like voltage and current these 2
Parameters can be sensed by using the voltage and current sensors. But the controlling of the
devices in the house is not possible in the existing system. To overcome these disadvantages we
are going for proposed method

4.2 ADVANTAGES

 Decreased field damaging conditions

 Improved safety and security
 High quality receiving data
 Less power consumption
 High speed data rate

4.3 APPLICATIONS

 Field Application
 Industrial Applications
 Protocol based Applications
 CHAPTER 4
SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 Arduino Uno on the Arduino Desktop IDE
If you want to program your Arduino Uno while offline you need to install the Arduino Desktop
IDE The Uno is programmed using the Arduino Software (IDE), our Integrated Development
Environment common to all our boards. Before you can move on, you must have installed the Arduino
Software (IDE) on your PC, as explained in the home page of our Getting Started. Connect your Uno
board with an A B USB cable; sometimes this cable is called a USB printer cable.
 The USB connection with the PC is necessary to program the board and not just to power it up.
The Uno automatically draw power from either the USB or an external power supply. Connect the board
to your computer using the USB cable. The green power LED (labelled PWR) should go on.

4.2 Install the board drivers

If you used the Installer, Windows - from XP up to 10 - will install drivers automatically as soon as you
connect your board. If you downloaded and expanded the Zip package or, for some reason, the board
wasn't properly recognized, please follow the procedure below.

Figure 4.1: Select the board driver

Click on the Start Menu, and open up the Control Panel. While in the Control Panel, navigate to System
and Security. Next, click on System. Once the System window is up, open the Device Manager. Look
under Ports (COM & LPT). You should see an open port named "Arduino UNO (COMxx)". If there is
no COM & LPT section, look under "Other Devices" for "Unknown Device". Right click on the
"Arduino UNO (COmxx)" port and choose the "Update Driver Software" option. Next, choose the
"Browse my computer for Driver software" option. Finally, navigate to and select the driver file
named "arduino.inf", located in the "Drivers" folder of the Arduino Software download (not the "FTDI
USB Drivers" sub-directory). If you are using an old version of the IDE (1.0.3 or older), choose the Uno
driver file named "Arduino UNO.inf" Windows will finish up the driver installation from there. Open
your first sketch and then open the LED blink example sketch: File > Examples >01.Basics > Blink.
4.3 Select your board type and port
You'll need to select the entry in the Tools > Board menu that corresponds to your Arduino board.
Select the serial device of the board from the Tools | Serial Port menu. This is likely to be COM3 or
higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial ports). To find out, you can
disconnect your board and re-open the menu; the entry that disappears should be the Arduino board.
Reconnect the board and select that serial port.
Figure 4.2: Select the type of board

Figure 4.3: Select the COM port

4.4 Upload the program
Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds - you should see the RX
and TX leds on the board flashing. If the upload is successful, the message "Done uploading." will
appear in the status bar.

Figure 4.4: Sketch the program

A few seconds after the upload finishes, you should see the pin 13 (L) LED on the board start to blink
(in orange). If it does, congratulations! You've gotten Arduino up-and-running. Arduino is an open-
source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to
read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an output -
activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do
by sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino
programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing. Over
the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday objects to complex
scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students, hobbyists, artists, programmers,
and professionals - has gathered around this open-source platform, their contributions have added up to
an incredible amount of accessible knowledge that can be of great help to novices and experts alike.
Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast prototyping, aimed at
students without a background in electronics and programming. As soon as it reached a wider
community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new needs and challenges, differentiating its
offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded
environments. All Arduino boards are completely open-source, empowering users to build them
independently and eventually adapt them to their particular needs.

4.5 Writing Sketches

Programs written using Arduino Software (IDE) are called sketches. These sketches are written in the
text editor and are saved with the file extension .ino. The editor has features for cutting/pasting and for
searching/replacing text. The message area gives feedback while saving and exporting and also displays
errors. The console displays text output by the Arduino Software (IDE), including complete error
messages and other information. The bottom right hand corner of the window displays the configured
board and serial port. The toolbar buttons allow you to verify and upload programs, create, open, and
save sketches, and open the serial monitor. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing through
the contributions of users worldwide. Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino has
been used in thousands of different projects and applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for
beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Teachers and
students use it to build low cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics principles, or to
get started with programming and robotics. Designers and architects build interactive prototypes,
musicians and artists use it for installations and to experiment with new musical instruments. Makers, of
course, use it to build many of the projects exhibited at the Maker Faire, for example. Arduino is a key
tool to learn new things. Anyone - children, hobbyists, artists, programmers - can start tinkering just
following the step by step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online with other members of the
Arduino community.
There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for physical
computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and many others
offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of microcontroller programming and
wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies the process of working with
microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other
systems:
Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller platforms.
The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and even the pre-
assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50
Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating
systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to-use for beginners,
yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's conveniently based
on the Processing programming environment, so students learning to program in that environment will
be familiar with how the Arduino IDE works.
Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open source tools,
available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through C++
libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the
AVR C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into
your Arduino programs if you want to.
Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the Arduino boards are published under a
Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers can make their own version of the module,
extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build the breadboard version of
the module in order to understand how it works and save money.
4.6 Sketchbook
The Arduino Software (IDE) uses the concept of a sketchbook: a standard place to store your programs
(or sketches). The sketches in your sketchbook can be opened from the File > Sketchbook menu or from
the Open button on the toolbar. The first time you run the Arduino software, it will automatically create
a directory for your sketchbook. You can view or change the location of the sketchbook location from
with the Preferences dialog. Before uploading your sketch, you need to select the correct items from the
Tools > Board and Tools > Port menus. The boards are described below. On the Mac, the serial port is
probably something like /dev/tty.usbmodem241 (for an Uno or Mega2560 or Leonardo) or
/dev/tty.usbserial-1B1 (for a Duemilanove or earlier USB board), or /dev/tty.USA19QW1b1P1.1 (for a
serial board connected with a Keyspan USB-to-Serial adapter). On Windows, it's probably COM1 or
COM2 (for a serial board) or COM4, COM5, COM7, or higher (for a USB board) - to find out, you look
for USB serial device in the ports section of the Windows Device Manager. On Linux, it should be
/dev/ttyACMx , /dev/ttyUSBx or similar. Once you've selected the correct serial port and board, press
the upload button in the toolbar or select the Upload item from the Sketch menu. Current Arduino
boards will reset automatically and begin the upload. With older boards (pre-Diecimila) that lack auto-
reset, you'll need to press the reset button on the board just before starting the upload. On most boards,
you'll see the RX and TX LEDs blink as the sketch is uploaded. The Arduino Software (IDE) will
display a message when the upload is complete, or show an error. When you upload a sketch, you're
using the Arduino boot loader, a small program that has been loaded on to the microcontroller on your
board. It allows you to upload code without using any additional hardware. The boot loader is active for
a few seconds when the board resets; then it starts whichever sketch was most recently uploaded to the
microcontroller. The boot loader will blink the on-board (pin 13) LED when it starts (i.e. when the
board resets).
4.7 Libraries
Libraries provide extra functionality for use in sketches, e.g. working with hardware or manipulating
data. To use a library in a sketch, select it from the Sketch > Import Library menu. This will insert one
or more #include statements at the top of the sketch and compile the library with your sketch. Because
libraries are uploaded to the board with your sketch, they increase the amount of space it takes up. If a
sketch no longer needs a library, simply delete its #include statements from the top of your code. There
is a list of libraries in the reference. Then the Library Manager will open and you will find a list of
libraries that are already installed or ready for installation. In this example we will install the Bridge
library. Scroll the list to find it, click on it, then select the version of the library you want to install.
Sometimes only one version of the library is available. If the version selection menu does not appear,
don't worry: it is normal. Finally click on install and wait for the IDE to install the new library.
Downloading may take time depending on your connection speed. Once it has finished, an Installed tag
should appear next to the Bridge library. You can close the library manager. Arduino libraries are
managed in three different places: inside the IDE installation folder, inside the core folder and in the
libraries folder inside your sketchbook.
Figure 4.5: Manage Libraries
Some libraries are included with the Arduino software. Others can be downloaded from a variety of
sources or through the Library Manager. Starting with version 1.0.5 of the IDE, you do can import a
library from a zip file and use it in an open sketch. See these instructions for installing a third-party
library. To install a new library into your Arduino IDE you can use the Library Manager (available from
IDE version 1.6.2). Open the IDE and click to the "Sketch" menu and then Include Library > Manage

Libraries.
Figure 4.6: Library Manager
The same happens for the libraries present in additional cores installations. It is also important to note
that the version of the library you put in your sketchbook may be lower than the one in the distribution
or core folders, nevertheless it will be the one used during compilation. When you select a specific core
for your board, the libraries present in the core’s folder are used instead of the same libraries present in
the IDE distribution folder.
Last, but not least important is the way the Arduino Software (IDE) upgrades itself: all the files in
Programs/Arduino (or the folder where you installed the IDE) are deleted and a new folder is created
with fresh content.

Figure 4.7: Add library files

The way libraries are chosen during compilation is designed to allow the update of libraries present in
the distribution. This means that placing a library in the “libraries” folder in your sketchbook overrides
the other libraries versions. This is why we recommend that you only install libraries to the sketchbook
folder so they are not deleted during the Arduino IDE update process.
4.8 Third-Party Hardware
Support for third-party hardware can be added to the hardware directory of your sketchbook directory.
Platforms installed there may include board definitions (which appear in the board menu), core libraries,
boot loaders, and programmer definitions. To install, create the hardware directory, then unzip the third-
party platform into its own sub-directory. (Don't use "arduino" as the sub-directory name or you'll
override the built-in Arduino platform.) To uninstall, simply delete its directory [31]. For details on
creating packages for third-party hardware, see the Arduino IDE 1.5 3rd party Hardware specification.
Figure 4.8: IDE Preferences
4.9 Serial Monitor
This displays serial sent from the Arduino or Genuino board over USB or serial connector. To send data
to the board, enter text and click on the "send" button or press enter. Choose the baud rate from the
drop-down menu that matches the rate passed to Serial. begin in your sketch. Note that on Windows,
Mac or Linux the board will reset (it will rerun your sketch) when you connect with the serial monitor.
Please note that the Serial Monitor does not process control characters; if your sketch needs a complete
management of the serial communication with control characters [32], you can use an external terminal
program and connect it to the COM port assigned to your Arduino board.

4.10 Boards
The board selection has two effects: it sets the parameters (e.g. CPU speed and baud rate) used when
compiling and uploading sketches; and sets and the file and fuse settings used by the burn boot loader
command. Some of the board definitions differ only in the latter, so even if you've been uploading
successfully with a particular selection you'll want to check it before burning the boot loader. You can
find a comparison table between the various boards here. Arduino Software (IDE) includes the built in
support for the boards in the following list, all based on the AVR Core. The Boards Manager included in
the standard installation allows to add support for the growing number of new boards based on different
cores like Arduino Due, Arduino Zero, Edison, Galileo and so on. An ATmega168 running at 16 MHz
without auto-reset. Compilation and upload is equivalent to Arduino Diecimila or Duemilanove w/
ATmega168, but the boot loader burned has a slower timeout (and blinks the pin 13 LED three times on
reset); 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.
4.11 Burning the boot loader
The boot loader is a small piece of software that allows your Arduino board to communicate with the
Arduino IDE when you want to upload a sketch. Normally when you want to load a program on a
microcontroller you need an external programmer, like the Arduino ISP. The boot loader eliminates the
needs of an external programmer because, the protocol that allows your computer to program the flash
memory of the AVR is contained inside the boot loader.

Figure 4.9: Burn Boot loader

All the AVR-based Arduino boards comes with the boot loader pre-installed but sometimes the upload
process or some sketches can corrupt the memory where the boot loader resides causing the failure of
future upload procedures. Burning again the boot loader with the Arduino ISP can restore the boot
loader and bring back your Arduino to upload using the USB port again. You can also use the Arduino
ISP to burn the boot loader in a brand new ATmega. If you replace the ATmega microcontroller on your
Arduino you will need to burn the boot loader in order to load sketches in the usual way. You can
simply do it with the Arduino ISP. Burning the boot loader is an easy-to-go feature provided by the
Arduino IDE. To upload the boot loader on your board just connect everything as described before and
click on Burn boot loader in the Tools menu.

4.12 Shield with Older Boards

If you are using the WiFi shield with an Arduino earlier than the Uno rev3, you need to make the
connection below for the board to work. The WiFi board uses the IOREF pin on newer Arduino pin
layouts (Uno rev3, Mega2560 rev3, and later) to sense the reference voltage for the I/O pins of the board
to which it is attached. If you are using the shield with an older board, you need to connect the shield's
IOREF pin to 3.3V. You can do this either with a jumper wire connecting IOREF to 3.3V as shown in
the photo below, or by soldering the IOREF jumper on the bottom of the shield, shown
below. WARNING: If you use the solder jumper, do not connect the shield to a rev3 or later board. To
be safe, remove the IOREF pin on the shield. Otherwise, you will be shorting 3.3V to 5V through the
IOREF pin. To use the shield, mount it on top of an Arduino board (e.g. the Uno). To upload sketches to
the board, connect it to your computer with a USB cable as you normally would. Once the sketch has
been uploaded, you can disconnect the board from your computer and power it with an external power
supply. Connect the shield to your computer or a network hub or router using a standard ethernet cable
(CAT5 or CAT6 with RJ45 connectors). Connecting to a computer may require the use of a cross-over
cable (although many computers, including all recent Macs can do the cross-over internally).
4.13 SD Library
The SD library allows for reading from and writing to SD cards, e.g. on the Arduino Ethernet Shield.
The library supports FAT16 and FAT32 file systems on standard SD cards and SDHC cards. It uses
short 8.3 names for files. The file names passed to the SD library functions can include paths
separated by forward-slashes, /, e.g. "directory/filename.txt". Because the working directory is
always the root of the SD card, a name refers to the same file whether or not it includes a leading
slash (e.g. "/file.txt" is equivalent to "file.txt"). As of version 1.0, the library supports opening
multiple files. The communication between the microcontroller and the SD card uses SPI, which
takes place on digital pins 11, 12, and 13 (on most Arduino boards) or 50, 51, and 52 (Arduino
Mega). Additionally, another pin must be used to select the SD card. This can be the hardware SS pin
- pin 10 (on most Arduino boards) or pin 53 (on the Mega) - or another pin specified in the call to
SD.begin(). Note that even if you don't use the hardware SS pin, it must be left as an output or the
SD library won't work.
4.14 Arduino IoT Cloud
Devices are physical objects like a hardware board that can be contained inside a product (e.g.,
MKR WiFi 1010). They’re the hardware that runs the software, reads sensors, controls actuators and
communicates with the Arduino IoT Cloud. Things represent the inherent properties of the object, with
as little reference to the actual hardware used to implement them. Each thing is represented by a
collection of properties (e.g., temperature, light). Properties are the qualities defining the characteristics
of a system. A property can be something like a 'read-only' (RO) setting to indicate the
Arduino IoT Cloud can read the data, but cannot change the value of the property. A property might be
designed as 'read and write' (RW) if the Arduino IoT Cloud can also remotely change the property’s
value and send an event notification to the device. For example, a device might have a sensor which will
provide the room temperature. That would be read-only. It might also include a thermostat to be able
which will change the room’s temperature. The Arduino IoT Cloud becomes aware of events when it
receives application messages that indicate the something has happened. For example, it might be
informed by a face-recognition application that someone is at a door, or it has received a request from
another app that light has to be turned on. Arduino boards usually require you to program them, to enter
some code by way of an Arduino Sketch. The Arduino IoT Cloud will quickly and automatically
generate a Sketch when setting up a new thing: this is one of its convenient features [33].
Arduino IoT Cloud allows other methods o interaction, including HTTP REST API, MQTT, Command-
Line Tools, Javascript, and Websockets. It’s a very versatile system. To understand better how this
might work, suppose we want to build an IoT greenhouse (i.e., a small enclosure constructed primarily
of glass, used for growing plants). The goal is to control remotely this greenhouse: to be able to turn off
and on the lights, start the irrigation system, read the temperature inside the garden, etc. We’ll use an
Arduino MKR WiFi 1010, attached to a couple of sensors for measuring the temperature, light, etc. Also
attached will be actuators such as an irrigation pump, as well as light and fan switches. The software
(i.e., an Arduino Sketch) that will be uploaded to the MKR board, will automatically control the
properties of the actuators. For instance, it will make changes to activate the ventilation fans when there
is too much humidity or it’s too hot in the greenhouse. The properties will be stored in the Cloud and
may be remotely changed from there.

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

#define BLYNK_PRINT Serial

#include <ESP8266WiFi.h>
char auth[] = "YZSFopl4EtIqv3qCnzyC3nrjRMTdHyRP";
char ssid[] = "soil";
char pass[] = "12345678910";
#define soil D5
#define level D6
#define motor D1
void setup()
{
pinMode(LED_BUILTIN,OUTPUT);
pinMode(soil,INPUT);
pinMode(level, INPUT);
pinMode(motor, OUTPUT);
 digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN,HIGH);
Blynk.begin(auth, ssid, pass);
digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN,LOW);
}
void loop()
{
int value1=digitalRead(soil);
if (value1==1)
{
Blynk.notify("Soil Type: DRY, Switch On Motor");
}
int value2=digitalRead(level);
if (value2==1)
{
Blynk.notify("Soil Type:WET, Water Level: HIGH");
}
Blynk.run();