Control System 2021 DD 230915 114447

Control Systems
Prof. Dipankar Deb

Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management
(IITRAM), Ahmedabad
Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 1 / 525

Contents
Introduction to Control Systems

Modeling in Frequency Domain
Modeling in Time Domain
Time Response
Multiple Subsystems
Stability
Steady State Errors
Root Locus Techniques
Frequency Response Techniques

Introduction to Control System
System: An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose

Control System: An interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired response
Process: The device, plant, or system under control. The input and output
relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship of the process.

Controlled Variable: It is the quantity or condition that is measured and
Controlled. Normally controlled variable is the output of the control system.
Manipulated Variable: It is the quantity of the condition that is varied by
the controller so as to affect the value of controlled variable.
Control: Measuring the value of controlled variable of the system and
applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or limit the
deviation of the measured value from a desired value.
Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the
value of the system. It is an unwanted input of the system.
▶ If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called internal
disturbance. While an external disturbance is generated outside the system.

Open Loop Control System
Since in open loop control systems reference input is not compared with
measured output, for each reference input there is fixed operating condition.
Therefore, the accuracy of the system depends on calibration.
The performance of open loop system is severely affected by the presence of
disturbances, or variation in operating/ environmental conditions.
Automatic washing machine,Electric bulb, Electric hand drier

Advantages of Open loop control System
The open loop systems are very simple in design and easy to design.
These are cheaper in cost than other type of control systems.
Maintenance of open loop control system is very simple. These are stable for
some extent of time.
These types of systems are convenient to use.

Disadvantages of Open loop control System
The bandwidth of open loop control system is small.

The non feedback system doesn’t facilitates the automation of process.
Open loop systems are inaccurate in nature.
As their output is affected by some of the external system disturbances, the
non feedback systems are unreliable.
It cannot correct the output deviations automatically.

Closed Loop System
Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to compare the actual output

to the desired output response.
Refrigerator, Electric Iron, Air conditioner

Advantages of Closed loop control System
As the closed loop control systems have feedback signal to control the
output, these are very accurate and less error prone.
They can automatically correct the errors by means of the feedback signal.
Closed loop systems are very accurate.
Bandwidth of closed loop system is larger than open loop system.
They can support automation.
As they have very high noise margin, they are less affected by noise.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is conventionally defined as the frequency at which the response

of the system is reduced by 3dB (half the power) from whatever its maximum
response is.
Most real devices, when operated in open-loop, have a low-pass characteristic
that causes their response to fall off with increasing frequency.
They can have very high response at low frequencies, so their inherent
bandwidth is relatively narrow.
If you use negative feedback to reduce the maximum response (closed-loop),
then the frequency at which the response drops by half from that new
maximum value (because of the device characteristics) is going to be higher.
Therefore,for most devices, closed-loop bandwidth is greater than open-loop
bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
They are very complex and complicated to design.

Economically they are very costlier.
High maintenance is required.
Some times the feedback signal causes the system to oscillate, which will give
oscillatory response.

Servo System
A Servo System (or servomechanism) is a feedback control system in which

the output is some mechanical position, velocity or acceleration.
Servo system is one type of feedback control system in which control variable
is the mechanical load position and its time derivatives like velocity and
acceleration

Classification of Control System
Continuous Time Control Systems, the signals in all parts of a control

system are continuous functions of time
Discreet Data control systems, in which a digital computer is used as one
of the elements, are known as digital control systems. The input and output
to the digital computer must be binary numbers and hence these systems
require the use of digital to analog and analog to digital converters.

Linear Control System, When an input X1 produces an output Y1 and an
input X2 produces an output Y2 , then any combination αX1 + βX2 should
produce an output αY1 + βY2 . In such case system is linear. Therefore,
linear systems are those where the principles of superposition and
proportionality are obeyed.

Nonlinear Control System, Non-linear systems do not obey law of
superposition. The stability of non-linear systems depends on root location as
well as initial conditions and type of input.Non-linear systems exhibit self
sustained oscillations of fixed frequency.

Systems whose parameters vary with time are called Time Varying control
systems.
▶ The mass of missile/rocket reduces as fuel is burnt and hence the parameter
mass is time varying and the control system is time varying type
When parameters do not vary with time are called Time Invariant control
systems.
▶ A good example of LTI systems are electrical circuits that can be made up of
resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Laplace Transform
To evaluate the performance of an automatic control system commonly used
mathematical tool is “Laplace Transform”
Laplace transform converts the differential equation into an algebraic
equation in ‘s’.
Laplace transform exist for almost all signals of practical interest.

Advantages of Laplace Transform
Solution of intego differential equation of time systems can be easily obtained.

Initial conditions are automatically incorporated.
Laplace transform provides an easy and effective solution of many problems
arising in automatic control systems.
Laplace transform allows the use of graphical techniques, for predicting the
system performance.

Laplace Transform- Definition
The Laplace transform of a function, f (t), is defined as,

Z ∞
F (s) = L{f (t)} = f (t)e −st dt
0
where F (s) is the symbol for the Laplace transform, L is the Laplace
transform operator, and f (t) is some function of time, t.
Note: The L operator transforms a time domain function f (t)√into an s
domain function, F(s). s is a complex variable: s = a + bj, jb −1
By definition, the inverse Laplace transform operator, L−1 , converts an
s-domain function back to the corresponding time domain function:
f (t) = L−1 {F (s)}

Laplace equation
f (t) F (s) = L[f (t)]

1
1 or u(t) s
e −at s+a
1
ω
sin ωt s +ω 2
2
s
cos ωt s +ω 2
2
e −at sin ωt ω
(s+a)2 +ω 2
(s+a)
e −at cos ωt (s+a)2 +ω 2
1
t s2
n!
tn s n+1
e −at t n n!
(s+a)n+1
δ(t) 1

Transfer Function
The relationship between input output of a system is given by the transfer
function.
Definition: The ratio of Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of the input under the assumption of zero initial conditions is
defined as “Transfer Function”
for the system shown,

c(t) = Output L{c(t)} = C(s)
r(t) = Input L{r(t)} = R(s)
g(t) = System Function L{g(t)} = G(s)
Therefore transfer function G (s) for above system is given by,
Laplace of output C (s)

G (s) = =
Laplace of input R(s)

Transfer Function of closed loop system
Error Signal is given by;
E (s) = R(s) − B(s) (1)

∴ R(s) = E (s) + B(s)

Gain of feedback network is given by;
B(s)
H(s) =
C (s)
∴ B(s) = H(s)C (s) (2)
Gain for CL system is given by;
C (s)
G (s) =
E (s)
∴ C (s) = G (s)E (s) (3)
Substitute value of E(s) from eq. 1 to 3
C (s) = G (s).(R(s) − B(s))
∴ C (s) = G (s).R(s) − G (s).B(s) (4)
Substitute value of B(s) from eq. 2 to 4
G (s).R(s) = C (s)(1 + G (s).H(s))
Transfer function is given by;
C (s) G (s)
T .F = =
R(s) 1 + G (s).H(s)
Laplace Transform of Passive Element (R,L & C)
The Laplace transform can be used independently on different circuit

elements, and then the circuit can be solved entirely in the s Domain (Which
is much easier).
Let’s take a look at some of the circuit elements

Laplace Transform of R
▶ Resistors are time and frequency invariant. Therefore, the transform of a
resistor is the same as the resistance of the resistor.
▶ L[Resistor] = R(s)
Laplace Transform of C
▶ The relationship between voltage, current, and capacitance, in the time
domain:
dv (t)
i(t) = C
dt
▶ Solving for voltage, we get the following integral:
Z ∞
1
v (t) = i(t)dt
C t0
▶ Then, transforming this equation into the Laplace domain, we get the
following:
1
V (s) = I (s)
sC

▶ Again, if we solve for the ratio V(s)/I(s), we get the following:
V (s) 1
=
I (s) sC
▶ Therefore, the transform for a capacitor with capacitance C is given by:
1
L{capacitor } =
sC
Laplace Transform of L
▶ Let us look at the relationship between voltage, current, and inductance, in
the time domain:
di(t)
v (t) = L
dt
▶ putting this into the Laplace domain, we get the formula:
V (s) = sLI (s)
▶ And solving for our ratio
V (s)
= sL
I (s)
▶ Therefore, the transform of an inductor with inductance L is given by:
L{inductor} = sL
Transfer Function of RC and RLC electrical circuits
Apply KVL for input loop

Z t
1
vi (t) = Ri(t) + i(t)dt
C 0
Taking Laplace transform above equation
1
Vi (s) = RI (s) + I (s) (1)
sC
Apply KVL for output loop,
Z t
1
v0 (t) = i(t)dt
C 0
Taking Laplace transform above equation
1
V0 (s) = I (s) (2)
sC
∴ I (s) = sC .V0 (s) (3)
From equation 1,

1
Vi (s) = I (s) R + (4)
sC
From equation 3 and 4,

1
Vi (s) = V0 (s).sC . R +
sC
V0 (s) 1
Transfer Function = G (s) = = 1
Vi (s) sC .(R + sC )
V0 (s) 1
= sCR+1

Vi (s) sC . sC
V0 (s) 1
=
Vi (s) sCR + 1
Transfer Function of RC and RLC electrical circuits
Figure: Time Domain Figure: Laplace Domain
Apply KVL for input loop,

1
Vi (s) = RI (s) + sLI (s) + I (s)
sC

1
∴ Vi (s) = R + sL + I (s) (1)
sC

Apply KVL for output loop,

1
∴ V0 (s) = I (s) (2)
sC
1

V0 (s) I (s) sC
TransferFunction = G (s) = = 1

Vi (s) R + sL + sC I (s)
1
V0 (s) sC
= 1

Vi (s) R + sL + sC
V0 (s) 1
=
Vi (s) s 2 LC + sCR + 1

System Order and Proper System
Highest power of s present in denominator of closed loop transfer function is
called as “Order of System”.
A proper system is a system where the degree of the denominator is larger
than or equal to the degree of the numerator polynomial.
Example:
(s + 5)(s + 2)
G (s) =
s(s + 3)(s + 4)
Solution: To obtain highest power of denominator, Simplify denominator

polynomial.
s(s + 3)(s + 4) = 0
The highest power of equation in denominator of given transfer function is

‘3’. Hence given system is “Third Order system”.
The degree of denominator is larger than the numerator hence system is
“Proper System”

Type Of System
Zero(0) Order System

First Order System
Second Order System
▶ Zero(0) Order System: If highest power of complex variable ‘s’ present in
Characteristics equation is zero, then it is called as “Zero order System”
▶ Consider a unity feedback system with transfer function

1
G (s) =
1+T

▶ Hence characteristics equation is given by,
1+T =0
∴ 1 + s 0T = 0
▶ Here the highest power of s is equal to 0, Hence the system given above is
zero order system.
▶ Practical Example: Amplifier type control system
First Order System
1
G (s) =
1 + sCR
▶ Hence characteristics equation is given by
1 + sCR = 0
▶ Here the highest power of s is equal to 1, hence the system given above is
First order system. Example: RC circuits, thermal type systems

Second Order System
▶ Definition: If highest power of complex variable ‘s’ present In Characteristics
equation is two, then it is called as “Second order System”

1
G (s) =
s 2 LC + sCR + 1
▶ Hence characteristics equation is given by,
s 2 LC + sCR + 1 = 0
▶ Here the highest power of s is equal to 2,hence the system given above is
Second order system.
▶ Practical Example: RLC circuits, Robotic control system.

Block Diagram Algebra
It is a simple way to represent any practically complicated system. In this

each component of the system is represented by a separate block known as
functional block.
These blocks are interconnected in a proper sequence.
Block Diagram: It is shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause and
effect relationship between input and output of a physical system
Output: The value of the input is multiplied to the value of block gain to get
the output
Output Y(s) = 3s.X(s)

Block Diagram Fundamentals
Summing Point: Two or more signals can be added/substracted at summing
point.
Output = x + y - z
Take off Point: The output signal can be applied to two or more points from
a take off point.

Forward Path: The direction of flow of signal is from input to output
Feedback Path: The direction of flow of signal is from output to input

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Rule 1: For blocks in cascade

Gain of blocks connected in cascade gets multiplied with each other.
R1 (s) = G1 R(s) C(s) = G1 G2 R(s)

C(s) = G2 R1 (s)
= G1 G2 R(s)

Rule 2: For Block in Parallel
Gain of blocks connected in parallel gets added algebraically.
Rule 3: Eliminate Feedback Loop

Rule 4: Associative Law for Summing Points
The order of summing points can be changed if two or more summing points
are in series

Rule 5: Shift summing point before block
Rule 6: Shift summing point after block

Rule 7: Shift a take off point before block
Rule 8: Shift a take off point after block

Example 1
Apply Rule 2 Blocks in Parallel

Apply Rule 1 Blocks in series
Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback loop


C (s) G1 G2 G6 (G3 + G4 + G5 )
=
R(s) 1 + G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2 (G3 + G4 + G5 )

Example 2


C (s) G1 G2 (G3 + G4 )
=
R(s) 1 + G1 G2 H1 − G1 G2 G3 H2 − G1 G2 G4 H2

Example 3

C (s) G4 G5 + G2 G4 G5 H1 + G1 G2 G3 G4
=
R(s) 1 + G2 H1 + G4 G5 H2 + G2 G4 G5 H1 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H2

Example 4

C (s) G1 G2
=
R(s) 1 + G1 H1 + G2 H2 + G1 G2 H1 H2 + G1 G2

Signal Flow Graphs
Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y = ax
The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;
for This model,
Y1 (s) = G11 (s).R1 (s) + G12 .R2 (s)

Y2 (s) = G21 (s).R2 (s) + G22 .R1 (s)

Definition of terms required in SFG
Node: It is a point representing a variable.
Branch : A line joining two nodes.
Input Node: Node which has only outgoing branches.
Output node/ sink node: Only incoming branches.
Mixed nodes: Has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Transmittance: It is the gain between two nodes. It is generally written on
the branch near the arrow.
Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch
arrows, such that no node is traversed more than once.
Forward path: A path which originates from the input node and terminates
at the output node and along which no node is traversed more than once.
Forward Path gain: the product of branch transmittances of a forward path.
Loop: Path that originates and terminates at the same node and along
which no other node is traversed more than once.
Self loop: Path that originates and terminates at the same node.
Loop gain: it is the product of branch transmittances of a loop.
Non-touching loops: Loops that don’t have any common node or branch.
The signal flow graph

Ex: SFG from Block Diagram

Rules for drawing of SFG from Block diagram
All variables, summing points and take off points are represented by nodes.
If a summing point is placed before a take off point in the direction of signal
flow, in such a case the summing point and take off point shall be
represented by a single node.
If a summing point is placed after a take off point in the direction of signal
flow, in such a case the summing point and take off point shall be represented
by separate nodes connected by a branch having transmittance unity

Mason’s Gain Formula
A technique to reduce a signal-flow graph to a single transfer function.
Transfer function, C (s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph:
P
C (s) k Pk ∆k
G (s) = =
R(s) ∆
▶ k = number of forward path
▶ Pk = the Pkth forward path gain
P
▶ ∆ = (1 - P loop Gain) + ( gain products of all possible two non-touching
loops) - ( gain products of all possible three non-touching loops) + ..
▶ ∆k = 1 - (loop-gain which does not touch the forward path)
Systematic approach
1 Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.
2 Calculate all loop transfer functions
3 Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4 Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5 Calculate ∆ from steps 2, 3, 4.
6 Calculate ∆i as portion of ∆ not touching forward path i
Example:1
Example1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system
represented by following Signal Flow Graph
There are two Forward Paths:

P1 = G1 G2 G4 P2 = G1 G3 G4
Therefore,
C (s) P1 ∆1 + P2 ∆2
=
R(s) ∆

There are three feedback loops
L1 = G1 G4 H1 , L2 = −G1 G2 G4 H2 , L3 = −G1 G3 G4 H2
There are no non-touching loops, therefore,
∆ = 1 − (sum of all individual loop gain)

∆ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 )
∆ = 1 − (G1 G4 H1 − G1 G2 G4 H2 − G1 G3 G4 H2 )

Eliminate forward path-1
∆1 = 1 − (sum of all individual loop gain) + ... = 1
∆2 = 1 − (sum of all individual loop gain) + ... = 1
C (s) P1 ∆1 + P2 ∆2
=
R(s) ∆
G1 G2 G4 + G1 G3 G4
=
1 − G1 G4 H1 + G1 G2 G4 H2 + G1 G3 G4 H2
G1 G4 (G2 + G3 )
=
1 − G1 G4 H1 + G1 G2 G4 H2 + G1 G3 G4 H2

Example 2
Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system represented
by following Signal Flow Graph
Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 (Path - 1) P2 = G5 G6 G7 G8 (Path - 2)

Calculate all loop gains.
L1 = G2 H2 , L2 = H3 G3 L3 = G6 H6 L4 = G7 H7
Consider two non-touching loops
L1 L3 , L1 L4 , L2 L4 , L2 L3
Calculate ∆
∆ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + (L1 L3 + L1 L4 + L2 L3 + L2 L4 )
∆ = 1 − (G2 H2 + H3 G3 + G6 H6 + G7 H7 )
+(G2 H2 G6 H6 + G2 H2 G7 H7 + H3 G3 G6 H6 + H3 G3 G7 H7 )
∆1 = 1 − (L3 + L4 )
∆1 = 1 − (G6 H6 + G7 H7 )
∆2 = 1 − (L1 + L2 )
∆2 = 1 − (G2 H2 + G3 H3 )

C (s) P1 ∆1 + P2 ∆2
=
R(S) ∆
C (s) a(1 − c) + b(1 − d)

=
R(S) 1−e +f
a = G1 G2 G3 G4
b = G5 G6 G7 G8
c = G6 H6 + G7 H7
d = G2 H2 + G3 H3
e = G2 H2 + H3 G3 + G6 H6 + G7 H7
f = G2 H2 G6 H6 + G2 H2 G7 H7 + H3 G3 G6 H6 + H3 G3 G7 H7

Example 3
Obtain Transfer Function.
Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 (Path - 1) P2 = G1 G5 (Path - 2)

Calculate all loop gains.
L1 = −G1 G2 H3 , L2 = −G2 G3 H2 L3 = −G4 H1 L4 = G5 H1 H2
Consider two non-touching loops: L1 L3
Calculate ∆
∆ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + (L1 L3 )
∆ = 1 − (−G1 G2 H3 − G2 G3 H2 − G4 H1 + G5 H1 H2 ) + (G1 G2 G4 H1 H3 )
∆1 = 1−0
∆2 = 1−0
C (s) P1 ∆1 + P2 ∆2 a+b
= =
R(S) ∆ 1−c
a = G1 G2 G3 G4
b = G1 G5
c = G1 G2 H3 + G2 G3 H2 + G4 H1 − G5 H1 H2 + G1 G2 G4 H1 H3
Example 4
Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system represented
by following Signal Flow Graph

Obtain Total number of forward paths:
P1 = G1 G5 G6 G7 G8 P2 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G8
Obtain total number of single loops:
L1 = −G6 H6 L2 = −G3 H3
Obtain Total Number of two non-touching loops:
L1 L2 = G3 G6 H3 H6
Find out value of ∆1 , ∆2
∆1 = 1 + G3 H3 , ∆2 = 1 + G6 H6
C (s) G1 G5 G6 G7 G8 (1 + G3 H3 ) + G1 G2 G3 G4 G8 (1 + G6 H6 )
=
R(s) 1 + G3 H3 + G6 H6 + G3 G6 H3 H6

Block Diagram Minimization: Example 5

Steps for Block Diagram Minimization for Multiple Inputs
1 Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a
time and make the remaining inputs as zero.
2 Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
3 Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
GATE ECE 2015
By performing cascading and/or summing/differencing operations using transfer
function blocks G1 (s), G2 (s), one CANNOT realize a transfer function of form:
(A) G1 (s)G2 (s), (B) GG12 (s)
(s) , (C) 1 + G1 (s)G2 (s), (D) 1 - G1 (s)G2 (s)

GATE EE 2003
6 6S S(S+2) S(S+27)
(A) S 2 +29S+6 , (B) S 2 +29S+6 , (C) S 2 +29S+6 , (D) S 2 +29S+6
Solution
−3 6 −2
L1 = , L2 = −4 × , L3 = , P1 = 1
S S S
3 24 S+27
L1 , L3 are not touching forward path. So, ∆1 = 1 − L1 − L3 = 1 + S + S = S
C (S) P1 ∆1
=
R(S) 1 − Loop Gain + Pair of non-touching loops
S+27
S
= −2 −3
1 − − S3 − 24
S − 2
S + S × S
Solution
Note that although a unity feedback closed loop system is given, all SFGs are
for the plant transfer function only.
That SFG which does not represent H(s) is to be found out.
Note that loop gain that does not touch the forward path is 0 in all cases.
Therefore ∆1 = 1
P1 ∆1
H(s) = P P
1 − loop Gains + gain products of all possible two non-touching loops
Given that there is a 1 - part in the denominator, we rewrite
100
100 100 s3
H(s) = = =
1 − − 20 100

s(s + 10)2 s 3 + 20s 2 + 100s s − s2

Time Response Analysis
The time response of a system is the output response of the system as a

function of time.
The time response of a control system is usually divided into two parts:
Transient Response and Steady state Response
c(t) = ct (t) + css (t)
c(t) denote the time response of a continuous data system
Transient response: The transient response is defined as that part of the
time response that goes to zero as time tends to infinity.
lim Ct (t) = 0
t→∞
Steady state response: The steady state response is the part of the total
response that remains after the transient has died out.

Input Signals
Inputs to the system are not known ahead of time.

Input signals to some of the systems are random in nature
The actual signals which severely stain the a control system are
1 Sudden Shock
2 Sudden Change
3 Constant Velocity
4 Constant Acceleration
Hence the system dynamic behavior is analyzed under the application of
standard test signals
standard test Signals:
1 Impulse Signal (Sudden Shock)
2 Step Signal (Sudden Change)
3 Ramp Signal (Constant Velocity)
4 Parabolic Signal (Constant Acceleration)

Step Signal
The step is a signal whose value changes from one level (usually zero) to
another level A in zero time.
A
u(t) is called the unit step function. In the Laplace transform, U(s) = s
The mathematical representation of the step function is
r (t) = Au(t)
where u(t) = 1; t > 0
= 0; t < 0
Ramp Signal
The ramp is a signal which starts at zero and increases linearly with time:
r (t) = At; t > 0

= 0; t < 0
A
In the Laplace transform form,R(s) =
s2
Parabolic Signal
The parabolic function represents a signal that is represented as
At 2
Mathematically,r (t) = ;t > 0
2
= 0; t < 0
A
In the Laplace transform form, R(s) = s3
Impulse Signal
A unit impulse is defined as a signal which has zero value everywhere
except at t = 0, where its magnitude is infinite. It is generally called δ function.
Mathematically, r (t) = δ(t) = 1; t = 0

= 0; t ̸= 0
In the Laplace transform form, δ(s) = 1

Time Response of First Order System
Unit Step Response of First Order System

Transfer function of First Order System and unit step,
C (s) 1 1
= R(s) =
R(s) Ts + 1 s
Output response is given by

1 1 1 1
C (s) = . = −
s Ts + 1 s s + T1
By taking Laplace inverse C(s), we have
c(t) = u(t) − e −t/T

The initial slope of the output curve is given byt,
dc 1 1
|t=0 = e −t/T |t=0 =
dt T T
T is called the TIME CONSTANT
Time constant is indicative of how fast the system tends to reach the final
value.
A large time constant corresponds to a sluggish system
A small time constant corresponds to a fast response.

Error Response
The error response of the system is given by,
e(t) = r (t) − c(t) = e −t/T
The steady state error is given by,
ess = lim e(t) = 0

t→∞
Thus the first order system tracks the unit step input with zero steady state error.

Ramp Response of First Order System
The transfer function of a first order system is given by,
C (s) 1 1
= , R(s) = 2
R(s) Ts + 1 s
Therefore Output,
1 1 1 T T2
C (s) = 2 . = 2− +
s Ts + 1 s s 1 + Ts
By taking Laplace inverse C(s) we have,
c(t) = t − T (1 − e −t/T )
Let us differentiate the ramp response

dc 1
= 1 − T (0 − (− e −t/T ))
dt T
dc
= (1 − e −t/T ) (This is same as step response)
dt
Derivation of Steady State Error
Error Signal is given by

R(s)
E (s) = R(s) − E (s)G (s)H(s). E (s) =
1 + G (s)H(s)
If positive is used the expression is,
R(s)
E (s) =
1 − G (s)H(s)
In time Domain,
e(t) = L−1 E (s)
The steady state error is denoted by ess and it is given by
ess = lim e(t)

t→∞
Use of final Value theorem in Laplace transformation ,
lim y (t) = lim sY (s) = lim sC (s)

t→∞ s→0 s→0
sR(s)
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
The steady state error is dependent on two factor,

1 Type of input - R(s)
2 Type of system - G(s) H(s)
Static Error coefficient
The difference between the steady state response and desired response gives
the steady state error.
The control system has following steady state error for changes in position,
velocity and acceleration.
1 Kp = Position error Constant
2 Kv = Velocity error Constant
3 Ka = acceleration error Constant
These error constant are called Static error Coefficients
They have the ability to minimize the steady state error
Steady state error for three type of input,
1 Step
2 Ramp
3 Parabolic

Step Input
A step input of magnitude ’A’ is applied as a input of system.
r (t) = A for t>0

r (t) = 0 for t < 0
A
Laplace Transform of Step input is, R(s) = s
Error,
R(s) A
E (s) = But R(s) =
1 + G (s)H(s) s
A
s
∴ E (s) =
1 + G (s)H(s)
The Steady state error given by,
ess = lim sE (s) (1)

s→0

Using Equation (1),
s · As
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
A
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
A
ess =
1 + lims→0 G (s)H(s)
Term Position error Coefficient (Kp ) which is defined as,
Kp = lim G (s)H(s)
s→0
A
∴ ess =
1 + Kp

Ramp Input
A ramp input of magnitude ’A’ is applied as a input of system.
r (t) = At for t≥0

r (t) = 0 for t < 0
A
Laplace Transform of Ramp input is, R(s) = s2
Error,
A
s2
∴ E (s) =
1 + G (s)H(s)
Using Equation (1),
s · sA2
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)

A
s
ess = lim
1 + G (s)H(s)
s→0
A
ess = lim
s→0 s + s · G (s)H(s)
A
ess =
lims→0 s + lims→0 s · G (s)H(s)
A
ess =
lims→0 s · G (s)H(s)
Term Velocity error Coefficient (Kv ) which is defined as,
Kv = lim s · G (s)H(s)
s→0
A
∴ ess =
Kv

Parabolic Input
A parabolic reference input of slope ’A/2’ is applied as a input of system.
A 2
r (t) = t for t ≥ 0
2
r (t) = 0 for t < 0
A
Laplace Transform if Parabolic input is, R(s) = s3
Steady State Error
s · sA3
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
A
s2
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
A
ess = lim 2
s→0 s + s 2 · G (s)H(s)
A
ess =
lims→0 s 2 + lims→0 s 2 · G (s)H(s)

But,
lim s 2 = 0
s→0
A
ess =
lims→0 s 2 G (s)H(s)
Term acceleration error Coefficient (Ka ) which is defined as,
Ka = lim s 2 · G (s)H(s)
s→0
A
∴ ess =
Ka

Relation Between Steady State Error and Type of System
Type of system means number of poles present at the origin of open loop
transfer function G(s) H(s) of a system.
The general form of transfer function is given by,
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)

G (s)H(s) = j
s (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
’j’ = number of poles at origin.

For Example, if j = 0 it is TYPE 0 System,
if j = 1 it is TYPE 1 and So on.

Error for a Step Input
Error for a step input,
A
ess = , Kp = lim G (s)H(s)
1 + Kp s→0
Now Lets find out Kp for Type 0, Type 1 and Type 2 system.
▶ TYPE ZERO:
▶ Here j = 0
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)

G (s)H(s) =
(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
Kp = lim G (s)H(s)
s→0
K (1)....
Kp = =k
1·1·1
A A
∴ ess = =
1 + Kp 1+k
▶ A type zero system has a finite steady error to a step input.

▶ TYPE ONE:
▶ Here j = 1,
1 k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)
G (s)H(s) = ·
s (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
Kp = lim G (s)H(s)
s→0
1
Kp = =∞
0
A A
∴ ess = = =0
1 + Kp 1+∞
▶ A type one system tracks a unit step input without steady state error.
▶ TYPE TWO:
▶ Here j = 2,
1 k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)
G (s)H(s) = 2
·
s (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
1
Kp = = ∞
0
A A
∴ ess = = =0
1 + Kp 1+∞
▶ it is clear that all higher type system except zero have KP = ∞ hence
A
ess = 1+K p
is zero.
Error for a Ramp Input
Error for a Ramp input,

A
ess = , Kv = lim s · G (s)H(s)
Kv s→0
Now Lets find out Kv for Type 0, Type 1 and Type 2 system.
▶ TYPE ZERO:
▶ Here j = 0
s→0

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...
kv = lim s · =0
s→0 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...
A
∴ ess = =∞
Kv

▶ TYPE ONE:
▶ Here j = 1,
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)
G (s)H(s) =
s · (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
s→0
∴ Kv = k
A A
∴ ess = =
Kv k
▶ A type one system tracks a ramp input without steady state error.
▶ TYPE TWO:
▶ Here j = 2,
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)

G (s)H(s) = 2
s · (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
s→0
∴ Kv = ∞
A
∴ ess = =0
Kv

Error for a Parabolic Input
Error for a Parabolic Input,

A
ess = , Ka = lim s 2 · G (s)H(s)
Ka s→0
Now Lets find out Ka for Type 0, Type 1 and Type 2 system.
▶ TYPE ZERO:
▶ Here j = 0
s→0

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...
ka = lim s 2 · =0
s→0 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...
A
∴ ess = =∞
Ka

▶ TYPE ONE:
▶ Here j = 1,
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)

G (s)H(s) =
s · (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
Ka = s 2 · lim G (s)H(s)
s→0
∴ Ka = 0
A
∴ ess = =∞
Ka
▶ TYPE TWO:
▶ Here j = 2,
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)

G (s)H(s) =
s 2 · (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
s→0
∴ Ka = k
A
∴ ess = =K
Ka

Example 1
A type two system has zero at s = -2. write transfer function.
Soln:
In general Form,
K (1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)....(1 + Tm s)
G (s)H(s) = j
s (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)....(1 + Tn s)
Here type of system is 2 i.e. j = 2 and zero at s = -2.
K (s + 2)
∴ G (s)H(s) = ....H(s) = 1
s2
K (s+2)
C (s) G (s) s2
∴ = =
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s) 1 + k(s+2)
s2 ·1
k(s + 2)
∴= 2
s + k(s + 2)

Reduction of steady state error can be done by:
1 Decreasing the value of K
2 Increasing the type of the system
Disadvantages of static Error Coefficient Method
1 They can be used only for three standard test inputs. They cannot give error
for inputs other than these.
2 Only extreme values of error that means ’0’ and ’∞’ are specified. The exact
value of error is not specified.
3 This method is applicable only to the stable systems not to unstable systems.
4 This method is applicable only to the config-

uration as show in fig. in which error con-
stants are defined for the loop transfer func-
tion G (s) × H(s).
5 When the configuration is different then it is necessary to establish the

expression for error signal and apply final value theorem directly without using
error coefficients.

Example 2
20
The Control system having unit Feedback has G (s) = s·(1+4s)(1+s) determine
1 Different static error coefficients
t2
2 Steady state error in input r (t) = 2 + 4t + 2
3 how to reduce the steady state error?
Soln:
Kp = Position Error Constant,
20
Kp = lim G (s)H(s) = lim =∞
s→0 s→0 s · (1 + 4s)(1 + s)
Kv = Velocity Error Constant,

20
Kv = lim s · G (s)H(s) = lim s · = 20
s→0 s→0 s · (1 + 4s)(1 + s)

Ka = Acceleration Error Constant,
2 20
2
Ka = lim s · G (s)H(s) = lim s · =0
s→0 s→0 s · (1 + 4s)(1 + s)
∴ Ka = 0
t2
r (t) = 2 + 4t + 2,
2 4 1
L{r (t)} = R(s) = + 2+ 3
s s s
sR(s) sR(s)
ess = lim = 20
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s) 1 + s·(1+4s)(1+s)
s 2 · R(s)(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
= lim
s→0 s(1 + 4s)(1 + s) + 20
2 4 1
2
+ 2 + 3 (1 + 4s)(1 + s) · s
= lim s s s
=∞
s→0 s(1 + 4s)(1 + s) + 20
Steady state error is reduced by increasing the type of the system.

Example 3
k(1+2s)
For the following type of system G (s) = s(1+s)(1+0.4s) 2 . Find value of k to
limit the steady state error to 10% for input t.

▶ Soln
sR(s) 1
ess = lim , R(s) = L{t} =
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s) s2
s · s12
∴ ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
1
s 1
= k(1+2s)
=
1+ k
(1+s)(1+0.4s)2
▶But, ess = 10% i.e 0.1

∴ 0.1 = k1 ∴ k = 10

Example 4
Evaluation of the error series for a unit feedback system having a forward
50
path transfer function G (s) = s(s+10) , Estimate the steady state error of the
system for the input r(t) given by, r (t) = 1 + 2t + t 2
▶ Soln:
50 1 2 2
▶ G (s) = s(s+10) , R(s) = s
+ s2
+ s3
▶ steady state error,
s · R(s)
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
s · R(s) · s(s + 10)

= lim
s→0 s(s + 10) + 50
1 2 2

s · s + s 2 + s 3 · s(s + 10)
=
s 2 + 10s + 50
=∞

Example 5
A Type-3 unity feedback system has r (t) = t 3 applied to its input. find the
steady state position error for this input if the forward transfer function is,
1000(s 2 + 4s + 20)(s 2 + 20s + 15)

G (s) =
s 3 (s + 2)(s + 10)
▶ Soln
3! 6
▶ Assume, H(s) = 1, And R(s) = s 3+1
= s4
▶ Steady State Error,
6
s· s4
ess = lim 100(s 2 +4s+20)(s 2 +20s+15)
s→0 1+ s 3 (s+2)(s+10)
6
· s 3 (s + 2)(s + 10)
s3
= lim 3
s→0 s (s + 2)(s + 10) + 1000(s 2 + 4s + 20)(s 2 + 20s + 15)
120
=
300000
∴ = 4 × 10−4 rad = 400 µrad

Analysis of Second Order System
Damping Ratio: The damping is measured by a factor called as damping

ratio. it is denoted by ′ ζ ′ (zeta).
Natural Frequency of Oscillation: When ′ ζ ′ is zero; that means there is no
opposition to the oscillatory behaviour of a system then the system will
oscillate naturally. this is called natural frequency of oscillation
Close loop Transfer Function
C (s) ωn2
= 2
R(s) s + 2ζωn s + ωn2

Poles of Closed Loop Transfer Function
These poles of transfer function is given by, s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0

p
−2ζωn ± (2ζωn )2 − 4(ωn )2
∴s=
p2
∴ s = −ζωn ± ωn ζ 2 − 1
The Poles are:

p
1 Real and Unequal if ζ 2 − 1 > 0
∴ i.e ζ > 1 . They
plie on real axis and distinct.
2 Real and Equal if ζ 2 − 1 = 0
∴ i.e ζ = 1p. They are repeated on real axis.
3 Complex if ζ 2 − 1 < 0
∴ i.e ζ < 1 . They are in second and third quadrants.
The factor ζ is very important and plays a vital role in the response. it is
called as Damping Factor

Relation between ζ and Pole Location
Once the value of ζ is known then the pole locations can be calculated. Lets
consider different cases as follows
Case 1: 0 < ζ < 1
▶ The Poles are Complex and conjugates of each other. the poles are given by,
p
s1 , s2 = −ζωn ± jωn ζ 2 − 1
▶ The Poles are located on the second and third quadrants of s - Plane as both
real and imaginary parts exits.
▶ The response is said to be Underdamped
Case 2: ζ = 1
▶ The Poles are real, equal and are given as s1 = s2 = −ζωn
▶ They lie on negative X-axis (σ-axis) as imaginary part is zero and are repeated.
▶ The response is said to be Critically damped

Case 3: ζ > 1
▶ The Poles are real and unequal. They are given by,
p
s1 , s2 = −ζωn ± ωn ( ζ 2 − 1)
▶ since ζ > 1, there is no imaginary term, and the poles lie in + σ axis and lie at
unequal places.
▶ The response is said to be Overdamped
Case 4: ζ = 0
▶ The Poles are complex with any imaginary part. Hance they lie on jω axis and
are conjugates √
of each other.The poles are given by,
s1 = s2 = ±ωn −1 = ±jωn
▶ The response is said to be Undamped

Derivation of unit step response of Second order System
Case 1: Underdamped case (0 < ζ < 1)
1 ωn2
C (s) = · 2
s s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
This equation to be solved by Laplace partial fractions.

1 s + 2ζωn
∴ C (s) = − 2
s s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
1 s + ζωn ζωn
∴ C (s) = − − (1)
s (s + ζωn )2 + ωn2 − ζ 2 ωn2 (s + ζωn )2 + ωn2 − ζ 2 ωn2
1 s + ζωn ζωn
∴ C (s) = − − (2)
s (s + ζωn )2 + ωd2 (s + ζωn )2 + ωd2
where ωd2 = ωn2 (1 − ζ 2 )

ωd is called damped natural frequency and ωn is called undamped natural
frequency

s +a
L−1 2 2
= e −at
cos dt
(s + a) + d

−1 d −at −1 1
L =e sin dt and L =1
(s + a)2 + d 2 s
Using above formula in equation (2)

−1 s + ζωn −ζωn t
L 2 2 = e cos ωd t
(s + ζωn ) + ωd

−1 ζωn ζωn −1 ωd ζωn −ζωn t
L = ·L = ·e sin ωd t
(s + ζωn )2 + ωd2 ωd (s + ζωn )2 + ωd2 ωd
ζωn
But ωd2 = ωn2 (1 − ζ 2 ) thus the term ωd becomes √ ζ
1−ζ 2
Thus the total Laplace inverse can be written as
" #
−ζωn t ζ
∴ c(t) = 1 − e cos ωd t + p sin ωd t
1−ζ 2
e −ζωn t p
∴ c(t) = 1 − p · 1 − ζ 2 · cos ωd t + (sin ωd t) · ζ
1 − ζ2
Consider triangle as show in Fig.
p
cos α = ζ sin α = 1 − ζ 2
e −ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − p (sin α cos ωd t + cos α sin ωd t)
1−ζ 2
we know, sin A cos B + cos A sin B = sin(A + B)

e −ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − p · sin(ωd t + α) (4)
1−ζ 2
But we have,
p
sin α 1 − ζ2
= tan α =
cos α ζ
p
−1 1 − ζ2
∴ α = tan
ζ
now putting this value in equation (4), we get,
p !
−ζωn t
e −1 1 − ζ2
c(t) = 1 − p · sin ωd t + tan (5)
1− ζ2 ζ
The response has a sine term multiplied by an exponential decaying as it has
negative coefficient. Result is sinusoidal decaying on an exponential envelope.
Response overshoots reference and oscillates before settling to the final value.
Underdamped systems, Thus we have 0 < ζ < 1 and exhibit overshoots.
Poles-location is in 2nd and 3rd quadrants for this response.
Same way we can derive Unit step response for Critically damped ζ = 1,
c(t) = 1 − ωn e ζωn t · t − e −ζωn t = 1 − e ζωn t [1 + ωn t]
Unit step response for Overdamped ζ > 1,
√ √
−(ζωn +ωn ζ 2 −1)t −(ζωn −ωn ζ 2 −1)t
c(t) = 1 − M · e −N ·e
where M and N are Constant.
Transient Response
Derivation of performance indices

Now we have equation (5):
p !
−ζωn t
e −1 1 − ζ2
c(t) = 1 − p · sin ωd t + tan
1− ζ2 ζ

1 Delay Time (td ): It is time required for the response to reach 50 % of the
final value in the first attempt.
1
at t = td
c(t) =
2 !
p
1 e −ζωn td −1 1 − ζ2
∴ =1− p · sin ωd td + tan
2 1−ζ 2 ζ
Solution of this equation beyond the syllabus. The result is,

1 + 0.7ζ
td =
ωn
Settling Time (ts ): It is the time required for the response curve to reach
and stay within a specified percentage (usually 2 % or 5%) of the final value.
4
ts =
ζωn

1 Rise Time (tr ): It is time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%
of the final value for overdamped systems. (It is 0 to 100% for underdamped
systems)
▶ As system is Underdamped, t = tr and c(t) = 1
p !
−ζωn tr
e 1−ζ 2
∴1=1− p · sin ωd tr + tan−1
1 − ζ2 ζ
p !
−ζωn tr
e 1−ζ 2
0= p · sin ωd tr + tan−1
1 − ζ2 ζ
▶ as e −ζωn tr ̸= 0,
p !
−1 1 − ζ2
∴ sin ωd tr + tan =0
ζ
p
1 − ζ2
i.e. ωd tr + tan−1 =0
ζ
▶ OR
√
1−ζ 2
− tan−1 ζ
tr =
ωd

▶ let us define a parameter,
"p #
−1 1 − ζ2
β = tan
ζ
" p #
−1 ωn 1 − ζ2
= tan
ζωn

d
= tan−1
ζn
▶ By Using this fig.

−β
tr =
ωd
▶ Note that β is in radians
π−β
∴ tr = sec
ωd

1 Peak Time (tp ): It is the time required for the response to reach the first
peak.
We have equation,
p !
e −ζωn t 1 − ζ2
c(t) = 1 − p · sin ωd t + tan−1
1 − ζ2 ζ
e −ζωn t
∴ c(t) = 1 − p · sin(ωd t + β)
1−ζ 2
As at t = tp , c(t) will reach at its maximum thus the differentiation of c(t)

w.r.t zero give maxima.
" #
−ζωn t −ζωn t
dc e (ζωn ) sin(ωd t + β) e ωd cos(ωd t + β)
=0− p + p
dt 1−ζ 2 1 − ζ2
dc
setting dt |t=tp =0

e −ζωn t (ζωn ) sin(ωd t + β) e −ζωn t ωd cos(ωd t + β)
∴− p − p =0
1−ζ 2 1−ζ 2
▶ i.e ζωn sin(ωd tp + β) − ωd cos(ωd tp + β) = 0

p
∴ Put ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
p
∴ ζωn sin(ωd tp + β) − ωn 1 − ζ 2 cos(ωd tp + β) = 0
p
1 − ζ2
∴ tan(ωd tp + β) =
ζ
▶ Now,
√
−1 1−ζ
β = tan
ζ
√
1−ζ
∴ tan β =
ζ
∴ tan(ωd tp + β) = tan β
▶ From trigonometric identities
tan(nπ + θ) = tan θ ∴ ωd tp = nπ
1

▶ Thus,
nπ
tp = n = 1, 2, 3......
ωd
▶ Thus successive peak times are known. The first peak occurs for n = 1.
π
tp = p
ωn 1 − ζ 2
▶ n = 2, we get 1st undershoot, n = 3, 2nd undershoot and so on.

1 Peak Overshoot(Mp ): The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value
of the response curve measured from unity. It is therefore largest error
between input and output during the transient period.
▶ The Value of Mp is given by,
Mp = c(t)|t=tp − 1
▶ we have,
e −ζωn tp
c(t)|t=tp =1− p sin(ωd tp + β)
1−ζ 2

▶ Put ωd tp = π (Relation for tP )
e −ζωn tp
∴ Mp = − p sin(π + β)
1−ζ 2
▶ But, sin(π + β) = − sin β

e −ζωn tp
∴ Mp = p sin β
1−ζ 2
p
sin β = 1 − ζ2
e −ζωn tp p
∴ Mp = p · 1 − ζ2
1 − ζ2
−ζωn tp −ζωn ωπ
=e =e d
p
▶ Put, ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
−ζ π
∴ Mp =e p
1 − ζ2
▶ Normally Mp is expressed in percentage.
!
√−ζπ
1−ζ 2
Mp % = 100 × e
Example 1
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given
25
by, G (s) = s(s+5) . Obtain maximum overshoot, peak overshoot , rise time
and setting Time.
▶ Soln:
25
▶ G (s) = s(s+5)
H(s) = 1
C (s) G (s) 25
∴ = = 2
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s) s + 5s + 25
▶ Standard equation for Second Order system is
s 2 + 2ζωs + ωn2 = s 2 + 5s + 25 = 0, ∴ ωn = 5
2ζωn = 5, ∴ ζ = 0.5
"p #
p π 1 − ζ2
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 = 4.330, tp = = 0.725 sec, β = tan 1
= 1.04
ωd ζ

π − 1.04 4 √ζπ =16.30%
1−ζ 2
tr = √ = 0.485 sec, ts = = 1.6sec, Mp % = 100 e
5 1 − 0.25 ζωn

Example 2
A series RLC circuit has R = 1 Ω, L = 1 H and C = 1F. what is the damping

ratio of the circuit?
▶ Soln:
▶ R = 1 Ω, L = 1 H and C = 1F.
▶ For RLC series circuit, the characteristic equation is,
R 1
s2 + s + =0
L LC
s2 + s + 1 = 0
▶ compare with, s 2 + 2ζωs + ωn2 = 0
∴ ωn = 1, 2ζωn = 1
∴ ζ = 0.5

Example 3
A Control system is composed of components whose transfer function are
those specified in the block diagram. at what frequency dose the output
variable oscillate in responding to a unit step input, before reaching steady
state?
▶ Soln:
10
▶ G (s) = s(s+2)
, H(s) = 1
10
C (s) s(s+2)
∴ = 10
R(s) 1 + s(s+2)
10
=
s 2 + 2s + 10
▶ ωn2 = 10 ∴ωn = 3.16 rad/s
▶ 2ζωn = 2p ∴ζ = 0.316
▶ ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 = 2.99 rad/s
Example 4
Measurements conducted on a servo mechanism show the system response to
be, c(t) = 1 + 0.2e −60t − 1.2e −10t when subjected to a unit step input.
Obtain the expression for closed loop transfer function, the damping ratio
and undamaged natural frequency of oscillations.
▶ Soln:
▶ c(t) = 1 + 0.2e −60t − 1.2e −10t ,
▶ Tacking Laplace transfer function of c(t),
C (s) = 1s + s+60
0.2 1.2
− s+10 R(s) = 1s
1 0.2 1.2
C (s) s
+ s+60
− s+10 0.2s 1.2s
= 1
=1+ −
R(s) s
s + 60 s + 10
s 2 + 70s + 600 + 0.2s 2 + 2s − 1.2s 2 − 72s 600
= =
s 2 + 70s + 600 s 2 + 70s + 600
▶ Compare with denominator term with s 2 + 2ζωn + ωn2
∴ ωn2 = 600, ωn = 24.495

2ζωn = 70
∴ ζ = 1.4288

Example 5
20(s+4)
The control system having unity feedback has, G (s) = s(s+2)(s 2 +2s+2) Determine
1 Different static error coefficients.
2 Steady State error if input r (t) = 6t + 23 t 2
▶ Soln:
▶ Position error constant,
Kp = lim G (s)H(s)
s→0
20(s + 4)
= lim
s→0 s(s + 2)(s 2 + 2s + 2)
=∞
▶ velocity error constant,
s→0
20(s + 4)
= lim s ·
s→0 s(s + 2)(s 2 + 2s + 2)
= 20

▶ Acceleration error constant,
s→0
20(s + 4)
= lim s 2 ·
s→0 s(s + 2)(s 2 + 2s + 2)
=0
▶ steady state error for r (t) = 6t + 23 t 2
6 3
R(s) = L{r (t)} = +
s2 s3
▶ steady state error given by,
s · R(s)
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
6 3

s s2 + s3
= lim 20(s+4)
s→0 1+ s(s+2)(s 2 +2s+2)
=∞

Example 6
The open loop transfer function of servo system with unity feedback is,
10
G (s) = s(0.1s+1) Determine
1 Different static error coefficients.
a2 2
2 Steady State error if input r (t) = a0 + a1 t + 2
t
▶ Soln:
Kp = lim G (s)H(s)
s→0
10
= lim
s→0 s(0.1s + 1)
=∞
▶ velocity error constant,
s→0
10
= lim s ·
s→0 s(0.1s + 1)
= 10

s→0
10
= lim s 2 ·
s→0 s(0.1s + 1)
=0
a2 2
▶ steady state error for r (t) = a0 + a1 t + 2
t
a0 a1 a2
R(s) = L{r (t)} = + 2 + 3
s s s
▶ steady state error given by,
s · R(s)
ess = lim
s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)
a0 a1 a2

s s + s2 + s3
= lim 10
s→0 1 + s(0.1s+1)
=∞

Example 7
A unity feedback system is characterized by the open loop transfer function
1
is, G (s) = s(0.5s+1)(0.2s+1
Determine steady state errors for unit step input, unit ramp input and unit
acceleration input.
▶ Soln:
Kp = lim G (s)H(s)
s→0
1
= lim =∞
s→0 s(0.5s + 1)(0.2s + 1)
▶ Steady state error for unit step input is given by
1
ess (t) =
1 + KP
1
= =0
1+∞
▶ Velocity error constant,
s→0
1
= lim s · =1
s→0 s(0.5s + 1)(0.2s + 1)
Steady state error for ramp step input is given by
1
ess (t) = =1
Kv
s→0
1
= lim s 2 ·
s→0 s(0.5s + 1)(0.2s + 1)
=0
▶ Steady state error for ramp step input is given by

1
ess (t) =
Ka
1
=
0
=∞

Example 8
C (s) 100
The closed loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is, R(s) = s 2 +15s+100
1 Delay Time
2 Rise Time
3 Peak Time
4 Settling Time
5 Maximum Peak Overshoot
▶ Soln:
▶ The given closed loop transfer function is,
C (s) 100
= 2
R(s) s + 15s + 100
▶ Compare closed loop TF with standard form of second order system
C (s) ωn2
= 2
R(s) s + 2ζωs + ωn2
▶ Natural Frequency;
ωn2 = 100 ∴ ωn = 10 rad/sec
▶ Damping Ratio:
2ζωn s = 15s ∴ ζ = 0.75
▶ Damped frequency of oscillations:
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 ∴ ωd = 6.61 rad/sec
▶ Delay Time:
1 + 0.7ζ 1 + 0.7(0.75)
Td = = = 0.135 sec
ωn 1
▶ Rise time:
p "p #
1 − ζ2 1 − (0.75)2
β = tan−1 = tan −1
= 0.711 rad
ζ 0.75
π−β π − 0.722
Tr = = = 0.365 sec
ωd 6.61
▶ Peak Time:
π π
Tp = = = 0.474 sec
ωd 6.61
▶ Settling Time:
4
Ts = 4 × T = = 0.533 sec
ζωd
▶ Maximum Peak Overshoot:
!
√ζπ =2.83%
1−ζ 2
Mp = 100 × e
Example 9
The closed loop transfer functions of certain second order unity feedback
control system is, CR(s)
(s) 8
= s 2 +3s+8 Determine the type of damping in the
system.
▶ Soln:
C (s) 8
= 2
R(s) s + 3s + 8
C (s) ωn2
= 2
▶ By comparing denominators of both

ωn2 = 8 ∴ ωn = 2.82 rad/sec
▶ Damping Ratio:
3
2ζωn s = 3s ∴ζ= = 0.53
2 × ωn
▶ Since , it is an ζ < 1, underdamped system.
Example 10
The closed loop transfer functions of certain second order unity feedback
control system is, CR(s)
(s) 2
= s 2 +4s+2 Determine the type of damping in the
system.
▶ Soln:
C (s) 2
= 2
R(s) s + 4s + 2
C (s) ωn2
= 2
▶ By comparing denominators of both

ωn2 = 2 ∴ ωn = 1.414 rad/sec
▶ Damping Ratio:
4
2ζωn s = 4s ∴ζ= = 1.41
2 × ωn
▶ Since , it is an ζ > 1, overdamped system.
Example 11 [IES EE 2014]
A unity feedback second order control system is characterized by the open

loop transfer function,
K
G (s) = , H(s) = 1
s(Js + B)
J = moment of inertia, B = damping constant and K = system gain

The transient response specification which is not affected by system gain
variation is,
(A) Peak Overshoot
(B) Rise Time
(C) Settling Time
(D) Time to peak overshoot

K
Given: G (s) = s(Js+B) , H(s) = 1
Characteristics equation is given by,
1 + G (s)H(s) = 0
Js 2 + Bs + K = 0
2 Bs K
∴s + + =0 (1)
J J
Characteristics equation for standard second-order system is given by,
s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0 (2)
On comparing equation (1) and (2), we get

r
K B
ωn = and 2ζωn =
J J
B 1
∴ζ= √
2 KJ
Peak overshoot is given by,

√−πζ
Mp = e 1−ζ 2
Since ζ depends on gain K so peak overshoot affected by K.

Rise time is given by,
π−θ
tr =
ωd
Sine ωd depends on gain K so rise time affected by K, settling time is given
by,
4 4 8J
ts = = B =
ζωn 2J
B
Settling time is independent of gain K so st will not be affected by K.

Hence, the correct option is (C).

Example 12 [GATE EC 2014 IIT]
The response of the system −3e 2t u(t), where u(t) is the unit step function,
is applied to a system with transfer function s−2
s+3 . If the initial value of the
output is -2, then the value of the output at steady state is− − − − −−
Y (s) s−2
Given: r (t) = −3e 2t u(t), H(s) = R(s) = s+3 and initial value of output is
-2.
−3
Taking Laplace transform of r (t), we get R(s) = s−2
Using final value theorem steady state output can be written as,
lim y (t) = lim sY (s)

t→∞ s→0

s −2 −3
Yss = lim = s
s→0 s +3 s −2
−3
lim = =0
s→0 s +3
Hence, the answer is 0

Example 13 [GATE EE 2011]
The response h(t) of a linear time invariant system to an impulse δ(t), under
initially relaxed condition is h(t) = e −t + e −2t . The response of this system
for a unit step input u(t),
(A) u(t) + e −t + e −2t
(B) (e −t + e −2t )u(t)
(C) (1.5 − e −t − 0.5e −2t )u(t)
(D) e −t δ(t) + e −2t u(t)
Given: Impulse response h(t) = e −t + e −2t
Transfer function of a system is Laplace transform of its impulse response.
H(s) = L(e −t + e −2t )

1 1
= +
s +1 s +2

C (s) 1 1
= = +
R(s) s +1 s +2
1
where R(s) = s

1 1 1
C (s) = R(s) · H(s) = +
s s +1 s +2
1 1
= +
s(s + 1) s(s + 2)

1 1 1 1 1
= − + −
s s +1 2 s s +2
1.5 1 0.5
= − −
s s +1 s +2
Step Response:

−1 1.5 1 0.5
c(t) = L − −
s s +1 s +2
= (1.5 − e −t − 0.5−t )u(t)
Hence, the correct option is (C)

Example 14 [GATE 2004]
Consider the following systems

1 1
System 1 : G (s) = , System 2 : G (s) =
(2s + 1) (5s + 1)
The true statement regarding the system is,

(A) Bandwidth of system 1 is greater than the bandwidth of system 2.
(B) Bandwidth of system 1 is lower than the bandwidth of system 2.
(C) Bandwidth of both the systems are the same.
(D) Bandwidth of both system are infinite.

1 1
Given: System 1 : G (s) = (2s+1) , System 2 : G (s) = (5s+1)
For first order system, bandwidth is reciprocal of time constant. Standard
representation of first order system is given by,
1
G (s) = where τ = time Constant
τs + 1
1
G (s) = , τ = 2 sec
(2s + 1)
1 1
BW (system 1) = =
τ 2
1
G (s) = , τ = 5 sec
(5s + 1)
1 1
BW (system 2) = =
τ 5
Bandwidth (system 1) is greater than bandwidth (system 2).
Hence, the correct option is (A).

Example 15 [ESE EE 2014]
The unit impulse response of a system given as c(t) = −4r −t + 6e −2t . The
step response of the same system for t ≥ 0 equal to,
(A) 3e −2t + 4e −t + 1
(B) −3e −2t + 4e −t + 1
(C) −3e −2t + 4e −t − 1
(D) 3e −2t − 4e −t + 1
Given: c(t) = −4e −t + 6e −2t
Step response can be calculated as,
Z
Step response = (−4e −t + 6e −2t )dt
Step response = 4e −t − 3e −2t + C
At t = 0, step response is zero.
0=4−3+C
C = −1
Step response = 4e −t − 3e −2t − 1

Example 16 [GATE 2004]
1
A casual system having the transfer function H(s) = s+2 is is excited with
10u(t). The time at which the output reaches 99% of its steady state value is
(A) 2.7 sec

(B) 2.5 sec
(C) 2.3 sec
(D) 2.1 sec
1 10
Given: H(s) = s+2 , r (t) = 10u(t) = R(s) = s
10 5 5
C (s) = H(s)R(s) = = −
s(s + 2) s s +2
c(t) = 5[1 − e −2t ]
Steady state value = 5
99% of the steady value reaches at,
5 × 99
5[1 − e −2t ] =
100
∴ e −2t = 0.1
∴ −2t = ln(0.1)
t = 2.3 sec
Example 17 GATE 1991
25
A second-order system has transfer function given by G (s) = s 2 +8s+25 . If the
system, initially at rest, is subjected to a unit step input at t = 0, the second
peak in the response will occur at,
(A) π sec
(B) π/3 sec
(C) 2π/3 sec
(D) π/2 sec
∴ ωn2 = 25
∴ ωn = 5
2ζωn = 8, ∴ ζ = 0.8
p p
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ = 5 1 − (0.8)2 = 3
2
for 2nd peak n = 3

nπ 3π
tp = = = π sec
ωd 3
Answer is (A).
Example 18 GATE 1998
ω
If F (s) = s 2 +ω 2 , then the value of limt→∞ f (t), {where F (s) is the L[f (t)]}
(A) Cannot be determined
(B) is zero
(C) is unity
(D) is infinite
ω
Given: F (s) = s 2 +ω 2 ,
ω
F (s) = s 2 +ω 2 has poles s ± jω (pure imaginary) it is oscillatory function
hence final value limt→∞ f (t) can not be determined.

so, Answer is (A).

Stability Analysis

Stable system
A linear time invariant system is stable when

▶ the response of bounded input given to a system, is bounded and controllable.
▶ In the absence of the inputs, the output should tend to zero as time increases
▶ If input is absent, stability is called Asymptotic Stability.
▶ Also, in the absence of input, the response is governed by the system itself.
Unstable System
A linear time invariant system is unstable if

▶ The system is excited by a bounded input and output response is unbounded.
▶ once any input is given, system output goes on increasing and the designer
dose not have any control on it.
▶ when the location of roots of the characteristic equation i.e the system poles,
is in the right half part of s-plane, system is unstable.
Critically or Marginally Stable
When the input to a LTI system, for critically stable systems the output does
not go on increasing infinitely nor does it go to zero as time increases.
The output usually oscillates in a finite range or remains steady at a value.
Such systems are not stable as their response does not decay to zero. Neither
they are unstable because their output does not increase infinitely.
Relative Stability
The time at which system response decays to zero is important . In order to

check this, concept of Relative Stability is used.
When poles are located far away from jω axis in LHP of s-plane, the response
decays to zero much faster, as compared to the poles close to jω-axis.
The more the poles are located far away from jω-axis the more is the system
relatively stable.

Contrarily, system may be absolutely stable if the location of poles is close to
jω-axis, response may take a very large time to settle down.
System is said to be relatively more stable if settling time for that system is
less than that of the other system.
If the roots are located near jω-axis, settling time will be large.
As the roots are moved away from the jω-axis, settling time becomes smaller
and the system becomes more and more stable.

Stability Criterion
The actual characteristics equation is difficult to solve analytically. Hence
simple criterion are used to judge, the location of poles of a characteristics
equation with respect to left or right half of a s-plane without actually solving
the equation.
1 Routh’s Stability Criterion
2 Hurwitz Stability Criterion
for both criterion stated abovem it is necesssary that:
▶ All terms should have same sign, if root is to be in LHP.
▶ All powers of s must be present.
Hurwitz Criterion
For the transfer function:
C (s) b0 s m + b1 s m−1 + ... + bm N(s)
= =
R(s) a0 s n + a1 s n−1 + ... + an D(s)
The necessary and sufficient condition for the polynomial,
D(s) = a0 s n + a1 s n−1 + a2 s n−2 + · · · + an = 0

To have all Roots in the left half of s-plane is that the n sub-determinants
Dn , n = 1, 2, . . . , n of the Hurwitz determinant H should be positive,
a1 a3 a5
a a3
D1 = a1 , D2 = 1 , D3 = a0 a2 a4 Dn = H
a0 a2
0 a1 a3
For a stable system all the sub-determinants should be positive.
Disadvantages
▶ As the order of the system increases, it is difficult to solve the individual
determinants.
▶ How many such roots lie in RHP is not knowns.
▶ It is too difficult to predict marginal stability.
Example
Check the following system is stable or not s 3 + 8s 2 + 14s + 24 = 0.

Soln:
a1 a3 a5
Here, n = 3, ∴ H = 3 × 3 determinant = a0 a2 a4
0 a1 a3
8 24 0
8 24
∴H= 1 14 0 = D3 = 2112, D2 = = 88, D1 = 8 = 8,
1 13
0 8 24
As D1 , D2 and D3 are positive, system is stable.

Routh’s Stability Criterion
For the transfer Function
C (s) b0 s m + b1 s m−1 + ... + bm N(s)
= =
R(s) a0 s n + a1 s n−1 + ... + an D(s)
In this criterion, the coefficients of D(s) are arranged in any array called
Routh’s array.
For D(s) = a0 s n + a1 s n−1 + a2 s n−2 + ... + an = 0
The Routh’s array is an shown below:

sn a0 a2 a4 a6 . . .
sn−1 a1 a3 a5 a7 . . .
sn−2 b1 b2 b3 . . .
sn−3 c1 c2 c3 . . .
. .
. .
. .
s0 an

The Coefficients of s n and s n−1 rows are directly written from the given
equation. For next row i.e. s n−2 row.
sn a0 a2
b1 = a1 a2a−a
1
3 a0
⇒ s n−1
a1 a3 ,
sn−2 b1
sn a0 a2 a4
a1 a4 −a0 a5
b2 = a1 ⇒ sn−1 a1 a3 a5
sn−2 b2
sn a0 a2 a4 a6
a1 a6 −a0 a7
b3 = a1 ⇒ sn−1 a1 a3 a5 a7
sn−2 0 0 b3 0

Now the same technique is used, for the next row i.e. s n−3 row, but only
previous two rows are used i.e. s n−2 and s n−1 row.
sn a0 a2 a4 a6
sn−1 a1 a3 a5 a7
sn−2 b1 b2 b3 b4
b1 a3 −b2 a1 b1 a5 −b3 a1
c1 = b1 , c2 = b1
Each column will reduce by one as we move down the array. This process is
obtained, still s 0 row is obtained. The coefficient will be an for this row.
Routh’s Criterion:
▶ The necessary and sufficient conditions for a system to be stable is all terms in
the first column at Routh’s array should have the same sign.
▶ There should not be any sign change in the first column.
▶ When there are sign changes in first column of Routh’s array then the system
is unstable. There are roots in RHP.
▶ The number of Sign changes equals the number of roots in RHP.

Advantages of Routh’s criterion
It is simple algebraic method to determine the stability of closed loop without
solving for roots of higher order polynomial of the characteristics equation.
It is not tedious or time consuming since no evaluation if determinants.
It is frequently used to determine conditions of absolute and relative stability.
It can determine range of K (gain) for stable system.
It helps in finding out the pints intersection of root locus with imaginary axis.
Relative stability can easily be judge with the help of routh criterion.
In case of unstable system, routh criterion gives the number of roots of
characteristics equation having positive real part.
It is valid only for real coefficients of characteristic equation. Any coefficient
that is a complex number of contains exponential factors, the test fails.
Exact location of poles is not known.
Only idea is obtained about stability. A method to stabilize the system is not
suggested.
It is applicable only to the linear systems.

Routh’s Criterion Special Cases:
Case 1: ”When the first element of any row is zero and the rest of the row is
non-zero”. Here the next row cannot be formed as division by 0 takes place.
There are two ways of overcoming this Problem:
Method 1: Replace 0 by ϵ, as small positive number, and complete the array.
Take Limit as ϵ → 0 from positive side for each first column term and check
for sign changes.
1
Method 2: Replace s by z and complete the Routh’s test for z.

Example
Determine the stability s 5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + 3s + 5 = 0

s5 1 2 3
s4 1 2 5
s3 0(ϵ) -2 0
2ϵ+2
s2 ϵ 5
−4ϵ−4−5ϵ2
s1 2ϵ+2 0
s0 5
The Routh’s array shows that s 3 row breaks down. Replace 0 in column 1 of
s 3 row by ϵ and proceed with array.
Let ϵ → 0 from right side.

1
2ϵ + 2 2
lim = 2 + lim = +∞
ϵ→0 ϵ ϵ→0 ϵ
∴ sign is positive as ϵ → 0 from right
−4ϵ − 4 − 5ϵ2
∴ lim
ϵ→0 2ϵ + 2
The limiting value give = -2 and sign is negative.

There is sign change in s 1 row. Also from s 1 to s 0 row, one more sign change.
Total two sign changes, indicating two poles in RHP and hence instability.

Method 2:
Solution by Method 2 is done by replacing s by z1 , we get,
5 4 3 2
1 1 1 1 1
+ +2 +2 +3 +5=0
z z z z z
Take L.C.M,.
i.e. 5z 5 + 3z 4 + 2z 3 + 2z 2 + z + 1 = 0
z5 5 2 1
z4 3 2 1
z3 - 43 - 23
1
z2 2 1
z1 2
z0 1
Two sign changes in first column indicates two roots in RHP. Hence Unstable
System.
Case 2: ”When all elements in any one row are zero”
▶ Here from an auxillary equation with the help of the coefficients of the row
just above the row of zeroes.
▶ Take the derivative of this equation and replace it’s coefficients in the present
row of zeros.
▶ Then proceed for Routh’s test.
Auxillary equation
▶ Auxillary equation is next part of original equation i.e roots of characteristics
equation and auxillary equation is same.
▶ The stability can be judge from roots of auxillary equation rather then
characteristic equation.
▶ The remaining roots of characteristic equation must be in the left half of
s-plane. This roots do not play any role in the stability analysis.

Example
Determine the stability to s 6 + 2s 5 + 8s 4 + 12s 3 + 20s 2 + 16s + 16
The Routh’s array is,
s6 1 8 20 16
s5 2 12 16 0
s4 2 12 16 0
s3 0 0 0 0
s 3 row is zero,
Take auxillary equation for s 4 row.
A(s) = 2s 4 + 12s 2 + 16
dA
∴ = 8s 3 + 24s
ds
Completing array,

s6 1 8 20 16
s5 2 12 16 0
s4 2 12 16 0
s3 8 24 0
s2 6 16 0
s1 2.67 0
s3 16
No sign change: System is Stable.
Solving for auxiliary equation,
2s 4 + 12s 2 + 16 = 0,
√
2 −12 ± 144 − 128
s = = −3 ± 1 = −4, −2
√ 4
∴ s = ±j 2, ±j2
Non-repeated roots on jω-axis gives marginally stable system.

Example
Find the range of k for which the system, whose characteristics equation is
given below is sable.
F (s) = s 3 + (k + 0.5)s 2 + 4Ks + 50 = 0.
Soln:
From the given characteristic equation we get, Routh’s array is,
s3 1 4K
s2 K + 0.5 50
1 4K 2 +2K −50
s K +0.5 0
s0 50
For stability all elements in column 1 should be positive.

For s 2 row,
K + 0.5 > 0
∴ k > −0.5
For s 1 row,
4k 2 + 2k − 50
>0
k + 0.5
∴ 4k 2 + 2k − 50 > 0
∴ 2k 2 + k − 25 > 0
√
−1 ± 1 + 200
∴k =
4
K = 3.29, −3.79
∴ k > 3.29 and k > −3.79
For stable system, the range for K is,
3.29 < k < ∞

Example
Find how many roots have real parts greater than -1 for
s 3 + 7s 2 + 25s + 39 = 0.
Soln:
As roots are greater than s = -1 is asked puts s = x - 1.
∴ (x − 1)3 + 7(x − 1)2 + 25(x − 1) + 39 = 0,

i.e. x 3 − 3x(x − 1) − 1 + 7(x 2 − 2x + 1) + 25x − 25 + 39 = 0,
i.e. x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 1 + 7x 2 − 14x + 7 + 25x + 14 = 0,
x 3 + 4x 2 + 14x + 20 = 0.
The Routh’s array is,

x3 1 14
x2 4 20
x1 9 0
x0 20
Since no sign no root in new RHP. i.e. no Root to Right of -1 in s-plane of
original RHP.
Example
The Open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given
below. Apply Routh-Hurwitz criterion, determine the value of k in term of T1
and T2 for the stable system.
k
G (s) =
s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
Soln:
The characteristics equation is,
1 + G (s) · H(s) = 0
k
i.e. 1 + =0
s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 ) + k = 0
∴ (s + s 2 T1 )(1 + sT2 ) + k = 0
s + s 3 T1 T2 + s 2 T2 + s 2 T1 + k = 0
∴ s 3 T1 T2 + s 2 (T1 + T2 ) + s + k = 0

Routh’s array is as below,
s3 T1 T2 1
s2 T1 + T2 k
(T1 +T2 )−T1 T2 k
s1 T1 +T2 -
s0 k
For stable system, (T1 + T2 ) − T1 T2 k > 0 T1 + T2 > T1 T2 k
1 1
∴k < +
T2 T1
1 1
Range for stability, 0 < k < T1 + T2

Example
Check for stability s 5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + 3s + 15.

Soln:
Routh’s array is shown as
s5 1 2 3
For s 2 term: limϵ→0 2ϵ+12
ϵ =
s4 1 2 15 2 + limϵ→0 12ϵ =2+∞
For s 1 term: Simplifying
s3 ϵ -12 0 −24ϵ−144−15ϵ2
2ϵ+12
2 2ϵ+12 ϵ = 0 ∴ −144
12 = −12
s ϵ 15 1
Hence this s term becomes
( 2ϵ+12 negative
1 ϵ )(−12)−15ϵ
s 2ϵ+12
ϵ Since two sign change indicate
two roots in RHP.
s0 15

Example
The system with unity feedback having transfer function. Find number of
poles in LH of ’s’ plane , RH of ’s’ plane and on jω axis. Draw conclusion
about stability.
128
G (s) =
s(s 7 + 3s 6 + 10s 5 + 24s 4 + 48s 3 + 96s 2 + 128s + 192)
Soln:
The characteristic equation is,
1 + G (s)H(s) = 0, H(s) = 1
128
∴1+ 7 6 5 4 3 2
=0
s(s + 3s + 10s + 24s + 48s + 96s + 128s + 192)
∴ s 8 + 3s 7 + 10s 6 + 24s 5 + 48s 4 + 96s 3 + 128s 2 + 192s + 128 = 0

Routh array is,
s8 1 10 48 128 128
s7 3 24 96 192
s6 2 16 64 128
s5 0 0 0
s 5 row break down. Auxiliary equation for s 6 row is,
6 4 2 dA
A(s) = 2s + 16s + 64s + 128 = 0, = 12s 5 + 64s 3 + 128s
ds
Use these for s 5 row coefficients,

s8 1 10 48 128 128
s7 3 24 96 192
s6 2 16 64 128
s5 12 64 128
s4 5.33 42.66 128
s3 -32.04 -160.18
s2 16.01 128
s1 96.97 128
s0 128
Numbers of poles in Rh of ’s’ plane = Number of sign changes = 2

Number of poles is LH of ’s’ plane = 6
Number of poles on jω-axis = 0
As there are 2 sign changes, system is unstable.

Exampe GATE EE 2007
If the loop gain K of a negative feedback system having an open loop transfer
function K(s+8)
(s+3)
2 is to be adjusted to induce a sustained oscillation then,
(A) The Frequncy of this Osillation must be √43 rad/sec.

(B) The frequency of this oscillation must be 4 rad/sec.
(C) The frequency of this oscillation must be 4 or √43 rad/sec.
(D) Such a K does not exist.

Soln:
The characteristics equation is given by, 1 + G (s)H(s) = 0
K (s + 3)
1+ 2
=0
(s + 8)
s 2 + 16s + 64 + Ks + 3K = 0
s 2 + (16 + K )s + 64 + 3K = 0
Routh’s array:
s2 1 3K + 64
s1 16+K 0
s0 3K + 64
For sustained oscillation, there must be row of zeros. So,
16 + K = 0
K = −16
Since K cannot be negative for negative feedback system so oscillation is not

possible.
Hence, the correct option is (D).
Example
Find the range of k for stability of a unity feedback system. Also find kmax
and ωmax ,
k
G (s) =
2(s + 2)(s + 4)(s + 6)
Soln:
k
C (s) s(s+2)(s+4)(s+6)
= k
R(s) 1 + s(s+2)(s+4)(s+6)
k
=
s(s + 2)(s + 4)(s + 6) + k
k
= 4
s + 12s 3 + 44s 2 + 48s + k
The characteristic equation is s 4 + 12s 3 + 44s 2 + k

s4 1 44 k
s3 12 48 0
s2 40 k
1920−12k
s1 40 0
s0 k
For stability there should be no sign change 1992−12k

40 > 0 and k > 0
1920 − 12k > 0 or k < 160
combining both conditions 0 < k < 160 for stability.
k = 160 cross over at jω-axis take place, Hance Kmar = 160
For auxillary equation for row above, we get ωmar i.e row above the one from
where k is brought.
40s 2 + k = 0 or 40s 2 = −kmar

∴ 40s 2 = −160 or s 2 = −4, s = ±2j
∴ ω = ±2 rad/sec.

Example GATE 2008
The number of open right half plane poles of
10
G (s) = 5
s + 2s 4 + 3s 3 + 6s 2 + 5s + 3
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 3
s5 1 3 5
s4 2 6 3
s3 0(ϵ) 7 In the first column, there are two sign

2
changes occurs hence two poles lie in
6ϵ−7
s2 ϵ 3 the right half of s – plane.
(7/ϵ)(7/2)−3ϵ
1
s −7/ϵ
s0 3

Example GATE 2000
A system described by the transfer function,
1
H(s) = 3
s + αs 2 + ks + 3
stable. The constraints on α and k are,
(A) α > 0, αk <3
(B) α > 0, αk >3
(C) α < 0, αk >3
(D) α < 0, αk <3
Soln:
s3 1 k For system to be stable α > 0
s2 α 3 αk − 3
>0
α
αk−3
s1 α 0 ∴ αk > 3
s0 3 Answer (b).

Root Locus
The root–locus diagram is used to test the stability of a control system.

It is a graphical method to determine the actual values of the roots for
different values of gain or proportional sensitivity of the controller for the
characteristic equation of the system.
It is used to study the transient response of the system subjected to the
forcing function.
The path traced by the roots of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop
system as the gain K is varied from 0 to +∞ is called root locus.
By using root locus method, we can:
▶ Analysis the performance of the system
▶ Determine the structure and parameter of the system
▶ Design the compensator for control system.

Advantages
▶ The root locus can be used to describe qualitatively the performance of a
system as various parameters are changed.
▶ It gives a graphical representation of a system’s stability. Ranges of stability,
ranges of instability, and the conditions that cause a system break into
oscillation can also be seen from the root locus.
▶ The general shape of the root locus gives an idea of the type of controller or
compensator needed to meet the particular design criterion.
Disadvantage
▶ Root locus is unable to deal with more than one variable at a time, and the
difficulty with time delays.
What is a need of Root Locus method?

The Routh’s criteria is an algebraic method and can be used for polynomial
equation and it does not give the character of the response for different
values of the gain of the controller.
Whereas the root locus method is a graphical technique which gives the
values of the roots of the characteristic equation as one of the parameters the
gain of the controller is continuously changing.

In constructing the root loci, angle and magnitude conditions are important.
Consider the system shown in following figure,
The closed loop transfer function is,
C (s) G (s)
=
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s)

The characteristic equation is,
1 + G (s) · H(s) = 0
G (s) · H(s) = −1 = −1 + j0
= 1 ∠180◦
Since G (s)H(s) is a complex quantity it can be split into angle and

magnitude part.
i.e. |G (s) · H(s)| = 1

angle G (s) · H(s) = ±∠180◦
The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the
roots of the characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles.

General Method for Drawing Root Loci
When the system order is higher, k in not analytically solved for. Hence the
following steps are usually applied to get the root locus.
RULE 1 : The root locus is always symmetrical about the real i.e. x-axis.
RULE 2 : Number of loci
RULE 3 : Real axis loci
RULE 4 : Angle of asymptotes
RULE 5 : Center of asymptotes/Centroid
RULE 6 : Breakaway Point/ Saddle point
RULE 7 : Angle of arrival/departure
RULE 8 : jω crossover or Intersection of imaginary axis.

RULE 1 : The root locus is always symmetrical about the real axis i.e. x-axis.
RULE 2 : Number of loci:

▶ Let, n = Number of OLTF poles, m = Number of OLTF zeros.
▶ Case 1: (m < n):
In a majority of cases the number of poles is greater than the number of zeros.
The number of loci = Number of Poles = n
Each loci will start from an OLTF pole and end on OLTF zero. (n - m) loci
will end at infinity. Total loci = n.
▶ Case 2: (m > n): The number of loci = number of zeros = m
Each loci will start from an OLTF pole and end on OLTF zero. (m - n) loci
will end at these zeros from ∞, But this case is more academic and less found
practically.

Example 1
k(s+1)
For G (s) = s(s+2)(s+3) , H(s) = 1. find the number of loci.
Soln:
k(s + 1)
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
Here, n = 3, m = 1
∴ The number of loci = n = Number of poles = 3 (∴ m < n)
Number of loci ending at ∞ = n - m = 3 - 1 =2
Thus, since the poles are at s = 0, -2,-3
Three loci will start from s = 0,-2,-3
Once loci will end at s = -1 because system has zero at s = -1. Two loci will
end at ∞.

RULE 3 : Real axis loci:
▶ The root locus will pass through a point p if the number of (OLTF poles +
OLTF zeros) to the right of this point in odd.
K (s + 1)
G (s) = , H(s) = 1
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
▶ The poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) are plotted here,

▶ All points between s = 0 and s = -1 (not inclusive) has one pole at s = 0 (odd
number). Hence loci is there in this region. from s = 0 to s = -1 on negative
x axis.
▶ Between s = -1 and s = -2 (not inclusive), There are 2 number (one pole at s
= 0, zero at s = -1) to right of any point in this section. Hence loci absent in
this region.
▶ Loci is present between s = -2 and s = -3 (not inclusive) as there are 3
elements (2 poles at s = 0, -2 and 1 zero at s = -1) to it’s right.
▶ No loci on σ axis beyond s = -3 (as 3 poles at s = 0, -2, -3 and one zerp at s
= -1) are there.
RULE 4 : Angle of asymptotes:
▶ A Line which the root locus touchs at infinity is called asymptotes.
▶ The loci of those branches that move to infinity move along asymptotes.
▶ The number of asymptotes = n - m
▶ The angle of asymptote is given by,
(2x + 1)180◦
β=
n−m
⋆ x = 0,1,2...,n-m-1

▶ for the above example,
k(s + 1)
G (s) =
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
▶ Number of asymptotes = n - m = 2
(2x + 1)180◦
β= x = 0, 1, 2..., n − m − 1
n−m
(2x + 1)180◦
∴β=
2
▶ Here, x = 0,1
▶ ∴ β = 90◦ , 270◦
▶ Thus the three loci started from OLTF poles at s = 0,-2,-3
▶ Out of this one loci ended on OLTF zero at s = -1 and this branch is perfectly
okay. The two loci starting from s = -2 and -3 do not have any zero at real
-ve σ axis.

▶ so They must break the real axis and move out. that point is called
breakaway point.
▶ After breaking, they will be guided by asymptotes, which they should touch at
k=∞

RULE 5 : Center of asymptotes/Centroid:
▶ The aysmptote touches real axis at point called Centroid, σc .
Pn Pn
i=1 Real Part of poles of OLTF − i=1 Real part of zeros of OLFT
σc =
n−m
▶ The centroid σc and angle of asymptotes, fixes the location of asymptotes.
▶ for the above example, Real part of poles = -2, -3, 0 and zeros = -1.
P P
−(0 + 2 + 3) − (−1)
σc =
3−1
−5 + 1
σc = = −2
2

RULE 6 : Breakaway point:
▶ The point at which the root locus comes out of the real axis is called a
breakaway point.
▶ Conversely, the point at which the root locus enters the real axis is called
breakin point.

Finding the breakaway point:
▶ The characteristics equation is give by,
D(s) + kN(s) = 0
D(s)
∴k=−
N(s)
▶ Solving for dk
ds
= 0 gives breakaway point.
▶ Usually σb for k > 0 and k < 0 are obtained, the correct one is to taken after
finding out the real axis loci from Rule 2.
▶ for Ex.1,,
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
k=
s +1
s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s
k=
s +1
dk [(s + 1)(3s 2 + 10s + 6) − (s 3 + 5s 2 + 6s)(1)]
∴ =
ds (s + 1)2
i.e. 2s 3 + 8s 2 + 10s + 6 = 0

▶ Solve by synthetic division.
▶ form out problem, the value of σb will be between s = -2 and s = -3.
▶ Try s = -2.5
2 8 10 6
-2.5 -5 -7.5 -6.25
2 3 2.5 -0.25
▶ Try s = -2.4
2 8 10 6
-2.4 -4.8 -7.68 -5.57
2 3.2 2.32 -0.43
▶ As error changes from -0.25 to +0.43 changes of sign indicates root in
between -2.4 and - 2.5
▶ Try s = -2.45
2 8 10 6
-2.45 -4.9 -7.59 -5.89
2 3.10 2.41 0.11
▶ Here synthetic division, plus choosing the range from where σb is possible, has
given easy results. ∴ σb = −2.45.

RULE 7 : Angle of arrival/departure:
▶ The root locus arrives at a complex zero, here k = ∞.
▶ The root locus departs from a complex pole, here k = 0. These angles are
knows as angle of arrival and departure respectively.
▶ Angle of departure from poles, ϕD is given by,
′
◦
ϕD = 180 + arg GH
▶ same way angle of arrival, ϕA is given by,
′
◦
ϕA = 180 − arg GH
′
⋆ GH is angle of G (s) · H(s) excluding the pole where angle is calculated.

Example
find ϕD for,
k(s + 2)
G (s)H(s) = , k>0
(s + 1 + j)(s + 1 − j)
Soln:
ϕD for s = -1 + j term. Excluding from G(s) H(s)
′ k(s + 2)
GH = |s=−1+j
(s + 1 + j)
′ k(−1 + j + 2)
GH =
(−1 + j + 1 + j)
√
′ (1 + j) k∠0 2∠45◦
GH = k =
2j 2∠90◦
′
∴ arg GH = −45◦
′
∴ ϕD = 180 + avg GH = 180 − 45 = 135◦ .
◦

Example
find ϕA for at s = j for,
k(s + j)(s − j)
G (s)H(s) = , k >0
s(s + 1)
Soln:
′ k(s + j)(s − j)
GH = |s=−j
s(s + 1)
′ k(j + j)
GH =
j(j + 1)
′ k · 2j
GH =
j(j + 1)
′ 2k∠0◦
GH = √
2∠45◦
′
∴ arg GH = −45◦
′
∴ ϕA = 180 − avg GH = 180 − (−45) = 225◦ .
◦

RULE 8: jω crossover OR Intersection of imaginary axis.
▶ step 1: Consider the characteristics equation.
1 + G (s)H(s) = 0
▶ step 2: Apply Routh’s Array in terms of k.

▶ step 3: Determine Kmar
▶ step 4: Make auxiliary equation.
▶ step 5: Derive the auxiliary equation, roots of auxiliary are nothing but the jω
crossover points of intersection point of the root locus with imaginary axis.

Root Locus of Ex.1

Steps for solving problems on Root locus:
1 Find branch details like number of loci, loci ending at infinity. Apply Rule 2.
2 Plot the poles and zeros on s-plane.
3 Find real axis loci. Apply Rule 3. Draw real axis loci wherever present, by
dark lines.
4 Find the number of asymptotes and their angles. Apply Rule 4.
5 Find the center of asymptote. Apply Rule 5. Draw the results of step 4 and 5.
6 Find the breakaway or breakin point, if any. Apply Rule 6. Mark the point
only.
7 If any complex poles or complex zeros are present, find the angle of departure
of angle or arrival respectively. Apply Rule 7. Mark these angles (w.r.t. +ve
x-axis) at these poles and zeros.
8 If locus crosses jω-axis find value of jω crossover. Apply Rule 8.
9 Predict the stability of system.

Example Type-1: 3-Poles
Draw the root locus for the system given below and obtain value of k when
ζ = 0.6 from the root locus. Determine the value of k for marginal stability
and critical damping.
k
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 3)(s + 6)
Step 1: Obtain number of loci and loci ending at infinity.

▶ Number of poles = n = 3 and number of zeros = m = 0
▶ ∴ m < n, number of loci = n = 3 and Number of loci ending at infinity =
n−m =3
▶ Thus there are three root loci. All proceed to end at infinity.

Step 2: Draw the poles and zeros to suitable scale as show in Fig.1
Step 3: Find the real axis loci:

▶ Moving from origin on negative X-axis, root locus is present whenever the total
number of poles and zeros to out right is odd. According to real axis loci is:
1 Present between −3 < σ < 0
2 Absent between −6 < σ < −3
3 Present between −∞ < σ < −6

Rough Nature:
▶ There are 3 loci. They start from poles at s = 0, s = -3 and s = -6. As there
are no zeros in this example all will proceed to infinity along asymptotes.
▶ Between s = 0 and s = -3 real axis, two loci start towards each other. Hence
they must breakaway between 0 and -3. This seen from Fig. 1.
Step 4: Find number of asymptotes and their angles:
▶ Angle of asymptotes = β = (2X(n−m)
+1)×180
, x = 0,1,2
▶ ∴ β1 = 60◦ , β2 = 180◦ , and β3 = 300◦ ,
Step 5: Centroid:
Pn Pn
σc =
n−m
[−(0 + 3 + 6)] − 0
σc =
3
σc = −3

Step 6: Breakaway points:
D(s) −s(s + 3)(s + 6)

k =− =
N(s) 1
k = −(s 3 + 9s 2 + 18s)
dk
Now , =0
ds
0 = −(3s 2 + 18s + 18)
i.e. 0 = s 2 + 6s + 6
s = −4.73 & − 1.27
▶ Select the value of s where real axis loci from step 3 in present. Hence as real
axis loci is present between 0 and -3. s = -1.27 is accepted. similarly, s =
-4.73 is dropped for same.
▶ ∴ k = −[(−1.27)−3 + 9(−1.27)2 + 18(−1.27)] = 10.39
▶ ∴For critical damping value of k = 10.39

Step 7: Not needed, as no complex poles or zeroes are present.
Step 8: Intersection of imaginary axis:
▶ Characteristic equation is,
D + KN = 0
∴ s(s + 3)(s + 6) + k(1) = 0
∴ s 3 + 9s 2 + 18s + k = 0.
▶ Routh’s array,
s3 1 18
s2 9 k
s1 162−k
9
-
s1 k
▶ For stability,
162 − k
>0
9
∴ kmar = 162

▶ For s 2 row, equation is,
9s 2 + k = 0
∴ 9s 2 = −162
∴ s = ± 4.24 rad/sec

Information from Root Locus:
▶ Given, ζ = 0.6
▶ Draw line OA at cos−1 0.6 = 53.1◦ w.r.t negative X-axis. Note the
co-ordinates at the point of intersection J with OA.
▶ ∴ s = −1.2 + j1.6 which is similarly for θ = −53.13◦
▶ We get, s = −1.2 − 1.6j. Hence closed loop dominant poles are at
s − 1.2 ± j1.6
D(s)
k= |s=1.2+j1.6
N(s)
s(s + 3)(s + 2)
= |s=1.2+j1.6
1
∴ |k| = 8.616

Root Locus
15
10
Imaginary Axis (seconds -1 )
-5
-10
-15
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Real Axis (seconds -1 )
Example Type 2: 3 Poles, 1 Real and 2 complex
The open loop transfer function of a system is given below. Determine the
complete root locus and comment on the stability of the closed loop system.
k
G (s) · H(s) =
s(s + 2 + 2j)(s + 2 − 2j)
Soln:
Step 1: Obtain total number of loci:
▶ n=3 & m=0

▶ ∴ Number of loci = 3
Step 2: Draw the poles to suitable axis.
Step 3: Real axis loci is:
▶ Present between 0 < σ < −∞

Step 4: Calculate number of asymptotes and angle of asymptotes:
+1)180◦
▶ Angle of asymptotes, β = (2X n−m X = 0,1,2
▶ ∴ β = 60◦ , β = 180◦ and β = 300◦
Step 5: Centroid:
Pn Pn
σc =
n−m
[−(0 + 2 + 2)] − 0
σc =
3
σc = −1.33
Step 6: Breakaway point:
1 + G (s)H(s) = 0
k
∴1+ =0
s(s + 2 + 2j)(s + 2 − 2j)
∴ s 3 + 4s 2 + 8s + k = 0
D(s)
∴k =− = −s 3 − 4s 2 − 8s
N(s)
dk
∴ = −3s 2 − 8s − 8, s = −1.33 ± j0.94
ds
Step 7: Angle of departure:
k
GH =
s(s + 2 + j2)(s + 2 − 2j)
′ k k
GH = |s=−2+2j =
s(s + 2 + j2) (−2 + 2j)(−2 + 2j + 2 + 2j)
∠0◦′ ◦
arg GH = = −225
∠135◦ ∠90◦
∴ θD = 180◦ + arg GH ′ = 180◦ − 225◦
θD = −45◦ at s = −2 + 2j, and 45◦ at s = −2 − 2j
Step 8: ȷω crossover:
1 + G (s)H(s) = 0, s 3 + 4s 2 + 8s + k = 0
Routh’s array:
s3 1 8
32 − k = 0
s2 4 k ∴ kmar = 32
1 32−k ∴ 4s 2 + 32 = 0
s 4 0
∴ s = ±j2.82
s0 k ∴ ωmar = ±2.82 rad/sec
Root Locus
10
6
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Example Type:3 3 Poles and 1 Zero
Sketch the root locus diagram of a control system having,
K (s + 4)
G (s) = 2
and H(s) = 1
s(s + 6s + 13)
Also, find the value of k for a system having damping ration 0.707.
Soln:
Part I:
√
2 −6 ± 36 − 52
(s + 6s + 13) = = (s + 3 + 2j)(s + 3 − 2j)
2
Step 1: Calculate total number of loci:
▶ Number of poles = n = 3, Number of zeros = m = 1
▶ Number of loci = n = 3 (∴ m < n)
▶ Number of loci going to infinity = n - m = 3 - 1 = 2
One loci ends on zero as s = -4. Other two go to infinity.

Step 2: Draw the pole-zero plot to scale.
Step 3: Obtain real axis loci:

1 Present between −3 < s < 0
2 Present between −4 < s < −3
3 Absent between −∞ < s < −4

Step 4: Obtain number of asymptotes and angle of asymptotes:
▶ Angle of asymptotes = β = (2x+1)
n−m
× 180◦
, β 1 = 90 ◦
, β 2 = 270 ◦
Step 5: Centroid:
Pn Pn
σc =
n−m
0 + (−3 + 2j − 3 + 2j) − 4
σc =
3−1
σc = −1
Step 6: No breakaway is needed.

Step 7: Find angle of departure:
▶ To calculate ϕD at s = −3 + 2j i.e (s + 3 − 2j) factor. Suppress this factor
from GH to GH ′
k(s + 4)
GH =
s(s + 3 + 2j)(s + 3 − 2j)
k(s + 4) k(−3 + 2j + 4)
GH ′ = |s=−3+2j =
s(s + 3 + 2j) (−3 + 2j)(−3 + 2j + 3 + 2j)
k(1 + 2j)
GH ′ =
(−3 + 2j)(4j)
◦ −1 ◦ ◦

∠0 ∠ tan 2 ∠0 ∠63.43
arg GH ′ = =
∠ tan−1 −2/3∠90◦ ∠146.30◦ ∠90◦
arg GH ′ = −172.88◦
ϕD = 180◦ + arg GH ′ = 180◦ + (−172.88◦ )
ϕD = +7.12◦ s = −3 + 2j
ϕD = −7.12◦ s = −3 − 2j

Step 8 :Intersection of imaginary axis:
▶ The characteristic equation is, D + kN = 0.
k(s + 4)
1+ 2
=0
s(s + 6s + 13)
∴ s 3 + 6s 2 + s(13 + k) + 4k = 0
▶ Routh’s array is,

s3 1 13 + k
s2 6 4k
s1 78+2k
6
0
s0 4k
▶ For stability 4k > 0 and 78+2k
6
>0
∴ kmar = −39
▶ There is no intersection of root locus with negative real axis.

Root Locus
20
15
Imaginary Axis (seconds -1 ) 10
-5
-10
-15
-20
-4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5

Part II:
▶ Given ζ = 0.707
▶ Draw line OA at cos−1 0.707 = 45◦ w.r.t negative X-axis Note the
co-ordinates intersection j with OA.
∴ s = −2.2 + 2.2j
▶ similarly, for θ = −45◦
▶ we get s = −2.2 − 2.2j. Hence closed loop dominant poles at
s = −2.2 ± −2.2j.
D(s) s(s 2 + 6s + 13)

k= |s=−2.2+2.2j = |s=−2.2+2.2j
N(s) (s + 4)
∴ |k| = 4.88

Example
Sketch the root locus diagram for the transfer function,
K (s + 2)
G (s) = 2
(s + 2s + 3)
Determine the approximate damping ratio for a value of k = 1.33.

Soln:
√
2 −2 ± 4 − 12 √ √
(s + 2s + 33) = = (s + 1 + 2j)(s + 1 − 2j)
2
Step 1: Calculate total number of loci:
▶ Number of poles = n = 2, Number of zeros = m = 1
▶ Number of loci = n = 2
▶ Number of loci going to infinity = n - m = 2 - 1 = 1

Step 2: Draw the pole-zero plot to scale.

1 Present between −∞ < s < −2
2 Absent between −2 < s < 0

▶ Angle of asymptotes = β = (2x+1)
n−m
× 180◦
, β = 180◦
Step 5: Centroid:
▶ Not Required.
Step 6: Breakaway point:
D(s)
k =−
N(s)
2

dk (s + 2)(2s + 2) − (s + s2 + 3)(1)
∴ =−
ds (s + 2)2
2 2
2
2s + 2s + 4s + 4 − s − 2s − 3 s + 4s + 1
=− 2
=−
(s + 2) (s + 2)2

∴ s 2 + 4s + 1 = 0
√ √
−4 ± 16 − 4 −4 ± 12
∴s= =
2 2
∴ s = −0.26, −3.73
Here, valid breaking point is -3.73

Step 7: Find angle of departure:
√
▶ To calculate ϕD at s = −1 ± 2j
k(s + 2)
GH = √ √
(s + 1 − 2j)(s + 1 + 2j)
√
k(s + 2) k(−1 + 2j + 2)
GH ′ = √ |s=−1+√2j = √ √
(s + 1 + 2j) (−1 + 2j + 1 + 2j)
√
k(1 + 2j)
= √
2 2j
′ ∠0◦ ∠54.73◦ ◦
arg GH = = −35.26
∠90◦

∴ ϕD = 180 + arg GH ′ = 180◦ − 35.36◦
◦
√
∴ ϕD = 144.74 at s = −1 + 2j
◦
√
ϕD = −144.73 at s = −1 − 2j
Step 8 :Intersection of imaginary axis:

▶ The characteristic equation is, D + kN = 0.
k(s + 2)
1+ =0
(s 2 + 2s + 3)
∴ s 2 + (2 + k)s + (3 + 2k) = 0

s2 1 (3 + 2k)
s1 (2 + k) -
s0 (3 + 2k)
▶ For stability 3 + 2k > 0 and 2 + k > 0
∴ k > −1.5 and k > −2
▶ As root locus is drawn for k > 0, this condition is satisfied. Thus for k ≥ 0
column 1 is always positive. Here root locus dose not cross jω axis.

Root Locus
2
1.5

1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1

▶ To find Approximate damping ratio:
▶ Given, (s) = s k(s+2)
2 +2s+3
C (s) G (s)
∴ = Assume H(s) = 1
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s)
k(s+2)
s 2 +2s+3 k(s + 2)
= =
1 + s k(s+2)
2 +2s+3
s 2 + 2s + 3ks + 2k
C (s) k(s + 2)
∴ = 2
R(s) s + (2 + k)s + (3 + 2k)

Example Type 4: 4 Poles
A unity feedback system has the loop transfer function,

k
G (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 3)(s + 4)
Determine (i) Breakaway point (ii) intersection with imaginary axis. Plot root
loci.
Soln:
Step I: Obtain total number of loci:
▶ Here n = 4 and m = 0
▶ ∴ Number of loci ending at ∞ = n − m = 4 − 0 = 4

Step II: Draw poles and zeros to suitable scale.

1 Present between −1 < σ < 0
2 Absent between −3 < σ < −1
3 Present between −4 < σ < −3
4 Absent between −∞ < σ < −4

(2x+1) ◦
▶ Angle of asymptotes = β =
n−m
× 180 ,
β1 = 45◦ , β2 = 135◦ , β3 = 225◦ , β4 = 315◦ ,
Step 5: Centroid:
Pn Pn
σc =
n−m
−0 + (0 + 1 + 3 + 4)
σc =
4
σc = −2
Step 6: Breakaway Point:

D(s) s(s + 1)(s + 3)(s + 4)
k=− =−
N(s) 1
k = −[s 4 + 8s 3 + 19s 2 + 12s]
dk
= 4s 3 + 24s 2 + 38s + 12 = 0
ds
we expect break away point between 0 and -1 and -3 and -4. we will get two
more which will be valid only only for k < 0.
Trial 1:Try -0.5 as 1st trial
4 24 38 12
-0.5 -2 -11 -13.5
4 22 27 -1.5
Trial 2: Try -0.6
4 24 38 12
-0.6 -2.4 -12.6 -15.024
4 21.6 25.04 (-3.024)
Error has increased from -0.5 to -0.6
Trial 3: Try -0.4
4 24 38 12
-0.4 -1.6 -8.96 -11.616
4 22.4 29.04 (+0.384)

As comparison with trial 1 and trial 3 shows the sign of error changed. hence
root lies between -0.5 and −0.4. As error is less from -0.4 side try −0.44 as
another Trial. Trial 4:
4 24 38 12
-0.44 -1.76 -9.7856 -12.41
4 22.24 28.2144 (-0.41)
As a last try take s = -0.42
Trial 5:
4 24 38 12
-0.42 -1.68 -9.3744 -12.023
4 22.32 28.6256 (-0.022)

▶ Thus s = -0.42 is one root.
▶ the remainder equation is represented as, 4 22.32 28.626
▶ Which is 4s 2 + 22.32s + 28.626
▶ This is solved quadratically,
s = −3.58, −1.99775
Out of which s = −3.58 is acceptable.
σb = −0.42, −3.58
▶ Both are valid breakaway points.

Step 7: Intersection of Imaginary Axis:
▶ As there is crossover of jω axis it is necessary to find value at jω crossover.
D(s) + N(s) = 0
s 4 + 8s 3 + 19s 2 + 12s + k = 0

s4 1 19 k
s3 8 12
s2 17.5 k
s1 210−8k
17.5
0
s0 k
▶ fro crossover the term,
210 − 8k
=0
17.5
i.e. 210 − 8k = 0 or kmar = 26.25
▶ The auxiliary equation is,
17.5s 2 + k = 0
∴ 17.5s 2 = −k
17.5s 2 = −26.25
∴ s = ±1.22j
▶ The root locus crosses at s = ±1.22j and vlaue of k at crossover is 26.25.
Root Locus
10
6
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Example Type 5: 4 Poles and 1 Zero
Sketch the root locus from the given open loop transfer function and
determine the stability.
K (s + 0.1)
G (s)H(s) =
s(s − 0.2)(s 2 + s + 0.6)
Soln:
Step I: Obtain Number of Loci
▶ Number of Poles = n = 4
▶ Number of zeros = m = 1
▶ number of loci = number of poles.

Step 2 and 3: Draw poles and zeros to suitable scale.

(2x+1)
▶ Angle of asymptotes = β =
n−m
× 180◦ ,
β1 = 60◦ , β2 = 180◦ , β3 = 300◦
Step 5: Centroid:
Pn Pn
σc =
n−m
0 + 0.2 + −0.5 − 0.50 + 1
σc =
3
σc = −0.233

Step 6: Breakaway Point:
1 + G (s) · H(s) = 0
K (s + 0.1)
1+ 2
=0
s(s − 0.2)(s + s + 0.6)
s 4 + 0.8s 3 + 0.4s 2 − 0.12s + k(s + 0.1) = 0
4 3 2

s + 0.8s + 0.4s − 0.12s
∴k =−
(s + 0.1)
dk
∴ = 3s 4 + 2s 3 + 0.64s 2 + 0.08s − 0.012 = 0
ds
s = 0.15, s = −0.45
Step 7: Angle of Departure:
k(s + 0.1) k(s + 0.1)

GH = =
s(s − 0.2)(s 2 + s + 0.6) s(s + 0.2)(s + 0.5 − j0.5)(s + 0.5 + j0.5)
k(s + 0.1)
GH = |s=−0.5+j0.59
(−0.5 + j0.59)(−0.5 + j0.59 − 0.2)(j)

∠124.13◦ ◦
GH = = −235.14
∠130.27◦ ∠139◦ ∠90◦
= GH ′ = −235.14◦
ϕD = −56◦ at − 0.5 + j0.59
ϕD = +56◦ at − 0.5 − j0.59
Step 8: jω Crossover:
Routh’s array is,
s4 1 0.4 0.1k
s3 0.8 k - 0.12 0
0.44−k
s2 0.8 0.1k
( 0.44−k
0.8 )(k−0.12)−0.08k
s1 0
( 0.44−k
0.8 )
s0 0.1k

0.44 − k
(k − 0.12) − 0.08k = 0
0.8
∴ k 2 − 0.49k + 0.052 = 0
kmar = 0.3413, 0.15
▶ Auxilary equation is,

0.44 − k
s 2 + 0.1k = 0
0.8
∴ s = ±j0.20 at kmar = 0.154
s = ±j0.52 at kmar = 0.34

Root Locus
2
1.5
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Effective of Additional of Poles:
The root locus changes it’s nature and shift toward imaginary axis.
The asysmptote angle lower down i.e., it moves toward infinity at lower
angles. This makes intercept on jω-axis for a lower value of k. The other end
of asymptote i.e. further in LHP dose not interest us as they are non
dominant poles.
System becomes oscillatory.
Gain margin and hence relatively the stability decreases.
Range of k reduces.
The artful introduction of a pole can change a sluggish response to a quicker
response.
Increase settling time.

Effect of Addition of Zeros:
The root of locus changes its shape and shifts to the left half of s-plane.
System becomes stable
Gain margin increases.
Range of k increases.
Speed up settling time.

GATE EE 2016
The gain at the breakaway point of the root locus of a unity feedback system
with open loop transfer function is,
Ks
G (s) =
(s − 1)(s − 4)
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 5
(D) 9

Solution:
Ks
Given: G (s) = (s−1)(s−4)
Characteristic equation
ks
1+ =0
(s − 1)(s − 4)
((s − 1)(s − 4)) (s 2 − 5s + 4)
k =− =−
s s

For break away points
dk
=0
ds
(s)(2s − 5) − (s 2 − 5s + 4)(1)

∴− 2
=0
s
2 2

2s − 5s − s + 5s − 4
− 2
=0
s
s2 = 4
∴ s = ±2
s=2
▶ Hence the correct option is (A)

GATE EC 2011
The root locus plot for a system is given below. The open loop transfer
function corresponding to this plot is given by
ks(s+1)
(A) G (s)H(s) = (s+2)(s+3)
k(s+1)
(B) G (s)H(s) = s(s+2)(s+3)2
k
(C) G (s)H(s) = s(s−1)(s+2)(s+3)
k(s+1)
(D) G (s)H(s) = s(s+2)(s+3)

Solution
For given plot root locus exists from -3 to 3, So there must be odd number
of poles and zeros. There is a double pole at s = - 3
poles = 0, -2, -3, -3
Zeros = -1
k(s + 1)
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 2)(s + 3)2

GATE EE 2015
The open loop poles of a third order unity feedback system are at 0, –1, –2.
Let the frequency corresponding to the point where the root locus of the
system transits to unstable region be K. Now suppose we introduce a zero in
the open loop transfer function at –3, while keeping all the earlier open loop
poles intact. Which one of the following is TRUE about the point where the
root locus of the modified system transits to unstable region?
(A) It corresponds to a frequency greater than K.
(B) It corresponds to a frequency less than K.
(C) It corresponds to a frequency K.
(D) Root locus of modified system never transits to unstable region.

Solution
Number of open loop poles, P = 3 at s = 0, –1 and –2.

Open loop transfer function will be,
k
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
After introducing a zero in open loop transfer function,

k(s + 3)
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
From the above figure, it can be seen that root locus plot never crosses
jω-axis for all values of K.
Alternatively :
The root locus branch crosses the imaginary axis is determined by applying
Routh Hurwitz criterion to the characteristic equation. Characteristics
equation is given by,
s 3 + 3s 2 + (2 + k)s + 3k = 0

Routh’s array is,
s3 1 2+k
s2 3 3k
6+3k−3k
s1 3 =2 0
s0 3k 0
For system to be stable K > 0 i.e. for all values of K system is stable.

IES EE
Identify the correct root locus from the figures given below referring to poles
and zeros at ±j8 and ±j10 respectively of G(s)H(s) of a single-loop control
system.

Solution
The system has poles at ±j8 and zeros at ±j10. Hence, the transfer function
can be written as,
K (s 2 + 100)
G (s)H(s) =
(s 2 + 64)
Pole zero locations are shown in figure below,

Angle of departure at pole at ±j
ϕd1 = 180◦ + ϕ,
where, ϕ = Σϕz − Σϕp
Σϕp = ϕp1 = 90◦
Σϕz = ϕz1 + ϕz2 = −90◦ + 90◦ = 0◦
∴ ϕ = 0◦ − 90◦ = 90◦
∴ ϕd1 = 180◦ + (−90◦ ) = 90◦
ϕd |at poles at −j8 = ϕd2 = −90◦
Hence, the root locus is shown below, in which branches of root locus are
starting from poles and are terminating on zeros.
Hence, the correct option is (B).

IES EC
If the gain of the system is reduced to zero value, the roots of the system in
the s-plane
(A) Coincide with zeros
(B) Move away from the zeros
(C) Move away from the poles
(D) Coincide with the poles

Solution
Let us assume,
K
G (s) =
s(s + a)
s = 0 and s = -a are open loop poles.

Characteristic equation is s 2 + as + K = 0
Roots of characteristic equation are,
s
−a a 2
s1 , s2 = ± −K
2 2
When K = 0, the roots are s1 = 0 and s2 = −a

i.e. they coincides with the open loop poles of system.
Alternatively :
Root locus starts with open loop transfer function poles where K = 0 and
terminates to zero where K = ∞.
Frequency Domain Analysis
Limitations of Time Domain Analysis:

▶ Time domain approach become difficult to analyse the response as the order
of the system increases.
▶ in design problems, there is a lack of an unified approach for finding design
solution that satisfy various time domain specifications, such as rise time,
maximum overshoot etc.
▶ Hence frequency domain approach is another alternative analytic technique.
Definition: The steady state response of a system to a sinusoidal input is
termed as it’s frequency response.

Advantages of Frequency Domain Analysis:
It is easy to get a frequency response test in a laboratory with good accuracy
- useful if transfer function is difficult to be obtain by analytical techniques.
Design of open loop transfer function for specified closed loop performance is
easier in frequency domain than time domain.
Effect of noise disturbance and parameter variation are easy to visualize in
frequency response.
Frequency response testes are simple to perform and can be performed
accurately using signal generators and accurate measuring instruments.
If the system has moderate degree of non-linearity, the transfer function can
be used to depict it.
Those system which do not have rational transfer function, frequency
response can be precisely applied to them also.
Disadvantages of Frequency Response Methods:

To obtain frequency response practically, it consumes fair amount of time.
The methods considered for obtaining frequency are outdated compared to
extensive methods developed for modelling and digital computer simulation.
Frequency response methods are basically applied to linear system
Performance Specification in Frequency Domain
Response Peak Mr
▶ The transfer function for a closed loop
system can be written as
C (s) G (s)
M(s) = =
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s)
C (jω) G (jω)
M(jω) = =
R(jω) 1 + G (jω)H(jω)
▶ The maximum value of M(jω) as ω is

varied, is called resonance peak Mr
What dose Mr imply?
▶ Mr indicates relative stability for the closed loop system.
▶ A larger value of Mr corresponds to large maximum overshoot in a step
response.
▶ Generally, acceptable value of Mr is between 1.1 to 1.5

Resonance Frequency ωr :
▶ It is frequency at which peak resonance Mr occurs.
Bandwidth (BW):
▶ It is frequency at which the magnitude M (jω) drops by 3 dB below the
certain specified level, usually the 0 dB level i.e. zero frequency value.
What dose bandwidth imply?
▶ A large bandwidth means higher frequencies easily pass through the system.
This means a faster rise time and hence bandwidth gives an idea about
transient response characteristics.
▶ A small bandwidth implies only few frequencies pass and implies a sluggish
response. But a large bandwidth implies susceptibility to noise and hence from
bandwidth, noise filtering characteristics is known.
▶ The sensitivity to parameter variations is also implied in bandwidth.
Cut Off Rate:
▶ Slope of log magnitude curve near the cut off frequency. It indicates the
system ability to distinguish a signal from noise.

Phase Margin ϕpm :
▶ It is measure of relative stability. Let ϕ1 be the phase angle of a system at
unity gain. The phase margin then is 180 + ϕ. The frequency at which gain is
unity, ω1 is called gain cross over frequency. Let the system open loop transfer
function be such that
|G (jω)H(jω)|ω=ω1 = 1
∴ |G (jω)H(jω)|ω=ω1 = |1|∠ϕ1
▶ The Phase margin is 180 + ϕ1 .

Gain Margin:
▶ The frequency ω2 where phase angle of transfer function is −180◦ is called the
phase crossover frequency. The gain at this frequency ω2 is |G (jω2 )H(jω2 )|.
The margin is given by
1
Gain Margin =
|G (jω2 )H(jω2 )|
The phase margin indicates how much the system angle can be increased to
cause system to become unstable from a stable condition.
The gain margin indicates how much gain can be increased to cause system
instability.
Correlation between Time and Frequency Response
Specifications
Frequency domain analysis gains significance only when properly correlated
with time response.
Co-relations are derived for second order Canonical System. For a canonical
second order system,
C (s) ωn2
G (s) = = 2
R(s) s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
with usual notifications,
C (jω) ωn2
G (jω) = =
R(jω) (jω)2 + 2ζωn (jω) + ωn2
Dividing numerator and denominator by ωn2 we get,
1 1
G (s) = ωn2
= 2ζs s2
s2 2ζωn s 1+ +
ωn2 + ωn2 + ωn2 ωn ωn

Replacing s by (jω) we get,
1
G (jω) = 2
ω
1− ωn + 2ζj ωωn
Resonant Peak:
ω
▶ Put u = ωn
C (jω) 1
∴ G (jω) = =
R(jω) [1 − u 2 ] + 2jζu
1
∴ |G (jω)| = p =M (1)
[1 − u ] + (2ζu )
2 2 2
2ζu
And ∠G = − tan−1 (2)
1 − u2
d
▶ The resonant frequency ωr is obtained by du
|G (jω)| =0

d 1 2(1 − u 2 )(−2u) + (8ζ 2 u)) 1 4u 3 − 4u + 8uζ 2
|G (jω)| = − 2 2 3/2
=−
du 2 [(1 − u ) + (2ζu) ] 2 [(1 − u 2 )2 + (2ζu)2 ]3/2
4u − 8uζ 2 − 4u 3
=
[2(1 − u 2 )2 + (2ζu)2 ]3/2
d
Set du |G (jω)| =0 at ω = ω2 , This Gives
4u − 8uζ 2 − 4u 3 = 0
∴ 4u(1 − 2ζ 2 − u 2 ) = 0
4u(u 2 + 2ζ 2 − 1) = 0
∴ 4u = 0 or u 2 + 2ζ 2 − 1 = 0
But 4u = 0 has no practical significance. So we consider the term

u 2 + 2ζ 2 − 1 = 0

p
2 2
∴ u = 1 − 2ζ ∴ u = 1 − 2ζ 2
ω ω p
But u = ∴ = 1 − 2ζ 2
ωn ωn
This condition is obtained at ω = ωr

ωr p p
∴ = 1 − 2ζ 2 ∴ ωr = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2
ωn
ω ωr
Now since u = ∴ Ur =
ωn ωn
p
ωn 1 − 2ζ 2 p
∴ ur = = 1 − 2ζ 2
ωn
From equation (1) we can write,
1
Mr = p
[1 − uζ]2 + (2ζur )2
p
Putting ur = 1 − 2ζ 2 we get,
1
Mr = q p
[1 − (1 − 2ζ 2 )]2 + [2ζ 1 − 2ζ 2 ]2
1
∴ Mr = p
4ζ 4 + 4ζ 2 (1 − 2ζ 2 )
1
∴ Mr = p
4ζ 2 − 4ζ 4
1
∴ Mr = p (3)
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
Equation (2) tells that Mr is a function of only the damping factor (ζ)
Similarly Solving for Equation (3) for phase Angle,
p
−1 1 − 2ζ 2
ϕr = G (jω)|ω=ωr = − tan
ζ

Cut off rate Bandwidth (BW):
▶ Cut off frequency ωc is that point where M has a value 0.707. Usually control
systems are low pass filters, hence M = 1 for zero frequency. bandwidth
becomes equal to ωc . Put m = 0.707, ω = ωc in equation (1).
ωc
▶ Let uc = ω n
1
∴ 0.707 = 1
[(1 − uc2 )2 + (2uc ζ)2 ] 2
∴ (1 − uc2 )2 + (2uc ζ)2 = 2

p
solving uc2 2
4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2
= (1 − 2ζ ) ±
p 1
2
∴ ωc = ωn (1 − 2ζ ) ± 4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2 2
and BW = ωc
▶ BW is directly proportional on ωn
▶ BW decreases as L increases.
▶ BW and Mr are directly proportional for 0 < ζ < 0.707
▶ As rise time increases, BW decreases.

Effects of Adding a Zero and a Pole
When a zero is added in the forward path for a second order system.
1 Band width increase, hence rise time is lessened.
2 Settling time increases.
3 System becomes more stable.
When a pole is added in the forward Path.
1 Bandwidth decreases, rise time increases.
2 Mr increases.
3 System becomes less stable.

Semi-Log Graph Paper

Example
For a second order system with unity feedback.

200
G (s) =
s(s + 8)
Find the frequency domain specifications.

Soln:
▶ The transfer function is
C (s) G (s)
T (s) = =
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s)
H(s) = 1
200
s(s+8) 200
∴ T (s) = 200
=
1 + s(s+8) s 2 + 8s + 200
ωn2
▶ Comparing with canonical transfer function s 2 +2ζωn +ωn2

ωn = 14.14 rad/s
ζ = 0.283
1
Mr = p
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
∴ Mr = 1.8242
p
ωr = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2
∴ ωr = 12.96 rad/sec
▶ As ζ is the range 0 < ζ < 0.707, Mr is greater then unity and ωr < ωn as per
theory.
p
ωc = ωcutoff = ωn {(1 − 2ζ ) ± 4ζ 4 − 4ζ 2 + 2}1/2
2
substituting for ωn and ζ

ωc = 14.140.839 + 1.31
= 14.14 × 2.14 +ve sign is taken as BW is a positive quantity
ωc = 30.25 rad/sec
BW = 30.25 rad/sec
Frequency Response Analysis using Bode Plot
Advantages Of Bode Plots:
▶ Both low and high frequency characteristics of transfer function can be shown
in one diagram.
▶ Gain margin and phase margin can be obtained with minimum computation
efforts from Bode plots.
▶ They can be constructed with ease using asymptotic approximations.
▶ Bode plots indicate clearly relative stability of the system.
▶ Data for constructing polar plots and Nyquist plots of complex transfer
function can be easily obtained from Bode plots.
▶ Frequency domain specification can be obtained easily from Bode plots.
▶ The product term in G (jω) become additive terms since logarithms are used.
▶ It is possible t represent approximately the exact function plot by straight line
asymptotes.
▶ Stability of the open loop transfer function can be determined by using Bode
plots.
▶ Transfer function of the system can be obtained from Bode plots.
▶ The use of semi-log graph paper eliminates the needs actually to take the
logarithms of very small number and also expands the low frequency range
which is of importance.

Phase Margin Angle (γ): The angle is 180◦ plus the negative
trigonometrically considered angle of the transfer function at the gain
crossover point.
Phase Crossover (ωpc ): Frequency at which the phase of GH is −180◦
Resonance Peak (Mp ): The resonance peak MP , a measure of relative
stability stability, is the maximum value of the magnitude of the close loop
frequency response that is,
c
Mp = maxω | (jω)|
R
Resonant Frequency (ωp ): The resonant frequency ωp is the frequency at
which Mp occurs.
gain Crossover (ωgc :) This is the point on the plot of the transfer function
at which the magnitude of GH(jω) is unity. The frequency is called the phase
margin frequency ωϕ .

Steps for Solving Bode Plots:
Step 1: Bring the given G (s) transfer function into standard constant from.
Step 2: Replace all s by jω to get the frequency domain transfer function.
Step 3: Prepare a list of standard factor present in the given transfer
function.
Step 4: Prepare the table of factors.
Step 5: Prepare the table for magnitude plot. This table helps helps you to
plot the magnitude curve easily and accurately.
Step 6: Choose suitable Y and X scales for magnitude plot. Draw line of 20
log k dB. Draw the lines of the resultant slope of corresponding factors from
starting point to corner frequency (End Point).
Step 7: Write the phase angle equation corresponding to the phase of each
factor present.
Step 8: Prepare the phase angle table and obtain the table of and resultant
phase angle ϕω by actual calculation.
Step 9: Depending upon largest frequency term present, choose the starting
point of log scale. plot the point as per phase angle table (ϕω) and draw the
smooth curve obtaining necessary phase angle plot.
Step 10: From phase resultant curve find ω where phase curve crosses
−180◦ . This is called phase crossover frequency i.e. ωpc . Draw the straight
line straight line from ωpc = ω towards the magnitude plot, till it intersects
magnitude curve. Call this point as G. The difference between 0 dB and
magnitude corresponding to point G is gain margin.
Step 11: From the magnitude resultant curve find where the resultant
crosses 0 dB. This is gain crossover frequency ωgc . Draw the straight line
from ω = ωgc downwards till it intersects the phase curve, called the point as
P. The distance between point P and −180◦ line is the phase margin.
Step 12: If both gain margin and phase margin are positive then the system
is stable i.e. ωgc < ωpc otherwise it is unstable system.

Summary of Bode Magnitude and Phase Plots:
Sr.No. Factor Magnitude (M) Phase(ϕ)

1 Constant gain k 20 log |k| ϕ = 0◦ for k > 0
ϕ = −180◦ for k < 0
2 Poles atOrigin (in- dB
Straight line at −20 dec ϕ = −90◦
n
tegral) 1 slope and passes
jω
through [ω = 1, 0 dB]
point
3 Zeros at origin Straight line at +20 n ϕ = +90 n◦
(Derivative) (jω)n dB/sec slope and passes
through [ω = 1, 0 dB]
point
4 First order poles Line slopes are: (1) ϕ = − tan−1 ω
P1
1
1+j Pω 0 dB/dec for ω < P1
1
(2) - 20 dB/dec for
ω > P1

Sr.No. Factor Magnitude (M) Phase(ϕ)
5 First order zeros 1+ Line slopes are: (1) 0 ϕ = + tan−1 ω
z1
j Pω1 dB/dec for ω < z1
(2) +20 dB/dec for
ω > z1
ω
−1 2ζ ωn
6 Second order poles Line slopes are: (1) 0 ϕ= − tan 2
1 1− ω2
ω 2 dB/dec for ω < ωn ωn
1+2jζ ωn − ω2
ωn
(2) -40 dB/dec for
ω > ωn (3) Error correc-
tion of ω = ωn as per ζ
ω
−1 2ζ ωn
7 Second order zeros Line slope are: (1) 0 ϕ= + tan 2
2 1− ω2
1 + 2jζ ωωn − ω
ω2 dB/dec for ω < ωn ωn
n
(2) + 40 dB/dec for
ω > ωn (3) Error correc-
tion for ω = ωn as par ζ

Illustration 1: Draw a +20 dB/dec line passing through ω = 1, 10dB
soln: Decade means two frequency 10 times apart i.e. ω = 0.1 and 1,
ω = 1, 10 and ω = 10, 100 etc. are one decade apart.
1 Mark point ω = 1, 10 dB as shown in Fig.
2 Now from ω = 1 move to next decade i.e. ω = 10
3 At ω = 10, the line will be up by 20 dB more than the value at ω = 1. i.e.
20 dB more than 10 dB i.e. 30 dB.
4 Join (ω = 10, 30 dB) and (ω = 1, 10 dB)

Illustration 2: Draw a 40 dB/dec line passing through ω = 1, 5dB till ω = 5
soln:
1 Mark point ω = 1, 5 dB as shown in Fig.
2 Now mark next decade point i.e. ω = 10
3 Now, Slope is +40 dB in one decade i.e. Line will move up by +40 dB from
its value at ω = 1 i.e 5 dB + 40 dB = 45 dB at ω = 10.
4 Join point ω = 1, 5 dB and ω = 10, 45 dB.
5 Hover ever Darken the line only between ω = 1 and ω = 5.

Example 1:
For the system having the open loop transfer function. Determine the
stability of the system by plotting the Bode plot of the system.
10
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 10)
Soln:
Step 1: First obtain given G(s) and H(s) into standard time constant form.
10
G (s)H = s

10s(1 + s) 1 + 10
1
∴ G (s)H(s) = s

s(1 + s) 1 + 10
Step 2: To get frequency domain transfer function replace s by jω

1
∴ G (jω)H(jω) =
jω
jω(1 + jω) 1 + 10

Step 3:In the transfer function factor are present:
1
1 Pole at origin = jω
1
2 First order Pole = 1+jω with P1 = 11 ∴ ωc1 = 1
3 First order Pole = 1jω with P2 = 10 1
∴ ωc2 = 10
1+ 10
Step 4: Prepare the table of Factor:

Sr.No. Factor Magnitude curve Phase curve
1. 1
jω Straight line of slope = ϕ = −90◦ for all value
-20 dB/dec and passing of ω
through [ω = 1, 0dB]
point
2. 1
1+jω Line of slope are: (1) 0 ϕ = − tan−1 ω for all
dB/dec for ω < 1, (2) Value of ω
-20 dB/dec for ω > 1
3. 1
1+ jω
Line of slope are: (1) 0 ϕ = − tan−1 ω
10
10
dB/dec for ω < 10,
(2) -20 dB/dec for
ω > 10

Step 5: Preparing the table for magnitude plot analysis.
Sr.No. Factor Resultant Slope Start End Point
Pointω ω
1
1. jω -20 dB/dec 0.01 1
1
2. 1+jω -20+(-20)= -40 dB/dec ωc1 = 1 10
1
3. 1+ jω
-40+(-20)= -60 dB/dec ωc2 = 10 ∞
10
Step 6: write the phase equation.

1 for 1
jω
ϕ = −90◦
2 for 1
1+jω
ϕ = − tan−1 ω1 = tan−1 ω
3 for 1
ϕ = − tan−1 10
ω
1+ jω10
Therefore the resultant ϕ(ω) can be calculate as,
−1 ω

◦ −1
ϕ(ω) = −90 + (− tan ω) + − tan
10

Step 7: The frequency tange is from ω = 0.01 to ω = 1000. Let us point of
ω so that graph is down which reasonable accuracy. Therefore phase angle
table is prepared to get the ϕ(ω) value for particular ω value.
Step 8: Phase angle table:
ω 1
jω − tan−1 ω ω
− tan 10 ϕ(ω)
0.01 −90◦ −0.57◦ −0.057◦ −90.627◦
0.05 −90◦ −2.86◦ −0.286◦ −90.146◦
0.1 −90◦ 5◦ −0.57◦ −95.57◦
1 −90◦ −45◦ −5◦ −140◦
5 −90◦ −78.5◦ −2.86◦ −171.46◦
10 −90◦ −84.28◦ −45◦ −219.28◦
50 −90◦ −88.8◦ −76.6◦ −257.4◦
100 −90◦ −89.04◦ −84.28◦ −263.68◦
500 −90◦ −89.8◦ −88.8◦ −268.6◦
1000 −90◦ −89.94◦ −89.4◦ −269.35◦

Step 9: Draw the phase plot. Note smallest ϕ = 90◦ and largest ϕ = 270◦ .
so accordingly scale is chosen as 30◦ = 1 unit and begin scale from 90◦ .
Step 10: Calculations of gain margin. From the phase resultant curve find ω
where phase curve crosses −180◦ . This us phase crossover frequency
ωpc = 6 rad/sec.
For the value of ωpc , go to the magnitude resultant curve which 32 dB below
0 dB line. Hence gain margin is positive.
Step 11: Calculation f phase margin, From the magnitude resultant curve
find the curve find where the resultant Cross 0 dB line. This is gain crossover
frequency gc , from graph ωgc = 1rad/s. For this value of ωgc , go to phase
curve and find out how much is the phase angle ϕ. ϕ = −138◦ .
Therefore phase margin P.M. = +180◦ + ϕ = 180◦ + (138◦ ) = 42◦
Stability of system:
(1) GM = 32dB
(2) PM = 42◦

Bode Diagram
50
Magnitude (dB)
0
-50
-100
-150
-90
Phase (deg)
-180
-270
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Frequency (rad/s)

Example 2:
10
For the unity feedback control system G (s) = s(s+1)(s+5) . sketch the Bode
plot. determine the gain and phase margin. If the margin is increased to
150% what is the new gain margin and phase margin? What us the effect on
stability.
Soln:
Step 1: First obtain given G(s) and H(s) into standard time constant form.
2
G (s) =
s(s + 1)(1 + 5s )
Step 2: To get frequency domain transfer function replace s by jω

2
∴ G (jω) =
jω
jω(1 + jω) 1 + 5

1 Constant k = 2 ∴ 20 log 2 = 6.02dB
1
1
3 First order Pole = 1+jω with P1 = 11 ∴ ωc1 = 1
4 First order Pole = 1jω with P2 = 15 ∴ ωc2 = 5
1+ 10

Sr.No. Factor Magnitude Curve Phase Curve
1. k=2 Straight line at 6.02 dB ϕ = 0◦
2. 1
jω Straight line of slope = ϕ = −90◦
-20 dB/dec and passing
through [ω = 1, 0dB]
point
3. 1
1+jω Line slopes are: (1) 0 ϕ = − tan−1 ω for all
dB/dec for ω < 1, (2) Value of ω
-20 dB/dec for ω > 1
4. 1
1+ jω
Line slopes are: (1) 0 ϕ = − tan−1 ω
5 for all
5
dB/dec for ω < 10, Value of ω
(2) -20 dB/dec for
ω>5

Point ω ω
1. k Straight line at 6.02 dB 0.1 ∞
1
2. jω -20 dB/dec 0.01 1
1
3. 1+jω -20+(-20)= -40 dB/dec 1 5
1
4. 1+ jω
-40+(-20)= -60 dB/dec 5 ∞
10

1 For k = 2 ϕ = 0◦
2 1
for jω ϕ = −90◦
3 1
for 1+jω ϕ = − tan−1 ω1 = tan−1 ω
4 for 1jω ϕ = − tan−1 10
ω
1+ 10
Therefore the resultant ϕ(ω) can be calculate as,

ω
ϕ(ω) = −90◦ + (− tan−1 ω) + − tan−1
5

Step 7: The frequency tange is from ω = 0.01 to ω = 1000. Let us point of
ω so that graph is down which reasonable accuracy. Therefore phase angle
table is prepared to get the ϕ(ω) value for particular ω value.
ω 1
jω − tan−1 ω − tan ω5 ϕ(ω)
0.01 −90◦ −0.57◦ −0.114◦ −90.68◦
0.05 −90◦ −2.86◦ −0.57◦ −93.43◦
0.1 −90◦ 5.71◦ −1.145◦ −96.85◦
1 −90◦ −45◦ −11.3◦ −146.31◦
10 −90◦ −84.28◦ −63.43◦ −237.71◦
100 −90◦ −89.42◦ −87.13◦ −266.55◦
500 −90◦ −89.88◦ −88.42◦ −269.3◦
1000 −90◦ −89.94◦ −89.71◦ −269.65◦

Stability of system:
(1) GM = 12 dB
(2) PM = 15◦
(3) Gain Crossover frequency (ωgc) = 1.4 rad/sec
(4) Phase crossover Frequency (ωpc ) = 2.7rad/sec
Modeifications:
▶ Gain margin be increased by 150◦ .
150
i.e. New Gain Margin = 100 × old gain margin
150
∴ New gain margin = 100 × 12 = 18 dB
▶ To achieve a new gain margin of 18 dB, add a constant term to system k.
only magnitude curve will shift and phase curve will not shift.
20 log k ′ = −6dB
▶ Because shift is downwards, use negative sign. Upward shift means positive
sign.
∴ k ′ = 0.5
▶ Thus total constant terms are k = 2(old value) and K = new term, Thus,
New constant value = k × k = 2 × 0.5 = 1.
▶ Thus with k = 1 instead of 2 i.e. halfing the gain redraw the resultant. This
resultant is parallel ti old resultant and distance between them in 6 dB
throughout. Therefore from the new magnitude plot.
New Phase margin = 36◦ New gain margin = 18 dB

Bode Diagram
100
Magnitude (dB)
50
-50
-100
-90
Phase (deg)
-180
-270
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
Frequency (rad/s)

Example
Draw Bode plot of given transfer function.
s s

100 1 + 10 1+ 100
GH(s) =
(s 2 + s + 4)
Soln:
Step 1: Bring equation in standard form.
s s

100 1 + 10 1 + 100
GH(s) =
2

4 s4 + s
4 +1
Step 2: Get frequency domain transfer function s = jω

jω jω
25 1 + 10 1 + 100
GH(jω) =
2

1 + jω
4 − ω
4

Compare with standard equation we get,
1 1
ω2
= ω2
1 + 2jζ ωωn − ωn2 1 + j ω4 − 4
∴ ωn2 = 4, ωn = 2
∴ ζ = 0.25

1 Constant k = 25
jω 1

2 First order Zero 1 + 10 with z1 = 10 ∴ ωc1 = 10
jω 1

3 First order zero 1 + 10 with z1 = 100 ∴ ωc2 = 100
1 1
4 Second order pole with p1 = i.e. p1 = ω1n ∴ ωc3 = 2
(1+ 4 − ω42 )
jω 2

Sr.No. Factor Magnitude Curve Phase Curve
1. k = 25 Straight line at 28 dB ϕ = 0◦
2. 1+ j
1
ω (1) 0 dB/dec ω < 10 (2) ϕ = + tan−1 ω
10
10
+20 dB/dec ω > 10

3. 1
ω
1+j 100 (1) 0 dB/dec ω < 100, ϕ = + tan−1 ω
100
(2) +20 dB/dec ω > 100
(ω/4)
4. 1
ω2
(1) 0 dB/dec ω < 2, (2) ϕ = − tan−1 (1−ω 2 /4)
1+ jω
4 − 4
-40 dB/dec ω > 2

Sr.No. Factor Resultant Slope Start Point End Point

1. k Straight line at +28 0.1 ∞
dB/dec
jω ω2
2. 1+ 4 − 4 -40 dB/dec 2 (Here add 10
error correc-
tion 8 dB Up-
ward)
1
3. 1+ jω
-40+(+20)= -20 10 100
10
dB/dec
1
4. 1+ jω
-20 + (+20)= 0 100 ∞
10
dB/dec

1 for k = 25 ϕ = 0◦
2 for (1 + jω/10) ϕ = + tan−1 (ω/10)
3 for (1
+ jω/100) ϕ = + tan−1 (ω/100)

ω/4
4 for 1
1+jω/4−ω 2 /4
ϕ = − tan−1 1−ω 2 /4
ω/4
ω tan−1 ω/10 tan−1 ω/100 − tan (1−ω 2 /4) ϕR
0.1 0.57◦ .057◦ −1.43◦ −0.8◦
0.5 2.86◦ 0.28◦ −7.59◦ −4.4◦
1 5.7◦ 0.57◦ −18.43◦ −12.16◦
5 26.56◦ 2.86◦ −166.6◦ −137.18◦
10 45◦ 5.7◦ −174.05◦ −123.35◦
50 78.6◦ 26.56◦ −178.8◦ −73.64◦
100 84.2◦ 45◦ −179.5◦ −50.3◦
500 88.8◦ 78.8◦ −179.8◦ −12.4◦
1000 89.4◦ 84.2◦ −179.9◦ −6.3◦
5000 89.88◦ 88.8◦ −179.98◦ −1.3◦
104 89.99◦ 89.42◦ −179.99◦ −0.6◦

step 8: From Fig.
Gain Margin = ∞ (As Phase plot dose not touch to −180◦ ); Phase Margin
= 84◦

Bode Diagram
40
Magnitude (dB)
20
-20
0
-45
Phase (deg)
-90
-135
-180
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
Frequency (rad/s)

Example
Draw the asymptotic Bode plots for a feedback control system having given
k
G (s)H(s) = s(1+s/4)(1+s/40) .
Determine the value of k for (1) Gain margin = 20 dB (2) Phase margin =
30◦
Soln: As ’k’ is unknown. First draw graph with k = 1
Step 1: Get frequency domain transfer function s = jω
k
G (s)H(s) =
jω jω
jω 1 + 4 1+ 40
Step 2: Following factor present

1 k = unknown
1
1 1
3 First order pole = with p1 = ∴ ωc1 = 4
(1+ jω4 ) 4
1 1
4 First order pole = with p2 = ∴ ωc2 = 40
(1+ jω
40 )
40

Sr.No. Factor
Magnitude Curve Phase Curve
1. 1
jω slope of line -20 ϕ = −90◦
dB/dec passing through
ω = 1, 0 dB point
2. 1
1+ jω
(1) 0 dB/dec for ω < 4, ϕ = − tan−1 ω
4
4
(2) -20 dB/dec for ω > 4
(ω)
3. 1
1+ jω
(1) 0 dB/dec for ω < 40, ϕ = − tan−1 40
40
(2) -20 dB/dec for ω > 40

Step 4: Magnitude Plot Table

Point
1
1. -20 dB/dec 0.1 4
jω
1
2. jω -20+(-20)= -40 dB/dec 4 40
1+ 4
1
3. 1+ jω
-40 + (-20)= -60 dB/dec 40 ∞
40
Step:5 write the phase equation.

1 for (1/jω)
ϕ = −90◦
2 1
for 1+jω/4 ϕ = − tan−1 (ω/4)

3 1
for 1+jω/40 ϕ = − tan−1 (ω/40)
∴ ϕR = −90◦ − tan−1 ω/4 − tan−1 ω/40

ω 1
jω − tan−1 ω/4 − tan−1 ω/40 ϕR (ω)
0.1 −90◦ −1.4◦ −0.14◦ −91.54◦

0.5 −90◦ −7.12◦ −0.7◦ −97.82◦
1 −90◦ −14◦ −1.4◦ −105.4◦
5 −90◦ −51.3◦ −7.12◦ −148.4◦
10 −90◦ −68.2◦ −14◦ −172.2◦
20 −90◦ −78.7◦ −26.5◦ −195.2◦
50 −90◦ −85.4◦ −51.3◦ −226.7◦
Step 7: Case 1:
▶ From graph gain margin = 32 dB
▶ Required gain margin = 20 dB
▶ Therefore we have to shift A to A’ by distance (32 - 20) = 12 dB upward.
▶ Therefore value of k is,
∴ 20 log k = 12
∴ k = 3.98
▶ From k = 3.98 we can get gain margin = 20 dB

Case 2:
▶ From graph phase margin = 76◦
▶ Required phase margin = 30◦
▶ For this required value we have to shift magnitude plot from B to B’ as shown
in graph.
∴ Shift BB ′ = 18dB
∴ 20 log k = 18
∴ k = 7.94
▶ k = 7.94 we can achieve phase margin = 30◦

Bode Diagram
50
Magnitude (dB) 0
-50
-100
-150
-90
Phase (deg)
-180
-270
10-1 100 101 102 103
Frequency (rad/s)

Bode plot for Transportation Lag:
▶ Consider GH(s) = e −sT
∴ |GH(jω)| = |e −jωT | = 1
∴ 20 log |GH(jω)| = 0◦
▶ Phase Angle:
GH(jω) = e −jωT = 1∠ − ωT
∴ ∠GH(jω) = −ωT in radiance = 57.3 ω in degrees.
▶ Thus a transportation lag adds only to phase delay not magnitude.

Example
Obtain Bode Plot:
−0.1s s

ke 1+ 30
G (s)H(s) = s
s

s(1 + s) 1 + 20 1 + 90
Hence find value of k for ωgc = 5 rad/sec,

ωgc = 12 rad/sec and ωgc = 0.6 rad/sec
Soln:
Step 1: As k = unknown, first find for k = 1 and effect of e −0.1s is that,
magnitude plot will ramain same and phase delay of −57.3 ωT will get added
into phase plot. Here, T = 0.1
∴ Phase delay of −5.73 ω will get added into phase plot.
Step 2: Write transfer function in frequency domain, s = jω

jω
1 + 30
∴ G (jω) =
jω jω
jω(1 + jω) 1 + 20 1 + 90

Step 3: Following Factor are present
1
1 Pole at origin jω
1
2 First order pole (1+jω) with p1 = 1
∴ ωc1 = 1/1 = 1
1
3 First order pole with p2 = 1/20
(1+ jω
20 )
∴ ωc2 = 20
4
1
5 First order zero with z1 = 1/30
(1+ jω
30 )
∴ ωc3 = 30
1
6 First order pole with p3 = 1/90
(1+ jω
90 )
∴ ωc4 = 90

Sr.No. Factor
Magnitude Curve Phase Curve
1. 1
jω slope of line -20 dB/dec ϕ = −90◦
passing through [ω =
1, 0 dB]
2. 1
1+jω (1) 0 dB/dec ω < 1, ϕ = − tan−1 ω
(2) -20 dB/dec ω > 1
3. 1
1+ jω
(1) 0 dB/dec ω < 20, ϕ = − tan−1 ω
20
20
(2) +20 dB/dec ω > 20
4. 1
1+ jω
(1) 0 dB/dec ω < 30, ϕ = − tan−1 ω
30
30
(2) +20 dB/dec ω > 30
5. 1
1+ jω
(1) 0 dB/dec ω < 90, ϕ = − tan−1 ω
90
90
(2) -20 dB/dec ω > 90

Sr.No. Factor Resultant Slope Start End
Point Point
1
1. jω -20 dB/dec 0.1 1
1
2. 1+jω -20 + (-20) = -40 dB/dec 1 20
1
3. 1+ jω
-40 + (-20)= -60 dB/dec 20 30
20
1
4. 1+ jω
-60 + (+20)= -40 dB/dec 30 90
30
1
5. 1+ jω
-60 + (-20)= -60 dB/dec 90 ∞
90

Step:5 write the phase equation.
1 for (1/jω)
ϕ = −90◦
2 1
for 1+jω ϕ = − tan−1 (ω)

3 1
for 1+jω/20 ϕ = − tan−1 (ω/20)

4 1
for 1+jω/30 ϕ = tan−1 (ω/30)

5 1
for 1+jω/90 ϕ = tan−1 (ω/90)
∴ ϕR = −90◦ − tan−1 ω − tan−1 ω/20 + tan−1 ω/30 + tan−1 ω/90 − 5.75ω

1
ω jω - - - - - ϕR
tan−1 ω tan−1 ω/20 tan−1 ω/30 tan−1 ω/90 5.73ω
0.1 −90◦ -5.71 -0.286 0.1909 -0.063 - -
0.573 96.4
0.5 −90◦ - -1.432 0.9548 -0.3183 - -
26.265 2.865 120
1 −90◦ -45 -2.8624 1.9091 -0.6365 - -
5.73 142
5 −90◦ -78.69 -14.036 9.4623 -3.1798 - -
28.65 205
10 −90◦ - -26.565 18.4349 -6.3401 - -
84.289 57.3 246
50 −90◦ - -68.1985 59.0362 -29.054 - -
88.8542 286.5 503
100 −90◦ - -78.69 73.3007 -48.012 -573 -
89.427 805
∞ −90◦ −90◦ −90◦ +90◦ −90◦ ∞ ∞

Step 8: (i) The gain crossover frequency ωgc = 5 rad/s to achieve this, the
shift required is 28 dB upwards,
∴ 20 log k = 28 dB ∴ log k = 1.4

∴ k = 101.4 = 25.11
(ii) The gain crossover frequency ωgc = 12 rad/sec to achieve this, the shift
required is 53 dB upward from the graph.
∴ 20 log k = 53 dB ∴ log k = 2.65

∴ k = 102.65 = 446.68 ∴ k = 446.68
(iii) The gain crossover frequency ωgc = 0.6red/sec to achieve this, the shift
required is 4 dB downwards.
∴ 20 log k = −4 dB ∴ log k = −0.2

∴ k = 10−0.2 = 1.584

All-Pass and Minimum Phase Functions:
Minimum Phase Function: Function having poles and zeros (in their
transfer function) all of which that lie wholly in the left half of s-plane are
called Minimum Phase Functions. Bode Plots of minimum phase functions
were so far plotted.
All Pass Function: Functions in which zeros lie on the right half of s-plane
(but poles in left half of s-plane) and the location of each pole - zero pair is
symmetric about axis are called All-pass functions.
(s − a)(s − b)
For e.g . T (s) =
(s + a)(s + b)
Pole zero’s for all pass network Magnitude and phase characteristics for
an all pass n/w
For,

jω
s 1 −

1− T T
T (s) = s
i.e.T (jω) =
1+ T 1+ Tjω
q
ω2
T2 + 1 ω
|T (jω)| = q =1 But T (jω) = −2 tan−1
ω2
+ 1 T
T2
Hence such function have unit magnitude for all ω and do not affect the
magnitude curve if multiplied with other transfer functions.
Hover ever they affect the phase. from ω = 0 to ∞, the above first order all
pass transfer function will give a phase from 0◦ to − 180◦ . such as function
are used in communication systems extensively for phase.
Function having one or more zeros in right half of s-plane are called
Non-Minimum Function.

Calculation of Transfer Function from Bode Plots
Transfer Function from Asymptotic plots:

▶ Step 1: First find out if there is any pole or zero at origin. This can be
determined by the slope of starting line.
1
⋆ -20 dB means jω
i.e. One pole at origin.
1
⋆ -40 dB means (jω)2
i.e. Two poles at origin
⋆ +20 dB means (jω) i.e. One zero at origin
⋆ +40 dB means (jω)2 i.e. Two zeros at origin.
▶ Step 2: Finding out constant term k. This can be determined by two ways.
1 Y intercept must be given in dB or found out. say it is M.
∴ 20 log k = M
2 If the intercept is not given. Then find out the magnitude of curve at ω = 1.
Let it is A dB.
∴ 20 log k = A
▶ From above equation k can be determined.

▶ Step 3: Here we have to note 3 things.
1 Find the change in slope
2 What is the change in slope. Change in slope = New slope - old slope
3 First order terms have slope ±20 dB/dec. Second order terms have slope
±40 dB/dec and so on. in general n × 20 dB/dec.
4 The factor is,
1
if slope is positive
(1+j ωz )n
1 n if slope is negative.
ω
1+j p
▶ Step 4: Transfer function will be multiplication of all above determined terms.

Example
Recover transfer function from the following plot.

Soln:
Step 1: At starting line slope is +40 dB/sec. There are two zeros at origin
and therefore factor is s 2 .
Step 2: Now we have to find out k.
▶ At ω = 1000 magnitude is 0 dB and
▶ ω = 100 to ω = 1000 line of slope is -20 dB/dec
so the magnitude at ω = 100 should be 20 dB as both ω are decade apart.
between ω = 10 to 1000 slope of line is 0 dB/dec.
∴ at ω = 10 magnitude = 20 dB
▶ Therefore equation of first line
20 = +40 log 10 + C
∴ c = −20
▶ Now calculate magnitude at ω = 1
M = 40 log 1 − 20
∴ M = −20
▶ so for K,
20 log k = −20
∴ k = 0.1

Step 3: Find change in slope is ω = 10
∴ ωc1 = 10
▶ Slope changes by 0 − 40 = 40 dB/dec. so there are two poles at ωc1 = 10
1 1
∴ factor is = 2
(1 + p2 s)2 1
1 + 10 s
Step 4: Next change in slope in ω = 100 ∴ωc2 = 100

Slope changes by (-20) - 0 = -20 dB/dec.
▶ So there is a pole at ωc2
1 1
∴ p3 = =
ωc2 100
1 1
∴ Factor is = 1

P3 s 1 + 100
Step 5: So the transfer function is,
0.1s 2
G (s)H(s) =
s 2 s

1 + 10 1+ 100

Example
Obtain transfer function of a system from Following asymptotic gin plot.

Soln:
Let at ω = 5 Magnitude = 0 dB
+ 6 dB/oct = + 20 dB/dec
+12 dB/oct = +40 dB/dec
Slope of starting line is -6 dB/oct i.e.20 dB/dec
so there is a pole at origin
∴ Factor is 1s
Step 2: For k we have to find magnitude at ω = 1
At ω = 10 magnitude = 0 dB.
∴ Starting line equation
0 = −20 log 10 + c
∴ c = 20
so at ω = 1
Magnitude = −20 log 1 + 20
Magnitude = 20
so 20 log k = 20
∴ k = 10

Step 3: Change is slope is at ω = 5 ∴ ωc1 = 5
Slope change is 0 - (-20 dB/dec) = +20 dB/dec
so there is a zero at ω = 5 ∴ z1 = ω1c1
1

∴ The factor is (1 + z1 s) = 1 + 5 s
Step 4: Next change in slope is at ω = 30
∴ ωc2 = 30
Slope changes by (-40) - 0 = -40 dB/dec
1
Hence there are two poles at ω = 30 ∴ p = 30
Hence factor is,
1 1
= 2
(1 + ps)2 1
1 + 30 s
Step 5: Hence transfer function
10 1 + 15 s

G (s)H(s) =
1 2

s 1 + 30

Example GATE EC 2015
Consider the Bode plot shown in the figure. Assume that all the poles and
zeros are real-valued. The value of fH − fL (in Hz) is

Soln:
40 − 0
Calculation of fL : 40 =
log10 (300) − log10 (FL )

300
log10 =1
fL
300 = 10fL
FL = 30Hz
0 − 40
Calculation of fH : −40 =
log10 (fH ) − log10 (900)

fH
log10 =1
900
fH = 900 × 10 = 9000Hz
fH − fL = 9000 − 30 = 8970 Hz
Hence, the correct answer is 8970 Hz

Example GATE EE 2015
A Bode magnitude plot for the transfer function G (s) of a plant is shown in
the figure. Which one of the following transfer functions best describes the
plant?

Soln:
For the given Bode magnitude plot, there are two corner frequencies : ω = 10
and ω = 1000
At ω1 10 rad/sec, the slope changes by −20 dB/dec and resultant slope will
s
be – 20 dB, this is due to the factor 1 + 10 in the denominator of the
transfer function.
At ω2 = 1000 rad/sec, the slope changes by ±20 dB/dec and resultant slope
s

will be 0 dB/dec , this is due to the factor 1 + 1000 in the numerator of the
transfer function.

Calculation of K:
20 log K = 20
∴ k = 10
The overall transfer function can be written as,

1

K · 1 + 1000 s
∴ G (s) = 1
1 + 10 s
10(s + 1000) × 10 (s + 1000)
G (s) = =
1000(s + 10) 10(s + 10)

Example IES EE 2011
The transfer function of a linear control system is given by,
100(s + 15)
G (s) =
s(s + 4)(s + 10)
In the bode diagram the value of gain for ω = 0.1 rad/sec is,
A 20 dB
B 40 dB
C 60 dB
D 80 dB

Soln:
100(s+5)
Given: G (s) = s(s+4)(s+10)
substituting s = ȷω,
100(ȷω + 5)
G (ȷω) =
ȷω(ȷω + 4)(ȷω + 10)
100(5 + j0.1)
G (ȷω) =
j0.1(j0.1 + 4)(j0.1 + 10)
√
100 0.12 + 52
|G (j0.1)| = p = 124.97
2 2 2
0.1 (0.1 + 4 )(0.1 + 10 ) 2
20 log(124.97) = 42dB
Hence the most approximate option is (B).

Example GATE EC 2015
The transfer function of a mass-spring-damper system is given by

1
G (s) = Ms 2 +Bs+K The frequency response data for the system are given in
the following table.
The step response of the system approaches a steady state value of ?

Soln: Given:
C (s) 1
=
R(s) Ms 2 + Bs + K
1 1
C (s) = 2
· for unit step
(Ms + Bs + K ) s
Steady state value is given by,
1
C (∞) = lim sC (s) = lim
s→0 s→0 (Ms 2 + Bs + K )
1
C (∞) =
K
Now, at ω = 0.01 rad/sec, |G (jω)|db = −18.5
∴ 20 log |G (jω)| = −18.5
1
20 log | | = −18.5
K
1 −18.5
C (∞) = = 10 20 = 0.1188
K
∴ C (∞) = 0.12
Hence, The correct answer is 0.12.
Example GATE
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given as
as + 1
G (s) =
s2
The Value of ’a’ given phase margin of 45◦ is equal to
A 0.141
B 0.441
C 0.841
D 1.141

Soln: Given open loop transfer function
jω + 1
G (jω) =
(jω)2
Gain Crossover frequency (ωg ) for the system.
|G (jωg )| = 1
q
a2 ωg2 + 1
=1
−ωg2
a2 ωg2 + 1 = ωg4
ωg4 − a2 ωg2 − 1=0
Phase margin of the system is
ϕPM = 45◦ = 180◦ + ∠G (jωg )

45◦ = 180◦ + tan−1 (ωg a) − 180◦
tan−1 (ωg a) = 45◦
ωg a = 1

From the above equation
1
4
−1−1=0
a
1
∴ a4 = = a = 0.841
2
Hence The answer is (C)

Example GATE
The gain margin of a unity feedback control system with the open loop
transfer function G (s) = (s+1)
s2 is
A 0
B √1s
√
C 2
D ∞

Soln:
Open loop transfer function is.
(s + 1)
G (s) =
s2
jω + 1
G (jω) =
−ω 2
Phase crossover frequency can be calculated as.
∠G (jωp ) = −180◦

−1 1
− tan = −180◦
ωp
Gain margin of the system is
G .M = ∞
Answer is (D).

Example GATE
The asymptotic Bode plot of the minimum phase open-loop transfer function
G(s)H(s) is as shown in the figure. Obtain the transfer function G(s)H(s).

For the given Bode magnitude plot, there are two corner frequencies : ω1 and
ω2 .
The initial slope is -40 dB/dec and this corresponds to a factor s 2 s in the
denominator of the transfer function.
At ω1 , the slope changes by +20 dB/dec
so resultant slope will be -20
dB/dec and this is due to the factor 1 + ωs1 in the numerator of the
transfer function.
At ω2 , the slope changes by -20 dB/dec
so resultant
slope will be -40
dB/dec and this is due to the factor 1 + ωs2 in the numerator of the
transfer function.
Calculation of ω1 :
0 − 20
−20 =
log 1 − log ω1
−20
− log ω1 = = 1 → ω1 = 0.1 rad/sec
20

Calculation of ω2 :
−20 − 0
−20 = → ω2 = 10 rad/sec
log ω2 − log 1
Calculation of K:
20 = 20 log K − 40 log 0.1

−20 = 20 log K
k = 0.1
The Overall transfer function can be written can be written as,

s

k 1 + 0.1
G (s)H(s) = 2 s

s 1 + 10
s

0.1 1 + 0.1 10(s + 0.1)
G (s)H(s) = 2 s
= 2
s 1 + 10 s (s + 10)

Example GATE
The gain-phase plot of a linear control system is shown in the below figure.

Soln:
Since, ωgc > ωpc system is unstable.
At ωgc , G.M. < 0
At ωgc , P.M = 180◦ + ∠G (jωgc )H(jωgc )

∠G (jωgc )H(jωgc ) < −180◦
P.M < 0

Frequency Response Analysis using Nyquist Plots
A Polar plot of G (jω) is a graph of Imaginary G (jω) versus Real G (jω) in

the finite portion of the G (jω) plane for −∞ < ω < ∞.
At Singular point of G (jω) (poles on the jω axis), |G (jω)| →
− ∞.
A polar plot may also be generated on polar co-ordinate paper. The
magnitude and phase angle of G (jω) are plotted with ω varying from
−∞ to + ∞.
To plot |G (jω)| and ∠G (jω) we use the polar co-ordinates. The distance
from the origin i.e. radius is proportional to |G (jω)| and ∠G (jω) is drawn
w.r.t positive X-axis.
The positive phase angle measured from positive real axis in anticlockwise
direction and for negative phase angle is clockwise direction.

Properties of Polar Plots:
1 The polar plot for G (jω) + k, Where k is any complex constant is identical to
the plot for G (jω) with the origin of co-ordinates shifted to the point -k =
(Real k + j Imaginary k).
2 The polar plot of the transfer function of time invariant, constant-coefficient,
linear system exhibits conjugate symmetry. That is, the graph for
−∞ < ω < 0 is the mirror image about the horizontal axis of the graph for
0 ≤ ω < ∞.
3 The polar plot may be constructed directly from a Bode plot, if one is
available. Value of magnitude and phase angle at various frequency ω on the
Bode plot represent points along the locus of the polar plot.
4 Constant increments of frequency are not generally separated by equal
intervals along the polar plot.

Advantages of Polar Plots:
1 Polar plots depicts the frequency response characteristics of a system over the
entire frequency range in a single plot.
2 Graphic study of stability of system can be easily made.
3 Easier determination of ωgc and ωpc .
Disadvantages of Polar Plots:
1 The Polar plots dose not clearly indicate the contributions of each individual
factor of open loop transfer function.
2 For Complex transfer function having multiple crossing on real and imaginary
axis, algebraic manipulations involved are too much and it is difficult to judge
its stability from the polar plot.

Polar plots of standard Functions:
1

Polar plot of integral factor s :
▶ Consider, a unity feedback system with pole at origin

1
i.e. G (s) =
s
▶ To obtain frequency domain transfer function, replace s by jω.
1 1
∴ G (jω) = =
jω ω∠90
1
G (jω) = ∠ − 90◦
ω
1
∴ Magnitude M = |G (jω)| =
ω
Phase ϕ = ∠G (jω) = −90◦

As seen from ∠G (jω) is always −90◦ for any value ’ω’
so plot starts at ∞ at angle −90◦ and ends at origin along the negative
imaginary axis i.e. ImG (jω) axis.
To see effect of |G (jω)| w.r.t ’ω’ put some sample value of ’ω’
1
ω |G (jω)| = ω
0 ∞
1 1
10 0.1
100 0.01
0.1 10
0.01 100
∞ 0

Thus, at ω = 0, |G (jω)| = ∞. Therefore ω = 0 cannot be shown.
Also ω = ∞ means |G (jω)| = 0 i.e. origin.
Thus as we move towards origin from negative Y - axis value of increases but
|G (jω)| keep decreasing.

Polar Plot of Derivative Factor i.e. (s):
Consider, a unity feedback system with zero at origin
i.e. G (s) = s
replace s = jω
∴ G (jω) = jω = ω∠90◦
∴ M = |G (jω)| = ω
Phase ϕ = +90◦
As the ϕ is 90◦ and dose not contain any term ω in it, ∠G (jω) is
independent of ω for all ’ω’. Therefore Plot starts at ω = ∞ and ends at
ω = 0 i.e. origin along the positive imaginary axis ImG (jω).

To see the effect of put some sample values of ’ω’.
ω |G (jω)| = ω
0 0
1 1
10 10
: :
: :
∞ ∞
Thus at ω = 0, |G (jω)| = 0 which means origin corresponds to ω = 0.

1
Polar plot of First Order Pole Factor 1+P1 s :
1
Consider, G (s) = 1+P1 s P1 = Pole constant.
To obtain frequency domain transfer function replace s by jω.
1
G (jω) =
1 + P1 jω
1 + j0 1 −1
∴ G (jω) = =p ∠ − tan P1 ω
1 + jωP1 2
1 + P1 ω 2
1
∴ Magnitude M = |G (jω)| = p
1 + P12 ω 2
and Phase ϕ = ∠G (jω) = − tan−1 P1 ω

For different values of ’ω’, the result can be tabulated as:
ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 1 0
1
P1 0.707 −45◦
10
P1 0.1 −84.28◦
100
P1 0.01 89.42◦
: : :
∞ 0 −90◦
The Table shows that the plot start at point 1 ∠0◦ corresponding to ω = 0
and ends at 0∠ − 90◦ corresponding to ω = ∞ i.e. origin.
The Polar Plot of this transfer function is semicircle as the frequency ω is
varied from 0 to ∞.
The center is located at 0.5 as the total distance between ω = 0 and ω = ∞
as 1. Hence the radius of the semicircle is 0.5.

To Prove that Polar Plot is Semicircle, consider
1 1 − jωP1
G (jω) = =
1 + jωP1 (1 + jωP1 )(1 − jωP1 )
1 − jωP1
G (jω) =
1 + P12 ω 2

1 ωP1
∴ G (jω) = −j = X + jY
1 + P12 ω 2 1 + P12 ω 2
1
were X = 2 2
is real part of G (jω)
1 + P1 ω
−ωP1
Y = 2 2
is imaginary part of G (jω)
1 + P1 ω
Now divide Y by X.
Y
∴ = P1 ω
X
Y
∴ω=
P1 X
Put this value of ω in equation for X

1 1 1
∴X = 2 2
= 2 = 2
1 + P1 ω 1 + YX 2

Y
1 + P12 P1 X
2

Y
∴X 1+ 2 = 1 ∴ X2 − X + Y2 = 0
X
Complete square
12 2 1
X −X + +Y =
4 4
2 2
1 2 1
∴ X− +Y =
2 2
Thus in the X - Y plane G (jω) is a circle with center at X = 12 , Y = 0 and
with radius 21 as shown in fig. The lower semicircle corresponds to
0 ≤ ω ≤ ∞ and the upper semicircle corresponds to −∞ ≤ ω ≤ 0

Polar Plot for Order Zero Factor 1 + Z1 s :
Consider, G (s) = 1 + Z1 s
To Obtain Frequency domain transfer function replace s by jω
∴ G (jω) = 1 + Z1 jω
q
|G (jω)| = 1 + Z12 ω 2
Phase ϕ = −tan−1 Z1 ω
For the diffident Values of ’ω’, the result can be tabulates as:
ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 1 0◦
√
1
Z1 2 45◦
∞ ∞ 90◦

The Table shows that the plot starts at point 1∠0◦ corresponding to ω = 0
and ends at corresponding to ω = ∞. Thus the polar plot is simply the upper
half of the straight line passing through (1,0) in the complex plane and
parallel to the imaginary axis.

1
Polar Plot for Second Order Pole Factor s(1+P1 s) :
▶ Consider the following second order transfer function
1
G (s) =
s(1 + P1 s)
1 1 + j0
G (jω) = =
jω(1 + P1 ω) (0 + jω)(1 + P1 jω)
1
Magnitude M = |G (jω)| = p
ω × 1 + ω 2 P12
−1 0

tan 1 0
Phase ϕ = ∠G (jω) = =
tan−1 ω0 tan−1 ωP1 1 ∠(90)◦ ∠(tan−1 ωP1 )

∴ ϕ = −90◦ − tan−1 ωP1

For different values of ’ω’, the result can be tabulated as:
ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 ∞ −90◦
1
P1
√1 P1
2
−135◦
10
P1 : −174.28◦
100
P1 : −179.45◦
: : :
: : :
∞ 0 −180◦
From the table Polar plot start from ∞∠ − 90◦ corresponding to ω = 0 and ends
at 0∠ − 180◦ corresponding to ω = ∞ i.e. origin. on negative imaginary axis.
∴ Total relation of plot = −180 − (−90◦ ) = −90◦

so additional 90◦ clockwise rotation in starting point can be observed in the
Polar plot.

Lets consider another example,
1
G (s) =
s 2 (1 + P1 s)
1 1 + j0
G (jω) = =
jω · jω(1 + P1 ω) (0 + jω)(0 + jω)(1 + P1 jω)
1
Magnitude M = |G (jω)| = p
ω 2 1 + ω 2 P12
−1 0

tan 1
Phase ϕ = ∠G (jω) = −1 ω
−1 ω
−1 ωP1

tan 0 tan 0 tan 1
∴ ϕ = −180◦ − tan−1 ωP1

ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 ∞ −180◦
1
P1
√1 P 2
2 1
−225◦
10
P1 : −264.28◦
100
P1 : −269.42◦
: : :
: : :
∞ 0 −270◦
From the table, we can see that rotation f plot is 90◦ clockwise but starting
point has further moved to the axis of angle −180◦ . Thus the Polar plot can
be sketched as show in fig.

Multiplication by s n in denominator:
From above two example we can conclude that when any transfer function
multiplied by 1s term it result in two changes:
1 The entire curve advances by −90◦ i.e. one quadrant in clockwise direction.
2 At ω = 0 the |G (jω)| = ∞ i.e. starting point reduces infinitely.

s
Polar Plot Second Order Zero Factor 1+sP1 :
Consider the following second order transfer function
s
G (s) =
1 + sP1
jω ω∠90◦
G (jω) = =p
1 + jωP1 1 + P12 ω 2 ∠ tan−1 P1 ω
ω
∴ |G (jω)| = p
1 + ω 2 P12
∠G (jω) = 90◦ − tan−1 ωP1

1 At ω = 0, |G (jω)| = 0 and ∠G (jω) = 90◦
2 At ω = 1
P1 , |G (jω)| = √1
2P1
and ∠G (jω) = 45◦
3 At ω = ∞, |G (jω)| = limω→∞ √ ω
and ∠G (jω) = 0◦
1+ω 2 P12

Consider one another example,
s2
G (s) =
1 + sP1
jω 2
G (jω) =
1 + jωP1
ω 2 ∠180◦
G (jω) = √
1 + ω 2 P1 ∠ tan−1 ωP1
ω2
∴ |G (jω)| = p
1 + ω 2 P12
∠G (jω) = 180◦ − tan−1 ωP1
For the various value of ’ω’ result can be obtain as:

1 At ω = 0, |G (jω)| = 0 and ∠G (jω) = 180◦
◦
2 At ω = P11 , |G (jω)| = √2P
1
2 and ∠G (jω) = 135
1
3 At ω = ∞, |G (jω)| = limω→∞ √ ω 2 = ∞ and ∠G (jω) = 90◦ of positive
1+ω P1
ImG (jω) axis.

Multiplication by s n in Numerator
From the above examples, when we multiply by s n ∠G (jω) gets 90◦ added i.e.
curve recedes one quadrant anticlockwise. Starting point and ending points
should be found out as it depends on denominator as well.

Example
Find the Polar plot of
1
G (s) =
(1 + P1 s)(1 + P2 s)
Soln:
First convert the given transfer function into frequency domain by replacing s
by jω.
1
∴ G (jω) =
(1 + P1 jω)(1 + P2 jω)
1
∴ |G (jω)| = p
( 1 + P12 ω 2 )(1 + P22 ω 2 )
−1 0

tan 1
∠G (jω) = −1 ωP1
−1 ωP2

tan 1 tan 1
ϕ = − tan−1 ωP1 − tan−1 ωP2

For Various values of ’ω’ the results can be tabulated as:
ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 1 0◦
◦
1 s1 ◦ −1 P2
P1 −45 − tan P1
√
2 P
2 1+ 2
P2
1
◦
P1
1
P2
s1 −45◦ − tan−1 P2
√ P2
2 1+ 1
P2
2
∞ 0 −180◦
Total Rotation of Plot is −180◦ i.e. clockwise direction.

Example
Find the Polar Plot of
1
G (s) =
(1 + sP1 )(1 + sP2 )(1 + sP3 )
Soln:
Frequency domain Transfer Function,
1
G (jω) =
(1 + jωP1 )(1 + jωP2 )(1 + jωP3 )
1
∴ |G (jω)| = p p p
( 1 + ω P1 )( 1 + ω P2 )( 1 + ω 2 P32 )
2 2 2 2
∠G (jω) = − tan−1 ωP1 − tan−1 ωP2 − tan−1 ωP3
1 For ω = 0, |G (jω)| = 1 and ∠G (Jω) = 0◦

2 for ω = ∞, |G (jω)| = 0 and ∠G (Jω) = −270◦

1
we can conclude that when multiplied by 1+P 1s
term the curve approaches
origin by another −90◦ added to old angle.

Example
Draw the Polar plot of

1 + sZ1
G (s) =
1 + sP1
Soln:
convert the transfer function in frequency domain,
1 + jω Z1
G (jω) =
1 + jω P1
p
1 + ω 2 Z12
i.e. |G (jω)| = p
1 + ω 2 P12
∠G (jω) = tan−1 Z1 ω − tan−1 P1 ω

Case 1: Z1 << P1
Assume that Z1 = 1 and P1 = 10
√
1 + ω2
∴ |G (jω)| = √
1 + 100ω 2
∠G (jω) = − tan−1 ω − tan−1 10ω
For different values of ’ω’ the results are shown in Table.

ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 1 0◦
0.01 0.99 −5.13◦
0.1 0.71 −39.29◦
1 0.14 −39.28◦
10 0.1 −5.13◦
100 0.1 0.515◦

Case 2: Z1 >> P1 i.e. Z1 = 10 and P1 = 1
In this case the polar plot is mirror image of the polar plot in case 1 and real
G (jω) axis as shown in Fig.

Example
100
Find the polar plot for GH(s) = s+2
Frequency domain transfer function is
100 50
GH(jω) = =
jω + 2 1 + j ω2
50
|GH(jω)| = q
2
1 + ω4
−1 ω
∠GH(jω) = − tan
2
ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 50 0◦
0.01 44.72 −26.56◦
0.1 35.35 −45◦
0.2 9.8 −78.69◦
0.5 4.97 −84.28◦

ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
1 1.99 −87.7◦
2 0.99 −88.8◦
10 0.099 −89◦
50 49.75 −5.7◦
100 49.93 −2.86◦
The polar plot is show in Fig.

Finding GM and PM from polar plots:
Finding gain margin from polar plots:

we require phase cross over frequency ωpc . Therefore first find out the value
of ωpc i.e. the frequency at which ∠G (jω) = −180◦ .
In the polar plot, it is the point where the polar plot crosses −180◦ line i.e.
negative X - axis [Real G (jω)].
▶ Now find out the |G (jω)| at ω = ωpc

1
Then G .M. =
|G (jω)|ωpc
▶ When the curve dose not cross −180◦

line for finite ω, then Gain Margin is
infinity.

Finding Phase Margin from polar Plots:
we need to find out gain cross over frequency ωgc , it is the point where M =
1. For this purpose nark point (-1,0), with origin as center and radius equal
to 1, draw circle.
The point where the circle cuts the polar
plot is the gain cross over frequency ωgc .
Measure the angle difference between
180◦ and the ωgc . This is the phase mar-
gin.
It is positive if polar plot is below the neg-
ative X - axis and negative if above X -
axis. if the phase curve dose not cross (-
1,0) circle then phase margin is infinity.

Relative Stability from Polar Plots:
Imagine a journey on the Polar plot from ω = 0 and ω = ∞. All the region
to the right of journey is enclosed. Various Polar plots and the region
enclosed from ω = 0 to ∞ is shown in Fig.
If the point (-1,0) is enclosed system, then system is unstable and if the point
(-1,0) is not enclosed, the system is stable.
Another criteria for stability is, when the ωgc < ωpc then system is stable as
the GM and PM are positive.

Example
Find the phase margin and Gain margin analytically for
100
GH(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 4)(s + 8)
Soln:
Replace s by jω to get frequency domain transfer function
100 100
GH(jω) = =
(jω + 2)(jω + 4)(jω + 8) (jω + 2)(−ω 2 + j12ω + 32)
100
=
−jω 3 − 12ω 2 + j32ω − 2ω 2 + j24ω + 64
100
=
−14ω 2 + 64 + j(−ω 3 + 56ω)
Rationalising the transfer function
100(−14ω 2 + 64 − j(−ω 3 + 56ω))
GH(jω) =
[(−14ω 2 + 64)j(−ω 3 + 56ω)][−14ω 2 + 64 − j(−ω 3 + 56ω)]
100j(−ω 3 + 56ω)
=
[(−14ω 2 + 64)2 + (−ω 3 + 56ω)2 ]
Equate imaginary part of zero to get f (ω) = 0, Then we get ωpc
−100
∴ 2 2 3 2
=0
[(−14ω + 64) + (−ω + 56ω) ]
∴ ω 2 − 56 = 0 ωpc = 7.48 rad/sec
Put this value of ωpc in Real part of |G (jω)|
100(−14ω 2 + 64)
∴ |G (jω)| =
[(−14ω 2 + 64)2 + (−ω 3 + 56ω)2 ]
100(−14(−7.48)2 + 64)
=
[(−14(−7.48)2 + 64)2 + (−7.483 + 56 × −7.48)2 ]
∴ |G (jω)| = −0.139
1
Gain Margin = = −7.19
−0.139
As |G (jω)| < −1, 1 point is to right of (-1,0) and so dose not enclose it.
Hence System is Stable.

Example
12
Given GH(s) = s(s+1)(s+2) . Draw the polar plot and hence determine if
system is stable and its gain and phase margin.
Soln: First obtain the frequency domain transfer function by replacing s by jω
12
∴ GH(jω) =
jω(jω + 1)(jω + 2)
12
|GH(jω)| = √ √
ω 1 + ω 4 + ω2
2
−1 −1 ω
∠GH(jω) = − tan ω − tan − 90◦
2
ω |G (jω)| ∠G (jω)
0 ∞ −90◦
0.1 59.62 −98.57◦
0.5 10.41 −130.60◦
1 3.79 −161.56◦
5 0.08 −236.86◦
50 0.0009 −266.56◦

Also let us find out real axis intersection
12 12
G (jω) = =
jω(1 + jω)(2 + jω) jω(2 − ω 2 + 3jω)
12
=
−3ω 2 + jω(2 − ω 2 )
Rationalising we have,
12[−3ω 2 − jω(2 − ω 2 )]
G (jω) =
[(−3ω 2 + jω(2 − ω 2 ))(−3ω 2 − jω(2 − ω 2 ))]
−36ω 2 12(2 − ω 2 )ω
= 2 2 4
−j
[(2 − ω ) + 9ω ] [(2 − ω)2 + 9ω 4 ]
Now separate the real part and imaginary part and make the imaginary part
zero.
12(2 − ω 2 )ω √
∴ 2 4
=0 ∴ω=± 2
ω[(2 − ω) + 9ω ]
√
As ω = ωpc ∴ ωpc = ± 2

Put this value in the real part
−36ω 2
2 2 4
= |GH(jω)|
(2 − ω ) + 9ω
−36 × 2
∴ |GH(jω)| = √ √ = −2
2 2
(2 − 2 ) + 9( 2) 4
∴ GH(jω) = −2
√
1) As ωpc = 2 = 1.41 rad/sec
1 1
∴ Gain Margin = = = 0.5
|GH|ωpc 2
2) Draw unit circle of unity radius. It touches polar plot in second quadrant
ϕ = −232◦
∴ Phase Margin = −180◦ + (−232)◦ = −52◦
As the GM is less than unity and P.M. is negative hence the system is
unstable.

Nyquist Analysis:
Nyquist analysis is a graphical procedure for determining absolute and relative
stability of close loop control systems, based on a frequency response method.
information about stability is available directly from a graph of the sinusoidal
open loop transfer function GH(jω), Once the feedback system has been put
into Canonical form.
Mapping:
A complex function of a complex variable, such as the transfer function P(s)
wit s = σ + jω, cannot be plotted on a single set of co-ordinates.
The complex variable s = +jω is dependent upon two independent quantities,
the real and imaginary part of s. Hence s cannot be represented by a line.
The complex function P(s) also has real and imaginary part, it is also cannot
be graphed in a single dimension.
Consider a function,
KN(s) K (s − s1 )(s − s2 )...
P(s) = =
D(s) (s − sa )(s − sb )...

Any points s1 , s2 , s3 when substitute in P(s) will give values P(s2 ), P(s3 ) in
plane. Then we say s1 , s2 , s3 maps as P(s1 ), P(s2 ), P(s3 ) respectively.
As an example consider
P(s) = s + 2 and
s1 = 1 + j s2 = 1 − j s3 = 2 + j
∴ P(s1 ) = (1 + j) + 2 = 3 + j
P(s2 ) = (1 − j) + 2 = 3 − j
P(s3 ) = (2 + j) + 2 = 4 + j
Thus (1 + j) maps as (3 + j), (1 − j) maps as (3 − j) and (2 + j) maps as

(4 + j).
Instead of tacking three points we can select a path i.e. number of points
and find how that maps in P(s) plane.
In Fig. Path 1 is not completely closed but goes from s1 to s2 . Accordingly in
P(s) plane it may map as shown. If a path begins and ends in itself it is a
closed path Fig. shows a closed path and its mapping.

1 Path enclosing poles and zeros.
2 its mapping.
3 And whether origin is enclosed or not in the mapping i.e. P(s) plane.

Closed and non-closed paths mapping

Properties of the Mapping P(s):
1 P(s) is a single valued function. That is, every point in the s-plane maps into
one and only one point in the P(s) plane.
2 s - plane contours avoid singular points of P(s).
3 P(s) is analytic except possible at a finite number of points (singularities) in
the s-plane.
4 Every closed contour in the s-plane maps into a closed contour in the P(s)
plane.
5 P(s) is conformal mapping. That is, the angle between and direction of any
two intersecting curves in the s-planes are preserved by the mapping of these
curves into the P(s) plane.
6 The total number of encirclement N. of the origin made by a closed P(s)
contour in the P(s) plane, mapped from a closed s-plane contour, is equal to
the number of zeros Z minus the number of poles P of P(s) enclosed by the
s-plane contour. That is N = Z - P.
7 If the origin is enclosed by the P(s) contour, N > 0, If the origin is not
enclosed by the P(s) contour, then N ≤ 0 That is,
enclosed → N > 0
not enclosed → N ≤ 0
The sign of N is easily determined by shading the region to the right of the
contour in the prescribed direction. If the origin falls in shaded region N > 0,
if not N ≤ 0.
Mapping Theorem and Principle of Argument:
Suppose we have a function:
(s − a)(s − b)...
GH(s) = = P(s)
(s − a1 )(s − b1 )...
Now suppose we choose a path of S in the s-plane for the following cases:
1 No poles or zeros of GH(s) are covered.
2 One zero only is covered.
3 One pole only is covered.
4 One pole and one zero are covered.
5 Two, three etc. zeros are covered.
6 Two, three etc. poles are covered.
7 Entire s-plane.
Next depending upon each case, the equation for a change and we plot a
Nyquist plot (polar) for such value of s. Then, we observe that:

Case 1: No Poles and Zeros covered
For the region enclosed by ABCDEF (right hand side of travel direction) the
corresponding region may be ABCDEF in G (jω) plane. The shape is not
important. But note the origin is not covered.

Case 2: Only one zero is covered
In case 2, path covers one zero in s - plane. Here the origin is enclosed once,
in clockwise direction, in P(s) plane.

Case 3: only One pole is covered
In case 3, path covers one pole in s-plane. Here the origin is enclosed only
once in counter clockwise direction (CCW) in mapped P(s) plane.

Case 4: One pole and one zero are covered
Here origin is not covered in the P(s) plane.

Case 5: 2,3 etc. zeros covered
By now the student must have noted that there will two, three etc.
respectively times the origin is enclosed in GH(jω) plane in CW direction.
i.e. Number of zero = Number of CW encirclement about origin
Case 6: 2,3 etc. Poles covered
Again origin is enclosed as many poles are there in CCW direction.
Conclusion of discussion 1:
Case 7: Entire s-plane/Any region of s-plane:
Suppose we choose any region in s-plane (or the entire s-plane). If there are
Z zeros and P poles then the number of encirclements N about the origin
that is in CW direction is given by
N =Z −P
for, Z = 3 P=1 N=2 2 CW encirclements

Z=1 P=1 N=0 2 No encirclements
Z=1 P=3 N = -2 i.e.2 CCW encirclements

Mapping Theorem: (Definition) Let F(s) be a ratio of two polynomials in
s. Let it have P poles and Z zeros in some closed contour in s-plane. This
closed contour should not pass through any pole or zero. This closed contour
when mapped into F(s) plane will be a closed curve such that the total
number of clockwise encirclements about the origin is given by
N =Z −P
Nyquist Path:
For analysis, the stability of linear control system, the contour in the s plane
enclose the entire right half s plane. The contour consists of the entire jω
axis from ω = −∞ to +∞ and a semicircular path of infinite radius in the
right half s plane. Such a contour is called the Nyquist path.
The Nyquist path encloses the entire right half s plane and encloses all the
zeros and poles of 1 + G(s) that have positive real parts.

It is necessary that the closed contour, or Nyquist path, not pass through any
zeros and poles of 1 + G(s). If G(s) has a pole of poles at the origin of the s
plane, mapping of the point s = 0 becomes inseminate. In such cases, the
origin is avoided by taking a detour around it.

The various portion of the Nyquist path can be described analytically in the
following manner.
Path Equation Limits Comments
Along imaginary
ab s = jω 0 < ω < ω0
axis
s= −90◦ ≤ θ ≤ Along a semicir-
bc of radius ρ
limρ→0 (ρe iθ + jω0 ) 90◦ cle
Along imaginary
cd s = jω ω0 ≤ ω < ∞
axis
◦ Along the semi-
+90 ≤ θ ≤
def right half s = limR→∞ Re jθ ◦ circle of radius R
−90
encircling
fg imaginary −∞ < ω < Along negative
s = jω
axis −ω0 Axis
s= −90◦ ≤ θ ≤ Along the semi-
gh of radius ρ
limρ→0 (−jω0 + ρe jθ ) +90◦ circle
hi imaginary Along negative
s = jω −ω0 < ω < 0
axis axis
ija ρ and origin jθ −90◦ ≤ θ ≤ Along a semicir-
s = limρ→0 (ρe )
as center 90◦ cle radius
Nyquist Stability Plot:
The Nyquist stability plot is the extension of the polar plot. It is a mapping
of the entire Nyquist path into the P(s) plane. It is nothing but the
application of mapping theorem to determine stability.
1 Choose a Nyquist path that maps the RHP of s-plane.
2 Plot the corresponding polar plot of G (jω).
3 Draw the mirror image about the real axis Re P of the sketch resulting from
step 2.
4 Look for encirclement about (-1,0). Say there are N′ clockwise encirclement
about (-1,0)
N′ = Z − P
Where P = Poles of G(s) in RHP Z = No. of zeros of G(s)

i.e. poles of closed loop transfer function. The system is stable if,
1 N′ = - P
2 If N′ = 0 then P should be zero.

Nyquist stability Criterion
A feedback system is stable if and only if, the contour in the G(s) plane dose
not encircle the (-1,0) point when the number of poles of G(s) in the right
hand s-plane is zero.
If G(s) has P poles in the right hand plane, then the number of anticlockwise
encirclement of the (-1,0) point must be equal to P for a stable system.
i.e. N = −P0
▶ Where N = Number of clockwise encirclement about (-1,0) point if G(s) plane
▶ P0 = Number of Poles G(s) in RHP ≥ 0
If N > 0, the system is unstable with number of zeros of 1 + G(s) in RHP Z
= N + P0
If N ≤ 0 i.e. (-1,0) is not enclosed the system is stable only for N = 0 and P
=0

Advantages of Nyquist Plot:
1 The Nyquist plot provides the information on the absolute stability of a
control system as dose the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
2 The stability of a closed loop system with a pure time delay can be studied
using Nyquist plot.
3 Determination of stability of closed loop system from OLTF without knowing
the roots of characteristic equation.
4 It indicates relative stability giving the values of Gain Margin and Phase
Margin.
5 It suggest the improvement on stability if necessary.
6 It frequency domain characteristics can be easily calculated from it.
7 It is also useful for analysing conditionally stable system.
8 It is very easy to obtain hence designing is much faster.
Limitation of Nyquist plot:
▶ Nyquist plot is based on trial and error method so the results are not very
accurate.

Steps to Solve the Nyquist Plot:
Step 1: Find the number of poles GH(s) on origin or jω axis.

▶ N = Number of encirclement of critical point (-1 + j0)
▶ P = Number of poles of GH(s) in right half of s-plane.
Step 2: Using equation of Nyquist path, sketch the polar plot.
Step 3: Draw the mirror image of above path. This is mapping of path gi.
Step 4: Employ equation of path del to find out its image. Usually it ends as
a point in origin.
Step 5: Employ equation of path ija to find its image. Connect all curves.
Step 6: Find number of encirclement about (-1+0j) point.
Step 7: Use equitation N = Z - P to decide stability.

Example
1
GH(s) = s+1 . Decide the stability using Nyquist plot.
Soln:
Step 1: As from GH(s)s = −1 i.e. There
is no pole on origin or jω axis. Hence P
= 0.
Step 2: As no pole present. Nyquist path
is shown in Fig.
The Nyquist path are:
1 a - d, s = jω for 0 < ω < ∞
2 d - e - f, s = limR→∞ ρe jθ for
90◦ ≤ ϕ ≤ −90◦
3 f - a, s = jω for −∞ < ω < 0

Now polar plot for path a - d is,
1
GH(jω) =
(jω + 1)
1
|GH(jω)| = √
ω2 + 1
−1 0

tan 1
∠ϕ =
tan−1 ω1
= − tan−1 ω
1
∴ GH(jω) = √ ∠ tan−1 ω
ω2 + 1
For ω = 0 GH(jω) = 1∠0◦

ω=∞ GH(jω) = 0∠ − 90◦
Step 3: Draw the mirror image of above path. That will be the path path
for f - a

Step 4: Now for path d − e − f equation becomes,

1 1
GH(s)|d−e−f path = jϕ
= lim
limR→∞ Re + 1 R→∞ Re jθ + 1
∴ The infinite semicircle d - e - f maps onto a point at origin.

Step 5: As no pole at origin. No need to apply this step. Connect all curves.
Hence plot is as shown in the Fig.
Step 6: The area at RHS is enclosed by these paths. And point (-1 + j0) is
outside the enclosed path. i.e. There is no encirclement about (-1,0) point.
∴N=0
Step 7: As N = 0, P = 0
N =Z −P
0=Z −0 ∴Z =0
Hence System is stable.

Nyquist Diagram
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Imaginary Axis
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Real Axis

Example
1
GH(s) = s(s+1) . Decide stability using Nyquist path.
Soln:
Step 1: Number of poles at right half of s-plane is zero.
s = 0, s = -1 ∴p=0
Step 2: As there is a pole at origin. Nyquist path is given as Fig.
Nyquist paths are:
1 a−d s = jω → for 0 < ω < ∞
2 d − e − f s = limR→∞ Re jθ
→ for 90◦ < θ ≤ −90◦
3 f −i s = jω → for -∞ < ω < 0
4 i − j − a s = limρ→0 ρe jθ
→ for -90◦ < θ ≤ 90◦

Draw polar plot for path a − d
s = jω
1
∴ GH(jω) =
jω(jω + 1)
−1 0

1 ∠ tan 1
GH(jω) = √
tan−1 ω0 tan−1
ω

ω ω2 + 1 1
1
= √ ∠ − 90◦ − tan−1 ω (1)
ω ω2 + 1
As ω varied from 0 < ω < ∞

At ω = 0 GH(jω) = ∞∠ − 90◦
At ω = ∞ GH(jω) = 0∠ − 180◦

ω increases in the interval 0 < ω < ∞, the magnitude of GH decreases from
∞ to 0 and phase angle decreases from −90◦ to −180◦ .
Therefore Contour dose not cross the negative real axis, but approaches it
from below.
Step 3: Draw the mirror image of above

path as shown in Fig. That will be the
plot for path f − i.
Now path d −e−f . Path f ′ i ′ is the mirror
image abut Re G (jω) of path a′ d ′ .
Point d ′ f ′ meet at the origin, the origin
is clearly the image of path d − e − f .

Step 5: Now path i − j − a.
s = lim ρe jθ
ρ→0

1
∴ GH(jω) = lim
ρ→0 ρe jθ (ρe jθ + 1)

1 jθ
= lim → As[ρ → 0, (ρe + 1) → 1]
ρ→0 ρe jθ
= ∞e −jθ = ∞∠ − θ
Hence path i − j − a maps into a semicircle of infinite radius. Here θ varied

from −90◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦
For point i, GH(jω) = ∞ ∠90◦
For point j, GH(jω) = ∞ ∠0◦
For point a, GH(jω) = ∞ ∠ − 90◦
Step 6: Number of encirclement about (-1,0) zero.
∴N=0

Step 7: N = Z - P As N = 0, P=0
∴Z =0
Hence system is stable.

Nyquist Diagram
20
15
10
Imaginary Axis
-5
-10
-15
-20
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
Real Axis

Example
Sketch the Nyquist plot.
1
G (s) =
s(s − 1)
Soln:
Step = 1: Poles are 0,1. one is at right half of s plane.
∴P=1
Step = 2: Nyquist path is as shown in
Fig.
For path a − d.
1
F (jω) =
(jω − 1)
−1 0

1 ∠ tan
∴ F (jω) = √ 1
1+ ω 2 ∠ tan−1 ω
−1
1
=√ ∠ − tan−1 ω
ω2 + 1
1
As we seen before, when multiplied by jω
plot gets extended in 2nd quadrant, shown
in Fig.
Step 3: Draw mirror image of this path
for path f − i.
Step 4: As f ′ and d ′ meet at origin. The
origin is clearly the image of path d −e−f .
Step 5: Now path i − j − a
Put s = lim ρe jθ
ρ→0
1
G (jω) = lim jθ jθ = ∞∠ − θ
ρ→0 ρe (ρe − 1)
As θ is varied from −90◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦

It is shown by a infinite semicircle.

Step 6: Number of encirclement about (-
1,0) is one.
N = 1 in clockwise direction.
Step 7: N = Z - P
N = 1, P=1
1=Z −1
∴Z =2
∴ The System is unstable.

Nyquist Diagram
20
15
10
Imaginary Axis
-5
-10
-15
-20
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
Real Axis

Example
Draw Nyquist plot:

1
GH(s) = where P1 , P2 > 0
(s + P1 )(s + P2 )
Soln:
Step 1: Poles are −P1 , −P2 . No pole in

RHP
∴P=0
Step 2: As no Pole in present Nyquist

path shown in Fig.

Polar plot for path a − d is,
1
GH(jω) =
(jω + P1 )(jω + P2 )
1 ∠ tan−1 (0)
∴ GH(jω) = p 2
p
2

2 2
( ω + p1 )( ω + P2 ) ∠ tan−1 ω tan−1 ω
P1 P2

1 −1 ω −1 ω
∴ GH(jω) = p p ∠ − tan − tan
2 2 2
( ω + p1 )( ω + P2 ) 2 P1 P2
ω varied from 0 < ω < ∞

1 ◦
∴ω=0 GH(jω) = P1 P2 ∠0
ω=∞ GH(jω) = ∞∠ − 180◦
∴ Polar plot is shown in Fig.

Step 3: Draw mirror image of path a − d
i.e. for f − a.
Step 4:

1
s = lim =0
R→∞ (Re jθ + P1 )(Re jθ + P2 )
∴ d − e − f in the origin as |GH(jω)| → 0

Connect all the curve.
Step 5: N = 0. As no encirclement to
(-1,0)
Step 6: N = Z - P
N = 0, P = 0 ∴ Z = 0
hence System is stable.

Example
Draw Nyquist plot,

1
G (s) = a, b > b
s(s + a)(s + b)
Soln:
Step 1:Poles are 0, -a, -b. i.e. No pole

at RHP. ∴ P = 0
Step 2: Nyquist path is shown in fig.

For path a − d put s = jω 0<ω<∞
1
∴ G (jω) =
jω(jω + a)(jω + b)
−1 0

1 tan 1
∴ |G (jω)| = √ √ ∠ −1 ω −1 ω −1 ω

2 2 2
ω ω + a ω + b tan 2
0 tan a tan b
1 ω ω
= √ √ ∠ − 90◦ − tan−1 − tan−1
ω ω 2 + a2 ω 2 + b 2 a b
For ω = 0 G (jω) = ∞∠ − 90◦

For ω = ∞ G (jω) = 0∠ − 270◦
Here angle changes by −180◦

∴ The Polar plot is as shown in Fig.

Step 3: Draw mirror image for path f − i.
Step 4: For path d − e − f , Put,
s = lim Re jθ
R→∞

1
∴ GH(jω) = lim jθ jθ jθ
=0
R→∞ (Re )(Re + a)(Re + b)
Step 5: path i − j − a
s = lim ρe jθ
ρ→∞

1
∴ GH(jω) = lim = ∞∠ − θ
ρ→0 (ρe jθ )(ρe jθ + a)(ρe jθ + b)
Hence it maps into a semicircle to ∞ radius.

Step 6: If the point (-1,0) lies inside point H then N = 1
As one encirclement will be there, system is unstable. If point (-1,0) lies
outsides H then N = 0. hence system will be stable.
If point (-1,0) lies on point H. i.e. co-ordinate of point H (-1,0) then system
will be marginally stable.

Example
Draw Nyquist plot

1
GH(s) =
s 2 (s + a)
Soln:
Poles are s = 0, 0, -a. No pole at RHP. Hence P = 0
Nyquist path is as shown. for path a − d polar plot
1
GH(jω) =
(jω 2 )(jω + a)
1 ω
∴= √ ∠ tan−1 − 180◦
ω ω 2 + a2 a

Draw mirror image of path a − d. That will be the plot for f − i
for path d − e − f
s = lim Re jθ
R→∞
|GH(jω)| = 0
Hence it will map as origin.

for path i − j − a
s = lim ρe jθ
ρ→0
1
∴ GH(jω) = lim
ρ→0 (ρe jθ )2 (ρe jθ + a)
= ∞∠2θ
Hence there are two semicircle of ∞ ra-

dius.
As the point −1 + j0 is encircled by two
times. N = 2.
N=Z-P N = 2, P=0 ∴Z=
2
Nyquist Diagram
0.3
0.2
0.1
Imaginary Axis
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis
Assume a = 5

Example
The open loop transfer function of a feedback control system is given by,
k
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Plot polar plot for the above transfer function and from polar plot determine
the value of k for stable operation.
Soln:
k
G (jω)H(jω) =
jω(jω + 1)(jω + 2)
k
|G (jω)H(jω)| = √ √ √
ω ω + 1 ω2 + 4
2 2
0◦
∠G (jω)H(jω) = ∠
+90◦ tan−1 (ω) tan−1 (ω/2)
= −90◦ − tan−1 (ω) − tan−1 (ω/2)

∴ For ω = 0 G (jω)H(jω) = ∞∠ − 90◦
∴ For ω = ∞ G (jω)H(jω) = 0∠ − 270◦
Hence Polar plot is shown in Fig.

Now find point of intersection to negative real axis.
∴ By rationalizing G (jω)H(jω).
k(−jω)(1 − jω)(2 − jω)

G (jω)H(jω) =
ω 2 (1 + ω 2 )(4 + ω 2 )
k(−jω)(1 − jω)(2 − 3 jω − ω 2 )
=
(ω 2 )(1 + ω 2 )(4 + ω 2 )
k(−3ω 2 ) K (−2 + ω 2 )
= + jω
D D
Equating imaginary part to zero.
ω2 = 2
√
∴ω= 2
Put this in real part,
k(−3)(2) k
∴ point H = =−
2(3)(6) 6

From the polar plot, for stability point H should be at right side of (-1,0).
i.e. point (-1,0) should not be enclosed for stability.
k
∴− < −1
6
∴K <6
∴ Range of k is 0 < k < 6 for stable operation.

Example GATE EC
For a unity feedback system represented by ,

K
G (s) =
s(0.2s + 1)(0.05s + 1)
For K = 1, gain margin is 28 dB. For gain margin 20 dB, the value of K is,
A 5
B 4
C 2.5
D 2

Soln:
Given,
K
G (s) =
s(0.2s + 1)(0.05s + 1)
Put s = jω,
K
G (jω) =
jω(0.2 jω + 1)(0.05 jω + 1)
Magnitude can be written as,
K
|G (jω)H(jω)| = p p
ω (0.2ω) + 1 (0.05ω)2 + 12
2 2
K = 1 for gain margin = 28

1
G .M. = 20 log
|G (jωpc )H(jωpc )|
1
28 = 20 log
|G (jωpc )H(jωpc )|
|G (jωpc )H(jωpc )| = 0.0398

K
|G (jωpc )H(jωpc )| = p p
ωpc (0.2ωpc ) + 1 (0.05ωpc )2 + 12
2 2
1
0.0398 = q q
2 + 1 0.0025ω 2 + 1
ωpc 0.04ωpc pc
∴ ωpc = 10.02 rad/sec
For G.M = 20 dB,

K
|G (jω)H(jω)| = q q
ωpc 2
0.04ωpc 2 +1
+ 1 0.0025ωpc
K
0.1 = √ √
10 0.04 × 10 + 1 0.0025 × 102 + 1
2
∴ K = 2.5
Hence, The correct option is (C)

Alternatively:
Kmar
G .M. =
Kdesired
For a system Kmar is fixed.
Given: Kdesired = 1
In dB, G .M. = 20 log G .M.

28 = 20 log G .M.
G .M. = 25.11
Kmar = G .M. × Kdesired = 25.11
In dB, G .M. = 20 log G .M.
20 = 20 log G .M.
G .M. = 10
Kmar 25.11
Kdesired = = = 2.511
G .M. 10

Example GATE EC
1
The system with the open loop transfer function, G (s)H(s) = s(s 2 +s+1) has a
gain margin of,
A -6 dB
B 0 dB
C 3.5 dB
D 6 dB

Soln:
1
Given: G (s)H(s) = s(s 2 +s+1)
Put s = jω,
1
G (jω)H(jω) =
jω(1 − ω 2 + jω)
1
∴ |G (jω)H(jω)| = p
ω (1 − ω 2 )2 + ω 2

π −1 ω
∠G (jω)H(jω) = − − tan
2 1 − ω2
The frequency at which phase angle of G (jω)H(jω) is −180◦ is called phase

crossover frequency.

π −1 ωpc
∠G (jωpc )H(jωpc ) = − − tan 2
2 1 − ωpc

◦ ◦ −1 ωpc
−180 = −90 − tan 2
1 − ωpc
2
1 − ωpc = 0 → ωpc = 1 rad/sec

Gain margin can be define as reciprocal of the magnitude of the G (jω)H(jω)
measured at phase crossover frequency.
1
G .M. =
|G (jωpc )H(jωpc )
1
|G (jωpc )H(jωpc )| = p =1
2 2
(1 − 1 ) + 1 2
1
G .M. = = 1
1
In dB, G .M. = 20 log(1) = 0dB
Hence, the correct option is (B)

Example GATE IN
−Ls
The loop transfer function of a system is given by G (s)H(s) = 10es . The
phase cross-over frequency is 5 rad/sec. The value of the dead time L is?
A π/20
B π/10
C −π/20
D 0

Soln:
10e −Ls
Given: G (s)H(s) = s and ωpc = 5 rad/sec
Put s = jω
10e −Ljω
G (jω)H(jω) =
jω
π
∠G (jω)H(jω) = −Lω −
2
The frequency at which phase angle of G (jω)H(jω) is −180◦ is called phase
cross-over frequency.
π π π
−Lωpc − = −π → L = =
2 2ωpc 10
Hence, The correct option is (B)

Example GATE EC
A system has poles at 0.01 Hz, 1 Hz and 80 Hz; zeros at 5 Hz, 100 Hz and
200 Hz. The approximate phase of the system response at 20 Hz is
A −90◦
B 0◦
C 90◦
D −180◦

Soln:
The expression for phase will be,

−1 f −1 f −1 f
ϕ = tan + tan + tan
5 100 200

−1 f −1 f −1 f
− tan − tan − tan
0.01 1 80
At f = 20 Hz

−1 20 −1 20 −1 20
ϕ = tan + tan + tan
5 100 200

20 20 20
− tan−1 − tan−1 − tan−1
0.01 1 80
ϕ = −98.2◦ ≈ −90◦
Hence, The correct option is (A)

Example GATE IN
Figure shows the polar plot of a system. The transfer function of the system
is,

Soln:
Figure shows the polar plot of system.
from figure we can conclude that,

|GH(jω)| = 5 at ω = 0
∠GH(jω) = 45◦ at ω = 10 [∵ tan 45◦ = 1]
Only option (A) is satisfying both conditions.
p
|GH(jω)| = 1 + (0.1ω)2
∠GH(jω) = tan−1 (0.1ω)
At ω = 0 |GH(jω)| = 5
At ω = 10 ∠GH(jω) = 45◦
Hence, the correct option is (A).

Example GATE EC
The polar diagram of a conditionally stable system for open loop grain K = 1
is shown in the figure. The open loop transfer function of the system is
known to be stable. The closed loop system is stable for,

Soln:
Given : Open loop transfer function is stable, number of right sided poles, P
= 0.
Nyquist stability criterion is given by,
N =Z −P
N = Number of encirclement of the (-1,j0) point made by the G (s)H(s)

point in CW direction.
Z = Number of zeros of 1 + G (s)H(s) that are inside the Nyquist path (i.e.
the right-half s-plane);Notice that the zeros of 1 + G (s)H(s) are the same as
poles of closed-loop transfer function.
P = Number of poles of 1 + G (s)H(s) that are inside the Nyquist path (i.e.
the right-half s-plane); notice that the poles of (1 + G (s)H(s) are the same
as those of G(s)H(s).

There are four cases:
Case 1: if critical point −1 + j0 lies between 0 and -0.2k
|0.2 K | > 1 → K > 5
Number of encirclement of −1 + 0j, N = 2

N = Z - P = 2 → Z = 2 [Unstable system with two right poles]

Case 2: If critical point −1 + 0j lies between −2K and −0.2K then
encirclement of −1 + j0 are in opposite direction and net encirclement is zero.
Case 3: : If point lies between – 2K and – 8K

|8K | > 1 > |2K | so K > 18 and K < 12

Number of encirclement of −1 + 0j, N = 2
N = Z - P = 2 → Z = 2 [unstable system with two right hand poles]
Case 4: if point −8K > −1 or 8K < 1 then there is no encirclement of −1 + 0j
so two conditions are,
2K > 1, 0.2K < 1

1
K > ,K < 5
2
1 1
< K < 5 and 8K < 1 or K <
2 8
Hence, the correct option is (B).

Example GATE EC
The number and direction of encirelements around the point −1 + 0j in the

complex plane by the Nyquist plot of
1−s
G (s) = , is,
4 + 2s
A Zero
B One, anti-clockwise
C One, clockwise
D Two, clockwise

Soln:
Given:
1−s
G (s) =
4 + 2s
−1 −1 ω
And ∠G (s) = − tan ω − tan
2
At s = 0, |G (s)| = 1
4 = 0.25 and ∠G (s)|ω=0 = 0◦
At s = ∞, |G (s)| = −0.5 and ∠G (s)|ω=0 = 180◦
Here Nyquist plot is,
Hence number of encirclement of (-1+j0) is zero

Method 2:
We know, N = P - Z
Where P = Number of open loop poles lie in right half of s-pane.
1−s
∵ G (s) =
4 + 2s
Hence P = 0 and Z = Number of closed loop poles lie in right half of s-plane.
To find Z, Apply R-H criteria,
Characteristics equation is,
1 + G (s)H(s) = 0
(1 − s)
1+ =0
(4 + 2s)
4 + 2s + 1 − s = 0
s +5=0
s = −5
Hence pole lie on left half of s-plane and Z = 0.
N =P −Z =0−0
N=0
And Number of encirclement to (-1 + j0) is Zero
Example IES
The Nyquist plot of a servo system is shown in the below figure. The root
loci for the system would be,

Soln:
From The Nyquist plot open loop transfer function is given by,
1
G (s)H(s) =
s(sT + 1)
Root locus for the above open-loop transfer function can be drawn as show in
fig.
(2α + 1)180◦
∠A = , α = 0, 1, ...P − Z − 1
P −Z
(2α + 1)180◦
∠A = , α = 0, 1
2
∠A = 90◦ and 270◦
Hence, The correct option is ((B)

Compensators
Compensators are subsystems introduced into the system to meet design

specifications
The desired behavior of the system is specified in terms of transient measures
and the steady state error.
Compensation may Cascaded or Feedback.
Compensators are of three types

1 Lead Compensator
2 Lag Compensator
3 Lead - Lag Compensator

Necessary of Compensation
In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use

compensating networks. Compensating networks are applied to the system in
the form of feed forward path gain adjustment.
Compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
These compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the
system. An important point to be noted here is that the increase in the
steady state accuracy brings instability to the system.
Compensating networks also introduces poles and zeros in the system thereby
causes changes in the transfer function of the system. Due to this,
performance specifications of the system change.

Lead Compensator
Consider a lead compensator having the following transfer function:
Ts + 1
G (s) = Kc α
αTs + 1
s + T1
= Kc 1 (0 < α < 1)
s + αT
Pole is located to the left of zero (zero near origin)
The minimum value of α is limited by the physical construction of the lead
compensator.
The minimum value of α is usually taken to be about 0.05.
Lead Compensator,
1 Improves transient response
2 Increases stability margin
3 Increases system error constant by limited range

The polar plot of,
jωT + 1
G (jω) = Kc α (0 < α < 1)
jωαT + 1
With Kc = 1. shown in Fig.
For a given value of α, the angle between the positive real axis and the
tangent line drawn from the origin to the semicircle gives the maximum
phase-lead angle, ϕm and ωm is the frequency at the tangent point.

The phase angle atω = ωm is ϕm where,
1−α
2 1−α
sin ϕm = 1+α =
2
1+α
Relates the maximum Phase-Lead angle and the value of α

Bode plot diagram of a lead compensator when Kc = 1 and α = 0.1 shown in
Fig.
The Corner frequency for the lead compensator are ω = 1/T and
ω = 1/(αT ) = 10/T.

It can be observed that ωm is the geometric mean of the two corner
frequencies, or

1 1 1
log ωm = log + log
2 T αT
Hence, ωm = √1
αT
The lead compensator is basically a high-pass filter.
The basic requirement of the phase lead network is that all poles and zeros of
the transfer function of the network must lie on (−)ve real axis interlacing
each other with a zero located at the origin of nearest origin.
From the circuit we get,
E0 (s) R2
=
Ei (s) R2 + RR1 +1/Cs
1 /Cs
E0 (s) s + 1/R1 C 1
=
Ei (s) s + R1R+R
2
2 R C
1

R2
T = R1 C and α =
R1 + R2
E0 (s) s + 1/T
G (s) = =
Ei (s) s + 1/αT
Design of Lead Compensator

Assume the following lead compensator:
Ts + 1 s + T1
Gc (s) = Kc α = Kc 1 (0 < α < 1)
αTs + 1 s + αT
Define
Kc α = K
Then,
Ts + 1
Gc (s) = K
αTs + 1
The open loop transfer function of the compensated system is,
Ts + 1 Ts + 1 Ts + 1
Gc (s)G (s) = K G (s) = KG (s) = G1 (s)
αTs + 1 αTs + 1 αTs + 1
where
G1 (s) = KG (s)
Step 1: Determine gain K to satisfy the requirement on the given static error
constant.
Step 2: Using the gain K thus determined, draw a Bode diagram of G1 (jω),
the gain adjusted but uncompensated system. Evaluate the phase margin.
Step 3: Determine the necessary phase-lead angle to be added to the
system. Add an additional 5◦ to 12◦ to the phase-lead angle required,
because the addition of the lead compensator shifts the gain crossover
frequency to the right and decreases the phase margin.

Step 4: Determine the attenuation factor α. Determine the frequency where
the magnitude
√ of the uncompensated system G1 (jω) is equal too
−20 log(1/ α). Select this frequency as
√the new gain crossover frequency.
This frequency corresponds to ωm = 1/ αT , and the maximum phase shift
ϕm occurs at this frequency.
Step 5:Determine the corner frequencies of the lead compensator as follows:
1
Zero of lead compensator : ω =
T
1
Pole of lead compensator : ω =
αT
Step 6: Using the value of K determined in step 1 and that of α determined
in step 4, calculate constant Kc from,
K
Kc =
α
Step 7: Check the gain margin to be sure it is satisfactory. If not, repeat the
design process by modifying the pole–zero location of the compensator until
a satisfactory result is obtained.

Effect of Phase Lead Compensator
It adds a pole and a zero (with zero to the right of pole) to the forward path
transfer function.
It adds more damping to the system.
The rise time and settling time reduces.
Improves the phase margin and gain margin of the closed loop system
The band width of the closed loop system increases (corresponding to faster
system)
The steady state error is not affected

Example
4
The open-loop transfer function G (s) = s(s+2) . it is desired to design a
compensator for the system so that the static velocity error constant Kv is
20 sec −1 , the phase margin is at least 50◦ , and the gain margin is least 10
dB.
Soln:
Use lead compensator of the from,
Ts + 1 s + T1
Gc (s) = Kc α = Kc 1
αTs + 1 s + αT
The compensated system will have the open-open transfer function

Gc (s)G (s). Define,
4K
G1 (s) = KG (s) = K = Kc α
s(s + 2)
The first step in the design is to adjust the gain K to meet the steady-state
performance specification or to provide the required static velocity error
constant. Since this constant is given as 20 sec −1 .
Ts + 1
Kv = lim sGc (s)G (s) = lim s G1 (s)
s→0 s→0 αTs + 1
s4K
= lim = 2K = 20
s→0 s(s + 2)
∴ K = 10
With K = 10, the compensated system will satisfy the steady-state

requirement.
Plot the Bode diagram of ,
40 20
G1 (jω) = =
jω(jω + 2) jω(0.5jω + 1)

Fig. shows the magnitude and phase-angle curves of G1 (jω). The phase and
gain margins of the system are found to be 17◦ and +∞ dB, respectively.
A phase margin of 17◦ implies that the system is quite oscillatory.Thus,
satisfying the specification on the steady state yields a poor
transient-response performance.
The specification calls for a phase margin of at least 50◦ .

We thus find the additional phase lead necessary to satisfy the relative
stability requirement is 33◦ .
To achieve a phase margin of 50◦ without decreasing the value of K, the lead
compensator must contribute the required phase angle.
The addition of a lead compensator modifies the magnitude curve in the
Bode diagram, the gain crossover frequency will be shifted to the right.
Assume that ϕm , the maximum phase lead required, is approximately 38◦ .
This means that 5◦ has been added to compensate for the shift in the gain
crossover frequency. since,
1−α
sin ϕm =
1+α
ϕm = 38◦
∴ α = 0.24
√
The geometric mean of the two corner frequencies, ω = 1/ αT

√
The amount of the modification in the magnitude curve at ω = 1/ αT due
to the inclusion of the term (Ts + 1)/(αTs + 1) is,
1 + jωT 1 + j √1α 1
= =√
1 + jωα √
ω=1/ αT 1 + jα √1α α
Note That,
1 1
√ =√ = 6.2 dB
α 0.24
Select this frequency to be the new gain crossover frequency ωc .
1
ωc = √
αT
1 √
∴ = αωc = 4.41
T
And
1 ωc
= √ = 18.4
αT α

The lead compensator thus determined is,
s + 4.41 0.227s + 1
Gc (s) = Kc = Kc α
s + 18.4 0.054s + 1
where the value of Kc is determined as
K 10
Kc = = = 41.7
α 0.24
Thus, the transfer function of the compensator becomes
s + 4.41 0.227s + 1
Gc (s) = 41.7 = 10
s + 18.4 0.054s + 1
Note that,
Gc (s) Gc (s)
G1 (s) = 10G (s) = Gc (s)G (s)
K 10
The compensated system has the following open-loop transfer function:
s + 4.41 4
Gc (s)G (s) = 41.7
s + 18.4 s(s + 2)

The magnitude curve and phase-angle curve for Gc (jω)/10 are shown in Fig.

The solid curves in Figure show the magnitude curve and phase-angle curve
for the compensated system.
The bandwidth is approximately equal to the gain crossover frequency.
The lead compensator causes the gain crossover frequency to increase from
6.3 to 9 rad/sec.
The increase in this frequency means an increase in bandwidth.This implies
an increase in the speed of response.
The phase and gain margins are seen to be approximately 50◦ and +∞ dB,
respectively.
The value of the static velocity error constant Kv is merely the value of the
frequency corresponding to the intersection of the extension of the initial –20
dB/decade slope line and the 0 dB line.

Unit-Step Responses of Compensated and Uncompensated Systems
1.4
Compensated system
1.2
Uncompensated system
0.8
Outputs
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t Sec
Unit-Ramp Responses of Compensated and Uncompensated Systems
5
4.5
4
Compensated system
3.5
3
Outputs
2.5
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
t Sec
Lag Compensator
A system which has one zero and one dominating pole (the pole which is
closer to origin that all other poles is known as dominating pole) is known as
lag network. If we want to add a dominating pole for compensation in control
system then, we have to select a lag compensation network.
The basic requirement of the phase lag network is that all poles and zeros of
the transfer function of the network must lie in (-)ve real axis interlacing each
other with a pole located or on the nearest to the origin.
Consider a lag compensator having the following transfer function:
Ts + 1
Gc (s) = Kc β
βTs + 1
s + T1
= Kc 1 (β > 1)
s + βT

Polar plot of a lag compensator as shown in Fig.
β(jω + 1)
G (jω) = Kc β>1
(jωβT + 1)
Kc = 1 and β = 10
In the complex plane, a lag compensator has a zero at s = –1/T and a pole
at s = –1/(βT ). The pole is located to the right of the zero.

. Fig. shows a Bode diagram of the compensator, where Kc = 1 and β = 10.
The corner frequencies of the lag compensator are at ω = 1/T and
ω = 1/(βT ).
The magnitude of the lag compensator becomes 10 (or 20 dB) at low

frequencies and unity (or 0 dB) at high frequencies.
Thus, the lag compensator is essentially a low-pass filter.
E0 (s) R2 + 1/Cs
=
Ei (s) R1 + R2 + 1/Cs

 
E0 (s) 1  s + 1/R2 C
=

Ei (s) R1 +R2
s + R1 +R12
 
R2 R2 C
R2
R1 + R2
T = R2 β = >1
R2

1 + jωT
Gc (jω) = , β>1
1 + jβωT
ϕ = tan−1 ωT − tan−1 ωβωT
The frequency (ωm ) at which maximum phase lag ϕm can be obtained by,
s
dϕ 1 1 1
= 0 ∴ ωm = √ =
dω T β T βT
ωm T (1 − β) (1 − β)
tan ϕm = 2 2
= √
1 + βωm T 2 β
(1 − β)
sin ϕm =
(1 + β)
Effect of Phase Lag Compensation
1 Gain crossover frequency increases.
2 Bandwidth decreases.
3 Phase margin will be increase.
4 Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and
the settling time become larger.
Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation
1 Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies are attenuated.
2 Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state accuracy
increases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation
1 Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the system
decreases.

Design of Lag Compensator
Consider a lag compensator having the following transfer function:
Ts + 1 s + T1
Gc (s) = Kc β = Kc 1 (β > 1)
βTs + 1 s + βT
Kc β = K
Ts + 1
∴ Gc (s) = K
βTs + 1
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is
Ts + 1 Ts + 1 Ts + 1
Gc (s)G (s) = K G (s) = KG (s) = G1 (s)
βTs + 1 βTs + 1 βTs + 1
Step 1: Determine gain K to satisfy the requirement on the given static
velocity error constant.

Step 2: If the gain-adjusted but uncompensated system G1 (jω) = KG (jω)
dose not satisfy the specifications on the phase and gain margins, then find
the frequency point where the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function
is equal to −180◦ plus the required phase margin. The required phase margin
is the specified phase margin plus 5◦ to 12◦ and choose this frequency as the
new gain crossover frequency.
Step 3: Choose the corner frequency ω = 1/T (corresponding to the zero of
the lag compensator) 1 octave to 1 decade below the new gain crossover
frequency.
Step 4: Determine the attenuation necessary to bring the magnitude curve
down to 0 dB at the new gain crossover frequency. Noting that this
attenuation is −20 log β, determine the value of β. Then the other corner
frequency (corresponding to the pole of the lag compensator) is determined
from ω = 1/(βT )
Step 5: Using the value of K determined in step 1 and that of β determined
in step 4, calculate constant Kc from,
K
Kc =
β

Example
Consider the system shown in Figure. The open-loop transfer function is

given by
1
G (s) =
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
It is desired to compensate the system so that the static velocity error

constant Kv is 5 sec –1 , the phase margin is at least 40◦ , and the gain margin
is at least 10 dB.

Soln:
Ts + 1 s + T1
G( s) = Kc β = Kc 1 (β > 1)
βTs + 1 s + βT
K
G1 (s) = KG (s) =
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
The first step in the design is to adjust the gain K to meet the required static
velocity error constant. Thus,
Ts + 1
Kv = lim sGc (s)G (s) = lim s Gs (s) = lim sG1 (s)
s→0 s→0 βTs + 1 s→0
sK
= lim =k =5
s→0 s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
With K=5, the compensated system satisfies the steady-state performance

requirement.

Plot the Bode diagram of,
5
G1 (jω) =
jω(jω + 1)(0.5jω + 1)
Bode diagrams for G1 (gain-adjusted but uncompensated open-loop transfer

function), Gc (compensator), and Gc G (compensated open-loop transfer
function).
Phase margin of G1 (jω) curve is found to be −20◦ , which means that the
gain-adjusted but uncompensated system is unstable.
From the Bode diagram, we obtain that the additional required phase margin
of 40◦ + 12◦ = 52◦ is obtained at ω = 0.5 rad/sec
The new gain crossover frequency will be: ωc = 0.5 rad/sec
Place the zero of the lag compensator at ω = 1/T = 0.1 rad/sec at about
1/5 of ωc
The new gain crossover frequency ωc = 0.5 rad/sec is 20 dB. In order to
have ωc as the new gain crossover frequency, the lag compensator must give
an attenuation of -20 db at ωc .
Hence,
1
20 log = −20 β = 10
β

The other corner frequency β = 1/(βT ), which corresponds to the pole of
the lag compensator, is then determined as
1
= 0.01 rad/sec
βT
The transfer function of the lag compensator is
1
10s + 1 s + 10
Gc (s) = Kc (s) = Kc 1
100s + 1 s + 100
The gain K was determined to be 5 and β was determined to be 10,

K 5
Kc (s) = = = 0.5
β 10

The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is,
5(10s + 1)
Gc (s)G (s) =
s(100s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
The effect of the lag compensator is:

▶ The original unstable closed-loop system is now stable.
▶ The phase margin ≈ 40◦ → acceptable transient response.
▶ The gain margin ≈ 11 dB → acceptable transient response.
▶ Kv is 5 as required → acceptable steady-state response.
▶ The gain at high frequencies has been decreased.

Unit-Step Responses of Compensated and Uncompensated Systems
1.4
Compensated system
1.2
0.8
Outputs
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
t Sec

Unit-Ramp Responses of Compensated and Uncompensated Systems
20
18
16
14
12
Outputs
10
6
4
Compensated system
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
t Sec

Comparison between lead and lag compensators
Lead Compensator Lag Compensator

Band width Increases Band width decreases
High frequency gain increases
Dynamic response becomes faster Dynamic response slows down
Susceptible to high frequency noise High frequency noise suppressed
No significant decreases in steady Steady state error is reduced
state error
Application : When fast dynamic Application : When low steady state
response is required error is required
Cannot be applied when phase angle of Cannot be applied when uncompensated
uncompensated system is decreasing system phase angle in low frequency
rapidly near Gain cross over frequency region is not sufficient to provide
requisite phase margin

Lag-Lead Compensator:
Consider the lag–lead compensator given by
1
! !
s + T1 s + T12
Gc (s) = Kc
s + Tγ1 s + βT1
2
The term
1
!
s+ T1 1 T1 s + 1
γ = T1
(γ > 1)
s+ T1 γ γ s +1
Produces the effect of the lead network, and the term,

1
s+

T1 T2 s + 1
1 =β (β > 1)
s+ βT2
βT2 s + 1
produces the effect of the lag network.

Bode diagram of a lag–lead compensator
Polar plot of a lag–lead compensator with Kc = 1 and γ = β = 10 and
with Kc = 1 and γ = β T2 = 10T1
It can be seen that for 0 < ω < ω1 , the compensator acts as a lag
compensator and For ω1 < ω < ∞ it acts as a lead compensator.
where ω1 = √ 1
T1 T2
The design of a lag–lead compensator by the frequency-response approach is
based on the combination of the design techniques discussed under lead
compensation and lag compensation.

The equation Gc (s) can be realized by a single electric lead lag network as,
E0 (s) R2 + 1/C2 s
=
Ei (s) R2 + C12 s + RR1 +1/C
1 /C1 s
1s
(R2 C2 s + 1)(R1 C1 s + 1)
=
R1 R2 C1 C2 s 2 + (R1 C1 + R2 C2 + R1 C2 )s + 1

E0 (s) (s + 1/R2 C2 )(s + 1/R1 C1 )
=
Ei (s) s 2 + R21C2 + R11C1 + R21C1 s + R1 R21C1 C2
R1 C1 = T1
R2 C2 = T2
1 1 1 1 1
+ + = +
R2 C2 R1 C1 R2 C1 βT1 αT2
R1 R2 C1 C2 = αβT1 T2
αβ=1
1 1 1 1 β
+ + = +
R2 C2 R1 C1 R2 C1 βT1 T2

s + 1/T1 s + 1/T2
Gc (s) = β>1
s + 1/βT1 s + β/T2

Example
Consider the unity-feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is,
K
G (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
It is desired that the static velocity error constant be 10sec –1 , the phase
margin be 50◦ , and the gain margin be 10 dB or more.
Soln:
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is Gc (s)G (s).
Since the gain K of the plant is adjustable, let us assume that Kc = 1. Then
lims→0 Gc (s) = 1
Static velocity error constant,
Kv = lim sGc (s)G (s)

s→0
K K
= lim sGc (s) = = 10
s→0 s(s + 1)(s + 2) 2

Bode diagram of the uncompensated system with K=20, as shown in Figure,
Bode diagrams for G (gain-adjusted but uncompensate open-loop transfer

function), Gc (compensator), and Gc G (compensated open-loop transfer
function).
Notice that ∠G (jω) = 180◦ at ω = 15 rad/sec.
phase lead angle required at ω = 1.5 rad/sec is about 50◦
Choose the corner frequency ω = 1/T2 which corresponds to the zero of the
phase-lag portion of the compensator to be 1 decade below the new gain
crossover frequency.
lead compensator the maximum phase-lead angle ϕm is given by Equation
1
1− β β−1
sin ϕm = 1 =
1+ β
β+1
β = 10 corresponds to ϕm = 54.9◦ .
1
The Corner frequency ω = βT 2
which corresponds to the pole of the
phase-lag portion of the compensator becomes ω = 0.015 rad/sec.
The transfer function of the phase-lag portion of the lag–lead compensator
then becomes,

s + 0.15 6.67s + 1
= 10
s + 0.0015 66.7s + 1

New new gain crossover frequency is ω = 1.5 rad/sec, from the Fig. G (j1.5)
is found to be 13 dB.
If the lag–lead compensator contributes –13 dB at ω = 1.5 rad/sec, then the
new gain crossover frequency is as desired.
Draw a straight line of slope 20 dB/decade, passing through the point (1.5
rad/sec, –13 dB).
The intersections of this line and the 0-dB line and –20-dB line determine the
corner frequencies.
The corner frequencies for the lead portion are ω = 0.7 rad/sec and ω = 7
rad/sec.
The transfer function of the lead portion of the lag–lead compensator
becomes

s + 0.7 1 1.43s + 1
=
s +7 10 0.143s + 2

Combining the transfer functions of the lag and lead portions of the
compensator, where Kc = 1

s + 0.7 s + 0.15
Gc (s) =
s +7 s + 0.015

1.43s + 1 6.67s + 1
=
0.143s + 1 66.7s + 1
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is
(s + 0.7)(s + 0.15)20
Gc (s)G (s) =
(s + 7)(s + 0.015)s(s + 1)(s + 2)
10(1.43s + 1)(6.67s + 1)
=
2(0.143s + 1)(66.7s + 1)(s + 1)(0.5s + 2)


Control System 2021 DD 230915 114447

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Control Systems

Prof. Dipankar Deb

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 1 / 525

Introduction to Control Systems

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 2 / 525

System: An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 3 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 4 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 5 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 6 / 525

The bandwidth of open loop control system is small.

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 7 / 525

Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to compare the actual output

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 8 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 9 / 525

Bandwidth is conventionally defined as the frequency at which the response

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 10 / 525

They are very complex and complicated to design.

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 11 / 525

A Servo System (or servomechanism) is a feedback control system in which

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 12 / 525

Continuous Time Control Systems, the signals in all parts of a control

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 13 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 14 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 15 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 16 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 17 / 525

Solution of intego differential equation of time systems can be easily obtained.

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 18 / 525

The Laplace transform of a function, f (t), is defined as,

f (t) = L−1 {F (s)}

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 19 / 525

f (t) F (s) = L[f (t)]

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 20 / 525

for the system shown,

Laplace of output C (s)

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 21 / 525

Error Signal is given by;

E (s) = R(s) − B(s) (1)

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 22 / 525

The Laplace transform can be used independently on different circuit

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 24 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 25 / 525

Apply KVL for input loop

Figure: Time Domain Figure: Laplace Domain

Apply KVL for input loop,

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 29 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 30 / 525

Solution: To obtain highest power of denominator, Simplify denominator

The highest power of equation in denominator of given transfer function is

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 31 / 525

Zero(0) Order System

▶ Consider a unity feedback system with transfer function

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 32 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 33 / 525

▶ Consider a unity feedback system with transfer function

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 34 / 525

It is a simple way to represent any practically complicated system. In this

Output Y(s) = 3s.X(s)

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 35 / 525

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 36 / 525

Feedback Path: The direction of flow of signal is from output to input

Prof. Dipankar Deb (IITRAM) 37 / 525