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DRAFT Table of Contents
Safety in the Chemistry Lab and Classroom Chapter 6 Reaction Rates
6.1 Rates of Reaction
Unit 1: Organic Chemistry
Unit 1 Preparation
6.2 Collision Theory and Factors Affecting Rates of Reaction
6.3 Reaction Rates and Reaction Mechanisms
Chapter 6 Summary
Chapter 1 Structure and Physical Properties of Chapter 6 Review
Organic Compounds Chapter 6 Self-Assessment
1.1 Introducing Organic Compounds Unit 3 Project
1.2 Hydrocarbons Unit 3 Summary
1.3 Hydrocarbon Derivatives Unit 3 Review
1.4 Refining and Using Organic Compounds Unit 3 Self-Assessment
Chapter 1 Summary
Chapter 1 Review
Chapter 1 Self-Assessment Unit 4 : Chemical Systems
Chapter 2 Reactions of Organic Compounds
2.1 Types of Organic Reactions
and Equilibrium
Unit 4 Preparation
2.2 Polymers and the Petrochemical Industry
Chapter 2 Summary
Chapter 7 Chemical Equilibrium
7.1 Understanding Chemical Equilibrium
Chapter 2 Review
7.2 Equilibrium Expressions and Le Châtelier’s Principle
Chapter 2 Self-Assessment
7.3 Equilibrium Calculations for Homogeneous Systems
Unit 1 Project
7.4 Applications of Equilibrium Systems
Unit 1 Summary
Chapter 7 Summary
Unit 1 Review
Chapter 7 Review
Unit 1 Self-Assessment
Chapter 7 Self-Assessment
Chapter 8 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems
Unit 2: Structure and 8.1 Understanding Acids and Bases

Properties of Matter
Unit 2 Preparation
8.2
8.3
Acid-Base Equilibrium
Titration Curves and Buffers
Chapter 8 Summary
Chapter 3 The Atomic Model and Properties of Chapter 8 Review
Chapter 8 Self-Assessment
Atoms Unit 4 Project
3.1 Conceptual Models of the Atom Unit 4 Summary
3.2 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom Unit 4 Review
3.3 How Forces within and between Molecules Affect the Properties of Unit 4 Self-Assessment
Solids and Liquids
Chapter 3 Summary
Chapter 3 Review
Chapter 3 Self-Assessment Unit 5: Electrochemistry
Unit 5 Preparation
Chapter 4 Structures and Properties of Compounds
4.1 Shapes of Ions and Molecules Chapter 9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
4.2 Polarity of Molecules 9.1 Characterizing Oxidation and Reduction
4.3 How Forces within and between Molecules Affect the Properties of 9.2 Redox Reactions Involving Ionic Compounds
Solids and Liquids 9.3 Redox Reactions Involving Molecular Compounds
Chapter 4 Summary Chapter 9 Summary
Chapter 4 Review Chapter 9 Review
Chapter 4 Self-Assessment Chapter 9 Self-Assessment
Unit 2 Project Chapter 10 Electrochemical Cells
Unit 2 Summary 10.1 Galvanic Cells
Unit 2 Review 10.2 Applications of Galvanic Cells
Unit 2 Self-Assessment 10.3 Driving Non-Spontaneous Reactions
Chapter 10 Summary
Unit 3: Energy Changes and Chapter 10 Review
Chapter 10 Self-Assessment
Rates of Reaction
Unit 3 Preparation
Unit 5 Project
Unit 5 Summary
Unit 5 Review
Chapter 5 Energy Changes Unit 5 Self-Assessment
5.1 Energy and Heat
5.2 Thermochemical Equations and Calorimetry Appendix A: Science Skills
5.3 Hess’s Law Appendix B: Useful References
5.4 Energy Efficiency and Energy Resources Appendix C: Answers to Selected Questions and Problems
Chapter 5 Summary Glossary
Chapter 5 Review Index
Chapter 5 Self-Assessment
 CHAPTER
Chemical Equilibrium
7
Specific Expectations
In this chapter, you will learn how to . . .
• E1.1 analyze the optimal conditions
for a specific chemical process related
to the principles of equilibrium (7.4)

• E1.2 assess the impact of chemical

equilibrium processes on various
biological, biochemical, and technological
systems (7.2, 7.4)

• E 2.1 use appropriate terminology related

to chemical systems and equilibrium
(7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4)

• E2.2 predict, applying Le Châtelier’s

principle or the reaction quotient for a
given reaction (7.2)

• E2.3 conduct an inquiry to determine

the value of an equilibrium constant for a
chemical reaction (7.3)

• E2.4 solve problems related to equilibria

by performing calculations involving
concentrations of reactants and products
(7.2, 7.3)

• E3.1 explain the concept of dynamic

equilibrium, using examples of physical
and chemical equilibrium systems (7.1)

• E3.2 explain the concept of chemical

equilibrium and how it applies to the
concentration of reactants and products in
a chemical reaction at equilibrium (7.1)

• E3.3 explain Le Châtelier’s principle and

how it applies to changes to a chemical
reaction at equilibrium (7.2)

• E3.4 identify common equilibrium

constants (7.3)

Ammonia is an important industrial compound that is used as a crop fertilizer and as an essential raw
material in other processes, such as manufacturing paint like the type that is used to decorate this factory.
Many of the chemical reactions that you have studied proceed in only one direction. The reactants
chemically combine and form products. Some overall reactions involve more than one reaction,
however. For example, one of the chemical reactions that occurs in the production of ammonia is
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
At the same time that this reaction occurs, another reaction is also occurring:
2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)
In the same reaction vessel, the reactants are combining and forming ammonia while the ammonia
is decomposing and reforming the reactants. In this chapter, you will learn more about this type of
reaction and some chemical processes that feature them.

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 Launch Lab

The Chemical Blues

In this demonstration, you will observe an example of a reversible change
that involves a colour change.

Safety Precautions

• Wear safety eyewear throughout this activity.

• Your teacher will use extreme care when handling the materials.

Materials
• 5% glucose solution, • 500 mL Erlenmeyer flask with
C6H12O6(aq) (5 g/100 mL) stopper
• 8 mol/L sodium hydroxide • test tube with stopper
solution, NaOH(aq) • ice bath
• methylene blue indicator • warm-water bath

Procedure
This activity is a teacher demonstration. Students should not perform it.
1. Your teacher prepared solutions in advance. The solutions should be in
stoppered flasks. Each of the following solutions will be added to a 500
mL flask: 250 mL of glucose solution; 7.5 mL of
8 mol/L NaOH; and 1 to 2 drops of methylene blue.
2. Record the appearance of the solution in the flask. As a class, discuss
the nature of each component of the solution.
3. The teacher will give the flask a few vigorous shakes.
4. Observe and record the appearance of the solution in the flask.
5. Discuss possible explanations for the solution’s colour change.
6. Wait until the solution in the flask changes colour again.
7. Propose possible reasons for the solution’s colour changes.
8. Suggest ways to test your proposals.
9. Your teacher will test as many of the proposals as possible.
10. As a class, propose an explanation for the observed solution’s colour
changes.

Questions
1. What evidence do you have that the reaction you observed was
reversible?
2. How do you think shaking the flask affected the reaction?
3. How could you determine if energy, in the form of heat, played a role
in either the forward or reverse reaction?

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 SECTION
Chemical Systems in Balance
7.1
Key Terms Previously, when you used stoichiometry to calculate the mass of a product, you assumed
reversible reaction
that the only factor limiting the amount of product produced was the presence of a limiting
reactant. In those calculations, you assumed that the reactants produced products until one
chemical equilibrium
of the reactants was completely consumed. When there is an almost complete conversion of
dynamic equilibrium
reactants to products or when the reaction proceeds until the limiting reactant is gone, the
homogeneous equilibrium
reaction goes to completion. However, many reactions do not proceed to completion, and
heterogeneous equilibrium in this section, you will learn why this is the case.
law of chemical equilibrium
or law of mass action Reversible Reactions and Chemical Equilibrium
equilibrium constant, Keq
Consider the reaction that produces ammonia, NH3(g). This reaction consists of a forward
reaction and a reverse reaction. A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction that proceeds
in both forward and reverse directions. In the forward direction (reading the reaction from
reversible reaction a
left to right), the reactants form products. In the reverse direction (reading the reaction from
chemical reaction that
proceeds in both the right to left), the product decomposes to reform the reactants. In ammonia production, the
forward and reverse forward and reverse reactions are as follows:
directions
Forward: N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
Reverse: 2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)
Consider what happens when 1 mol of nitrogen, N2(g), is added to 3 mol of hydrogen,
H2(g), in a closed system. Recall that in a closed system, energy can cross the system
boundary, but matter cannot. Initially, the concentrations of nitrogen and hydrogen are
high and the concentration of ammonia is zero, as shown in Figure 7.1. As the reaction
proceeds in the forward direction, the concentrations of nitrogen and hydrogen decrease
and the concentration of ammonia increases.
Notice that to the right of the dashed line in the graph, the concentrations of
chemical equilibrium substances no longer change over time. Remember that the reverse reaction is occurring
a state in a chemical simultaneously along with the forward reaction. Some of the ammonia is decomposing and
system in which the reforming the reactants. The portion of the graph to the right of the dashed line represents
forward reaction and a chemical system in equilibrium. Equilibrium (plural equilibria) occurs when opposing
the reverse reaction are forces or processes are in balance. In a chemical system, when the forward reaction and the
occurring at the same
reverse reaction are balanced and the reactions are occurring at the same rate, the system is
rate
said to be in chemical equilibrium.

Reactant and Product Concentration vs. Time

Concentration

Figure 7.1 At equilibrium,

the concentrations of the
reactants and the products
are constant and the rate of H2
the forward reaction equals
NH3
the rate of the reverse
reaction.
Describe what is occurring N2
on the molecular level in
terms of collisions as the
reaction proceeds. Time

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 Chemical Equilibrium and Dynamic Equilibrium
One way to visualize chemical equilibrium is to think about a rope-pull competition, as
shown in Figure 7.2. When the two men pull on the rope with the same force but in opposite
directions, the forces are balanced. The system consisting of the two men and the rope is in
equilibrium. It is important to note that while it looks like the men in the competition are
static or inactive, they are not. Each man is actively pulling on the rope with equal force in
opposite directions. In other words, the actions of the men are competing.
Figure 7.2 Sometimes
during a rope-pull
competition, both sides
pull with equal force in
opposite directions.
Describe how an equally
matched rope-pull
competition is similar
to a chemical system at
equilibrium.

The same is true of chemical equilibrium—reactions are proceeding in both directions,

but at the same rate, so there is no net change in the concentrations of reactants or
products. In the ammonia production process, the molecules do not stop combining and
decomposing. Instead, the process is a dynamic or changing one in which the nitrogen
and hydrogen molecules continue to combine while, at the same time, ammonia molecules
decompose. The forward reaction and the reverse reaction occur at the same rate, so the
overall concentrations of the molecules remain constant in the closed system.
This chemical system at equilibrium has the macroscopic property of constant
concentrations of the reactants and product. A macroscopic property is an observable or
measurable property such as concentration, colour, temperature, pressure, and pH. When a
system is changing at the molecular level, but its macroscopic properties remain constant,
the system is said to be in dynamic equilibrium. In the chemical equilibrium system
dynamic equilibrium
involved in ammonia production, the system looks static because the concentrations are a chemical system
constant, but the system is dynamic because the molecules continuously react to form at equilibrium that
product and decompose to form reactants. is changing at the
Look at the graph in Figure 7.1 again. Notice that none of the concentrations in the molecular level, while its
equilibrium system is the same. Each substance stabilizes at a different concentration. In macroscopic properties
remain constant
chemical systems at equilibrium, the concentrations of the reactants and the products are
constant, but they are not necessarily equal.

Writing Equilibrium Equations

Chemists use a simplified method for writing equations for reversible reactions like the one
that produces ammonia. Chemists combine the two equations that represent a reversible
reaction into a single equation such as this one:
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
Reading the chemical equation from left to right shows the forward reaction. Reading the
chemical equation from right to left shows the reverse direction. The double arrows ()
indicate that the chemical reaction is proceeding in both directions.

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 Learning Check

1. What is a reversible reaction?
2. What do the double arrows () mean in a chemical
equation?
3. List three macroscopic properties of boiling water at
atmospheric pressure.
4. During an investigation, your lab partner states that
a chemical system is not at equilibrium because
the concentrations of the reactants and products
are not equal. Explain why this statement might be
incorrect.
5. The term dynamic equilibrium literally means
“balanced change.” Explain why this term describes
a chemical system in equilibrium.
6. Carbon monoxide, CO(g), and hydrogen, H2(g),
react to form methane, CH4(g), and water, H2O(g).
Write the chemical equation that represents this
reversible reaction at equilibrium.

Equilibrium Involving Physical Systems

Figure 7.3 In an open
system (A), water
molecules vaporize and
escape into the room. If
the system is closed with a
stopper and air is removed
from the flask (B), water
vapour cannot escape
into the room. Over time
(C), equilibrium occurs
between the water vapour
molecules and the water
molecules. A plot of Vapour
Pressure vs. Time (D) shows
that at equilibrium, the rate
of vaporization equals the
rate of condensation.
The chemical equilibrium system that produces ammonia consists of two different kinds
of molecules (nitrogen and hydrogen) reacting and forming a third kind of molecule
(ammonia). Chemical equilibrium involves different substances that react and form new
substances. Some equilibrium systems, however, consist of one substance in two physical
states. Consider what happens when water changes state at constant temperature.
A small amount of water left in an open flask, like the one in Figure 7.3, disappears after
a day or two. What happens to water on the molecular level? The flask of water is an open
system. Recall that an open system is a system in which matter and energy cross the system
boundary. At the surface of the water, at least some of the water molecules have enough kinetic
energy and are moving in the right direction to overcome the intermolecular attractions of
the other water molecules. These fast-moving water molecules vaporize and escape into the
air above the water in the flask, and then eventually move up the neck of the flask and into the
room. (Recall that vapour is the gaseous state of a substance that is usually a solid or a liquid
at room temperature.) Nearby water molecules in the flask move into the gap left by each
vaporized molecule. The process repeats itself until all of the water evaporates from the flask.
Now consider a stoppered flask at constant temperature, like the one in Figure 7.3.
It contains water with a vacuum above the surface of the water. Some of the molecules at
the surface of the liquid are moving fast enough and in the right direction to escape the
intermolecular forces of the other water molecules and thus vaporize. As more and more
water molecules vaporize, the pressure of the vapour above the liquid increases. Some of
the water vapour molecules collide with molecules at the surface of the liquid. If the kinetic
energy of the water vapour molecules is too low, they cannot escape the attractive forces of
the water molecules at the surface of the liquid. They condense and form liquid. Eventually,
the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization and the system reaches equilibrium.
Macroscopically, the system looks static because the amount of water vapour is constant and
the amount of liquid is constant. However, the system is in dynamic equilibrium, because at the
molecular level the system is constantly changing. The graph in Figure 7.3 illustrates this process.

Vapour Pressure vs. Time

Pressure of Vapour (constant T )

equilibrium

Ratevap > Ratecond Ratevap = Ratecond

vacuum vacuum gas

time

liquid liquid liquid

Time
A B C D

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