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1. Area
Mizoram, Tripura, West
 India is the seventh largest country Bengal, Jharkhand,
in terms of area after Russia, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Canada, USA, China, Brazil and Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Australia respectively.
Gujarat.
 India is the second largest by
population.  According to the below
 India extends between 804' North to mentioned places, Gandhinagar is
3706' North latitudes while the the nearest place from TOC.
tropical zone is located between
23030' north and south latitudes.
 The latitudinal extension of the
whole of India lies between 6045' to
3706' North latitudes.
 820 30' East longitude is used to
determine Indian Standard Time.
 India’s longitudinal extent is 6807'  The TOC is at 230 30' N divides
E to 97025' E. India into almost two equal parts.
 As per Census 2001, area of India

is 3287263 square km. which is
approximately 2.4% of the total
land area of the world, whereas its
total population is 16.7%
 The total number of villages in
India is 6,40,930.

2.Latitudinal & Longitudinal

Expansion
 The Tropic of Cancer passes
through the middle of India.
 The latitude of Sikkim passes
through Rajasthan.
 700 E longitude passes through
Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
3.India and the Tropic of
Cancer TOC)
 Tropic of cancer passes almost
through middle of India. It passes
through 8 Indian states, namely
 The day length of a place in the
month of June depends on its
closeness to the Tropic of Cancer.
The closer the longer will be the
day.
4.Standard Time
 When there is midnight at IST
meridian, a place observes 6:00 A.M.
So, the place is situated in the east of
India. It is because Sun rises early in
the east. The difference in their
meridian after 6 hours will be 15 x 6
= 900 (150 = I hour). Indian Standard

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Time (IST) is the time observed

throughout India and is calculated
based on the 82 10/2 East longitude. 6.Bordering
Thus, the place is situated at = 900 +
82 10/2 = 1720 30' East. Countries
 There is approximately 2 hours (118
minutes) between most western
village of Gujarat and the most
eastern village of Arunachal Pradesh.
 Longitude of Jabalpur's location does
not lie between those of Indore and
Bhopal.
 Latitude of Aurangabad's location is
between those of Vadodara and
Pune.
 Bangalore is situated more
southward than Chennai.
 Indian standard time (IST) is 5:30  Composite Dialogue Process between
hours ahead of Greenwich Mean India and Pakistan was in November,
Time (GMT). It passes through 1998, under which 6 issues were
Naini, Allahabad in Uttar scheduled for negotiations, Sir Creek
Pradesh. Sea Treaty, Wullar Barrage/Tulbul
 IST passes through UP, Madhya Navigation Project and deployment of
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha army troops.
and Andhra Pradesh.  Arunachal Pradesh shares maximum
boundary with Myanmar.
 The neighbouring countries of India are
5. Extreme Points Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal,
 Southernmost Point - Indira Point in Bhutan, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Sri
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. It is Lanka.
the location of the southernmost point of  India shares the longest land with
India's territory. Bangladesh (4096.7 km) and the
 On the mainland, shortest Land boundary with
1. Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu)- Afghanistan (106 km).
southernmost point
 Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur
2. Indira Col, near Siachen Glacier-
and Mizoram are Indian states which
northernmost point
share border with Myanmar.
3. Guhar Moti (Gujarat)-
 Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan,
Westernmost point
Gujarat share boundary with Pakistan.
4. Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)-
 Indian states bordering Bangladesh are
easternmost point
Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, Meghalaya
 Kanyakumari, is the place where Bay of
and West Bengal.
Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean
meet.  Boundary between:
 The westernmost point of India is 6807' 1) India and Pakistan- Radcliffe line
E, Gujarat. 2) India and Afghanistan- Durand line

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3) Indian and China-McMahon Line
4) France and Germany-Maginot Line
 The Boundary between India and Pakistan
is an example of superimposed boundary.
 Himalaya in the north, Bay of Bengal in
the south-east, Indian Ocean in the south
and Arabian sea in the south-west forms
it's natural boundary.
 Sri Lanka is separated from India by the
Palk Strait which was named after the then
governor Madras Robert Palk.
 The state of Sikkim has borders with
three countries Nepal, Bhutan and China.
 Tripura is bordered by Bangladesh from
north, west and south. Thus, it has an
international border on three sides.
7.Natural Regions
of India
 The Indian Landmass has moved
northward. This is evident from the
paleomagnetic results obtained from
India.
 Palaeomagnetism is the study of the
record of the Earth's magnetic field in
rocks, sediment or archaeological
materials.
 According to Tectonic Shift Theory,
Indian land mass was part of
Gondwanaland which included South
America, Antarctica, Australia and India.
 The Gondwana continent eventually split
into Africa, South America, Australia,
Antarctica, the Indian subcontinent and the
Arabian Peninsula.
 India is divided into 4 main regions:
1. Northern mountainous region
2. Large plains
3. Peninsular Plateau
4. Coasts and Islands
It is further categorized in six sub physical
regions –
1. Northern Mountains
2. Sindhu-Ganga Plains
3. Thar desert
4. Central highland and Deccan Plateau
5. Coastal plains
6. Sea and Islands
 In Uttarakhand, artesian wells are
mostly found in Tarai Region.
 If there were no Himalaya ranges,
then most geographical part of India
would experience the cold waves
from Siberia, Indo-Gangetic plain
would also be devoid of such
extensive alluvial soil and the pattern
of monsoon would be different from
what it is at present.
 Meghalaya plateau is in fact an
extension of the Indian peninsular
plateau.
 The valley of Kashmir was formed in
synclinorium.
 The Gangetic plain was formed in a
fore deep.
 The Himalayan Mountain range and
Tibetan plateau have formed as a
result of the collision between Indian
Plate and Eurasian Plate.
 The Western coastline of India is
formed by submergence and
emergence of the land.
 East coast line is coast of Emergence.
 Gondwana rocks have the largest
reserve of coal in India.
 Himalaya is the newly developed
Fold Mountain.
 Geologically, Peninsular region is
most ancient part of India.
 The Indus valley region (Sindhu area)
is a desert region located in the North
western Punjab Province (Pakistan).
 The origin of the Deccan Traps:
Cretaceous Eocene
 Origin of Western Ghats: Late
Cenozoic period
 Origin of Aravalli Mountain: Pre-
Cambrian
 Narmada-Tapi alluvial deposits:
Pleistocene period
 Thar Desert is the expanse of
Pleistocene and recent deposits.
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 Kuttanad of Kerala is famous for its  Shiwalik ranges are composed of

lowest altitude in India. Kuttanad is unconsolidated sediments brought
called Rice Bowl of Kerala. Here down by rivers from the main
farming is (4 to 10 feet) practiced 2.5 Himalayan ranges located at farther
to 4 meters below sea level. north.
 FAO has declared the Kuttanad  Shiwaliks was formed in Pliocene Era
farming system as globally important (Cenozoic period).
Agriculture Heritage System.  Shiwalik range, spread over about
2400 km in the southern range of
Himalaya. Its average altitude is 900-
8.Northern 1200 meter.
Mountainous  Bhabar is Southern region of Shiwalik
is an example of Piedmont area.
Region  The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR)
spreads across 10 states
 The rivers originating from (administrative regions) namely –
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Himalayas are perennial because their
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim,
source is located in Himalayan
glaciers. Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura
 Himalaya receives much of its rain
and Assam and West Bengal.
from south-western monsoon.
 Deep gorges, U turn courses, Parallel
 On the basis of folds and age of
Mountain ranges, Steep gradients
formation Himalayas is divided into
causing landslides are evidences for
four parallel structural areas –
Himalayas being young fold
1. Trans Himalaya
mountains.
2. Great Himalaya (oldest range)

3. The Middle Himalaya
4. Shiwalik (Newest range)
 The flat plains along the sub-
Himalayan region in North India are
called Bhabar.
1. It is a narrow belt ranging
between 8-10 km parallel to the
Shiwalik.
2. South of the Bhabar is the Tarai
belt, with a width of 15-30 km where
most of the streams and rivers re-
emerge without having any properly
demarcated channel, thereby, creating
marshy and swampy conditions
known as the Tarai.  The mountain range which runs
parallel between the Shiwalik in the
 The foothills region of Himalaya is
south and the Great Himalayas in
called Shiwalik. These are the outer
north is classified as the Middle
most range of the Himalayas.
Himalayas or Lesser Himalaya or
 Shiwaliks extend over a width of 10-
Himachal or Lower Himalayas.
15 km and have an altitude varying
 The orders of Himalayan Rages in the
between 900 to 1100 meters.
western section from south to north

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are: the Shiwalik-Lesser Himalayas-
Great Himalayas.
 The Shiwalik Himalaya are the
youngest mountain range. It comprises
the outermost range of the Himalayas
and is also known as outer Himalayas.
 Flat scraps, anticlinal crests and
synclinal valleys are the chief
characteristics of Shiwalik range.
 The Shiwaliks are formed of great
thickness of Mio-Pleistocene sand,
gravels and conglomerate. These have
been folded and faulted by the earth
movements.
 Shiwaliks have different name in
different areas like Jammu Hills in
Jammu, Dafla, Miri, Abora and
Mishmi Hills in Arunachal Pradesh.
 Gondwana Rock System is the latest
rock system in India. Gondwana rocks
contain nearly 98% of India’s coal
reserve.
 Gondwana coal is of much recent
origin than Carboniferous coal.
 Gondwana system is Upper
Carboniferous to the recent.
 From south to north, the correct
sequence is: Dhauladhar range, Zaskar
Range, Ladakh range, Karakorum.
 Zaskar Range, Ladakh range,
Karakorum are related to trans
Himalayas.
 Dhauladhar and Pirpanjal is related to
Middle Himalayas.
 The correct northward sequence of the
relief features is – Pirpanjal Ranges –
Zaskar Ranges – Ladakh Ranges –
Karakoram Ranges.
 The Correct sequence of mountain
peaks from east to west is:
Kanchenjunga, Everest, Annapurna,
Dhaulagiri.
 The Annapurna region is an area in
central Nepal where some of the most
popular treks are located.
 Kanchenjunga is the third tallest
mountain in the world.
 Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain in
the world above sea surface. The
elevation of Mount Everest is 8,848
meters.
 Mt. Everest is situated in the
Himalayas on the border of Nepal and
China, which is also known as the
Sagarmatha Zone.
 The tree-line is the edge of the habitat
at which trees are capable of growing.
 The value of treeline in eastern
Himalaya and Middle Himalaya lies
between 3600 to 3800 meters, while in
western or north western region, it
declines to 3300-3600 meter.
 In Himalayan Ranges, the types of
vegetation changes with altitude due
to decrease in temperature, changes in
rainfall, unfertile soil, low
atmospheric pressure and low air.
 Patkoi Range is situated in lower
Himalayan ranges.
 The Patkai Hills are situated on India’s
north-eastern border with Myanmar.
 The Indian states along Patkai Hills
are Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram and Nagaland.
 Garo, Khasi and Jaintia tribes are
found in the western, central and
eastern part of Meghalaya
respectively.
 Naga tribes are found in some
districts of Manipur and Arunachal
Pradesh also besides Nagaland.

HILLS STATES
Garo Meghalaya
Miri Arunachal
Pradesh
Kollai Mallai Tamil Nadu
Dalma Jharkhand
 PirPanjal is spread in Himachal and
Jammu and Kashmir from south east
to north west.
 The Kashmir Valley is bounded on
the south west by Pir Panjal Range
and on the north-east by Great
Himalayan Range.
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 The major natural resources of
Western Himalayas are forests.
 The average height of the Great
Himalaya is 6100 meters.
 Himalayas are spread over Ladakh,
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and
Tripura. Besides these, mountain
range of Assam and West Bengal are
also part of the Himalayas.
 Western Ghats are spread over the
states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
 Pulicat Lake is second largest (after
Chilika lake) lagoon in India,
straddles the border of Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh.
9. Mountain Ranges
and Hills of South
and Central India
 The Aravalli Range is a range of
mountains in western India running
approximately 692 km in northeast
direction across the states of Gujarat,
Rajasthan, and Haryana ending in
Delhi.
 Aravalli ranges are highly eroded
hills and are found as broken hills.
 Aravalli range is the oldest fold
mountains of the world.
1. It was formed in the Precambrian
Era. Its highest peak is Guru
Shikhar.
 The Eastern Ghats are older than
western Ghats.
 The Vindhyachal Mountain Range is
very old mountain extending in the
states of Gujarat, UP, and MP.
 Residual Mountains are remnants of
old mountains which have been worn
down by agents of denudation.
 Residual mountains are formed from
old fold, block or volcanic materials.
 Satpura is an example of residual
mountains.
 The Aravalli ranges are remnants of
early mountain ranges.
 Anaimudi is the highest peak of
Southern India and a part of the
Western Ghats Mountains, having an
elevation of 2695 meters (8842 ft).
 Anaimudi is located in the Idukki
district of Kerala.
 The heights of peaks are given in
below:
 Dodabetta - 2637 meters
Amarkantak - 1048 meters
Mahendragiri - 1501 meters
 KodaiKanal lies in Palani Hills of
Dindigul district of Tamil Nadu.
STATE HIGHEST
PEAK
Kerala Anaimudi
Nagaland Saramati
Uttarakhand Nanda Devi
Tamil Nadu Doda Betta
 Satpura Range is part of the Deccan
plateau, in central India. The hills
stretch through the states of
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
 The Satpura Range means “Seven
Folds”, which forms the watershed
between the Narmada (North) and
Tapti (South) rivers.
 West to eastward sequence of the
relief features is Mahadev range,
Maikal range, Chhotanagpur plateau
and Khasi hills.
 Mahadev and Maikal ranges are the
eastward extension of Satpura range.
 Chhotanagpur Plateau spread over
 much of Jharkhand as well as
adjacent parts of Chhattisgarh, Bihar,
West Bengal and Odisha.
 Nallamalai Hills are situated between
the Krishna River and the Pennar
Hills, stretched from north to south,
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parallel to the Coromandel Coast on
the Bay of Bengal.
 Javadi Hills is located on the Eastern
Ghats in North Arkat district of
Tamil Nadu State. Renowned as
“Queen of Hills”.
 Nilgiri Hills are located at junction
of Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
 Dodabetta is the highest mountain in
the Nilgiri Hills at 2637 meters.
There are around 15 tribal groups in
the Nilgiris. Among them the
Badagas, Kotas and Todas are the
main tribal groups of the region.
 The Anaimalai Hills form the
southern portion of the Western
Ghats and span up to the border of
Kerala and Tamil Nadu in southern
India.
 Anaimudi is the highest peak in the
Anaimalai Hills at 2695 meters.
 Nallamalai Hills – Javadi Hills –
Nilgiri Hills- Anaimalai Hills are
located in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala states in India form
north to south.
 Salher is a place located in Satna
Tehsil in Nasik district of
Maharashtra. It is the site of the
highest fort in the Sahyadri
Mountains and the second highest
peak at 1567 meters.
 Nilgiri Hills are part of Western
Ghats spread in western Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Kerala in southern
India.
 Ajanta Range: Ajanta Range is
located in Maharashtra. It is a
mountain range which is spread over
only one state. Others are expanded
to more than one state.
 Satpura Range: The Satpura Range is
a range of hills in Central India. The
range rises in eastern Gujarat running
east through the border of
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh to
the east of Chhattisgarh.
 Sahyadri Range: Sahyadri Mountain
Range or the Western Ghats
originates near the town of Nasik in
Maharashtra, runs parallel to the
coast and merge with the Nilgiri hill
complex of Tamil Nadu in the south.
These hills cover 1600 km and form
the catchment area for complex river
drainage systems.
 The Western Ghats has a high
altitudinal variation and the average
elevation is 1200 meters.
 The Cardamom Hills or Yela Mela
are southern hills of India and part of
the southern Western Ghats located
in south east Kerala and south west
Tamil Nadu in South India.
 The western ghats and Periyar sub
cluster including the Cardamom
Hills are UNESCO World Heritage
site.
 Shevaroy Hills are located in the
Salem town of Tamil Nadu. The
height of Shevaroy Hills is about
4000 to 5000 feet above sea level. Its
total area is about 50 square km. The
famous ‘Yercaud’ hill station is
situated in these hills.
 The correct location from south to
north of the given hills is: –
1. Satmala Hills - Maharashtra
2. Kaimur Hills - Madhya Pradesh
3.Naga Hills - Indo-Myanmar Border
4.Pir Panjal Rage -Jammu&Kashmir
5. Mandav Hills - Gujarat
6. Garjhat Hills – Odisha
7. Nallamalai Hills- Andhra Pradesh
8. Mikir Hills- North east India
 Mahadeo Hills are part of Satpura
Hills. Satpura Mountain Range is
southern of Vindhya Hills and
parallel to it. It extends from Raj
pipla Hills in the west to the west of
Chhota Nagpur Plateau in the form
of Mahadeo and Maikal Hills.
 Dhupagarh is the highest peak of the
Satpura Range located in
Panchmarhi (MP).
 The hills of Ramgiri are located in
Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.
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It is part of Eastern Ghat or Nanda 7816 India

Mahendra Parvat.
 Ramgiri Hills are also located in
Maikal Range of Chhattisgarh.
Maikal Range is a part of Satpura
Range.
 Parasnath hill is located in Giridih
district of Jharkhand.Shikharji Jain
temple is situated on this hill.
 Parasnath Hills is one of the most
important pilgrimage centre for Jains
named after Parasnath, the 23rd
Tirthankara.
10.Mountain Peaks
 Mount Everest is the highest peak
in the world. It is located in Nepal.
It is also known as ‘Sagarmatha’ in
Nepal.
 Bachhendri Pal was the first Indian
Women to reach the summit of
Mount Everest in 1984.
 Junko Tabei, a Japanese
mountaineer was the first woman to
climb Mount Everest on 16 May,
1975. She was also the first woman
to climb the highest peaks of all
seven continents.
 Santosh Yadav is the first woman
in the world to climb Mount
Everest twice. She first climbed the
peak in May 1992 and then again in
May 1993. She is also the second
Indian woman to climb Mount
Everest.
 The first Indian woman was
Bachhendri Pal who succeeded in
climbing the Everest in 1984.
 Mount K2 is also known as Godwin
Austin, the highest peak of India
and Second highest peak in the
world. It is located in Karakoram
Range in Pakistan occupied
Kashmir.
 Gangotri National Park in
Mount 8848 Nepal
Everest m
Devi m
Godwin 8611 India
Austin m
(K2)
Kanchenju 8598 India/Ne
nga m pal
Makalu 8643 Nepal
m
 Nanda Devi Peak is part of the
Greater Himalayas. It is located in
Uttarakhand. It is the third highest
peak in India. This region has been
declared as Nanda Devi National
Park. UNESCO recognised it as
World Heritage Site in 1988.
 The highest peak of Aravalli Range
is Guru Shikhar (1722 m). It is
located in Sirohi district of
Rajasthan.
 After Guru Shikhar the highest
Aravalli peak is Kumbhalagarh
(1244m).
 The correct sequence of Himalayan
Peaks in the direction east to west
is:
Namcha Banwa (Arunachal – Tibet
border), Kanchenjunga (Sikkim),
Mount Everest (Nepal), Nanda
Devi (Uttarakhand).
 Nanda devi, Kamet and Trishul are
the peaks located in India.
 Gosain Thaan is located in Tibet
near Nepal border.
 Shimla is located in Dhauladhar
Range.
11. Valleys
 Kullu Valley is situated in
Himachal Pradesh. It is located
between Dhauladhar and Pir
Panjal Ranges.
 Nelang Valley falls under the
Uttarkashi district of

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Uttarakhand (near China Palghat Kerala

border). Pass
Bhorgha Maharashtra
 t
Lipulekh Uttarakhand
Valley State NathuLa Sikkim
Markha Ladakh Shipki Himachal
Dzukou Nagaland La Pradesh
Sangla Himachal Zozila Jammu&Kashmi
Pradesh r
Yumthang Sikkim Niti Uttaranchal
Banihal Jammu&Kashmi
 Yumthang Valley is also r
known as Hot Spring. Jelep La Sikkim
 Dzukou Valley is well known Mana Uttarakhand
for its natural beauty and Kingri- Uttarakhand
seasonal flowers. Wingri
 Sangla Valley is surrounded by Muling Uttarakhand
mountain peaks and Baspa La
River.
 Silent Valley National Park is  Palghat Pass is located between
located in Palakkad/Palghat the Nilgiri Hills to the north
district of Kerala. It is situated and Anaimalai Hills to the
on Nilgiri Hills of Western south. Thalghat, Bhorghat and
Ghats. Palghat are main Passes of
 The Kunthi river originates in Western Ghat. It connects
Silent Valley’s rainforests. Kollam and Madurai.
 Pathrakkadavu Hydroelectric  Bhorghat connects Mumbai and
project was proposed to be built Pune.
near Silent Valley National  Lipulekh Pass is located on
Park. India-China border.
 Zozila Pass is located on the
Indian National Highway 1
12. Passes between Srinagar and Leh.
 The Damodar River valley
 The Passes and their location is along Bihar-West Bengal
as follow: border includes India’s most
important coal and mica mining
Chang Jammu&Kashmi fields.
La r  Nathu La is a mountain pass in
Rohtang Himachal the Himalayan region situated
Pradesh at a height of 4508 m above sea
Bum La Arunachal level. On the Indian side, the
Pradesh pass is 52 km east to Gangtok,
Se La Uttarakhand and opens in Chumbi Valley in
Bomdi Arunachal Tibet. It is situated at the
La Pradesh highest elevation.

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 Nathu La is one of the three

open trading border posts
13.Snow Lines and
between India and China. The
others being Shipki La and
Glaciers
Lipulekh.
 Nathu La pass was reopened in  The altitude at a particular place
2006 following numerous above which some snow remains
bilateral trade negotiations after on the ground throughout the year
1962 Indo-China War. is called a snowline.
 Shipki La is a mountain pass  The average snowline is found
and border post on the Indo- between the heights of 5500-6000
China border. meters in the northern part of
greater Himalayas and between
 Niti is an important pass of
4500-6000 meters in the southern
Himalaya connecting
part of Himalayas.
Uttarakhand to Tibet.

 Mana pass which is also called
Glacier Length
as Chirbitiya la or Dungri La is
(Km)
located between India and
Tibet. Siachen 70
 Devtal Lake which is the Baltoro 62
source of Saraswati River Chongo Lungma 42
(tributary of Alaknanda) is Biafo 63
situated in Mana pass. Gangotri 26
 Jelep-La is between India and Rundun 19
Tibet. Kanchenjunga 16
 Lipulekh provides entry to Kedarnath 14
Mansarovar Lake through Sasaini 158
Kailash Valley.
 The correct order of mountain  Chaurabari Glacier is located in
passes from west to east is Uttarakhand. The glacier lies in
Shipki La, Lipulekh, Nathu La, north of the Kedarnath Temple.
Bomdi La. Due to melting of glacier, a lake is
formed which is named as Gandhi
Sarovar Lake.
 The rate of melting of Himalayan
glaciers is highest in the world.
The Gangotri Glacier from where
river Ganga originates is melting
very fast, due to which it is
reduced to half of its extension in
last 50 years.
 Milam Glacier is a major glacier of
the Kumaon region in
Uttarakhand. Sharda River (Kali
Ganga) originates from this
glacier.

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 Albama hill is located in south of

14.Plateaus Bijapur upland.

 The origin of rocks of Peninsular

India was formed around 3600
million years ago. In the
Carboniferous era, it was a part of
Gondwanaland.
 In the Carboniferous era, coal was
formed in the Damodar, Son,
Mahanadi and Godavari basins.
During this period, large scale
vulcanicity produced the Deccan
Traps.
 The Deccan plateau is a part
Indian shield. It is made up of
basaltic lava. The Deccan trap was
originated about 146 million years.
 Meghalaya plateau is in fact an
extension of the Indian peninsular
plateau. It was separated from the
peninsular plateau by Malda Gap.
 Peninsular plateau is triangular in
shape. It extends from plains of
UP and Bihar towards south and
encompasses whole of peninsula.
 Bhuban Hills is a part of Mizo
Hills.
 Additional peninsular mountains
of India were formed in
Palaeozoic Era.
 Dhanbad comes under Chhota
Nagpur plateau  Malwa plateau covers an area of
 Dhanbad is famous for coal 150000 sq. km. Its northern end is
mining and has some of the largest determined by Aravalli, southern
mines in India. Red soil is found in end by Vindhya range and eastern
most of its region which is not border by Bundelkhand plateau.
useful for agriculture. Availability  Dandkaryanya is part of South
of coal, iron, mica etc is not a India’s peninsular plateau. It
good reason for population extends over an area of
density. approximately 89078 sq. km. in
 Chhota Nagpur plateau covers Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Andhra
much of Jharkhand as well as Pradesh (Eastern Godavari,
adjacent parts of Odisha, West Vishakhapatnam and Srika Kulam
Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. district).
 Chhotanagpur consists of series of
plateaus at different levels of
elevation. It is a front sloping.

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15.Coastal Regions 16. Eastern and

 The mean sea level of India is
Western coast
measured with reference to  “Tharangambadi” a town in the
Chennai coast. Nagapattinam district located at
 Territorial water is the area of the the coast of Tamil Nadu, was a
sea immediately adjacent to the colony of Denmark from 1620 to
shore of a State and subject to the 1845. New Jerusalem Church
territorial jurisdiction of that and Zion Church are among the
State. It is 12 nautical miles. important building made by
 An adjacent area of 200 nautical Danish people. They left this
miles is considered as Exclusive place in 1845 after selling it to
Economic Zone of that country. the British.
 India is surrounded by sea on  The western ghat is a block
three sides. mountain. Its eastern slop is
 The length of its total coastline is gently lowering down plateau.
7516.6 km. Its northern section is covered
by lava (Basalt).
 India’s coastline consists of Bay
of Bengal in the east, Indian  The divisions along India’s
Ocean in south and Arabian Sea coastline indicate underwater
in the west. coastal relief contours. These
show the depth of sea floor. On
 India’s coastline extends to nine
this basis, there are four relief
States and four Union Territories.
zones in the sea region –
These are:
Continental coast, continental
1. Gujarat – 1214.70 km
slope, Deep Sea plains and sea
2. Maharashtra – 652.60 km
trough.
3. Goa – 101 km
4. Karnataka – 280 km
5. Kerala – 569.70 km
6. Tamil Nadu – 906.90 km
7. Andhra Pradesh – 973.70 km
8. Odisha – 476.4 km
9. West Bengal – 157.50 km
10. Daman and Diu – 42.20 km
11. Lakshadweep – 132 km
12. Puducherry – 47.60 km
13. Andaman&Nicobar-1962 km
 The length of mainland India’s
coastline is 5422.6 km and
offshore is 2094 km. 
Sea Beach State
 In ancient Indian historical
geography, the Indian Ocean has Digha West Bengal
been named as “Ratnakara”- a Gopalpur Odisha
place where germs and jewels are Calangute Goa
found. Marina Tamil Nadu

 The Coromandel Coast runs

between False Divi Point in south

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east (Andhra Pradesh) to the  Total number of islands in Andaman

Cape Comorin in the south and Nicobar is 222 whereas number
(Kanya Kumari). of islands and islets is 572.
 Coastal erosion is caused by  Ten-degree channel separates
ocean waves, tides, currents Andaman group of Island to Nicobar
Tsunami wave etc. Maximum group of Island. The expansion of
erosion is caused by waves the channel is about 150 km. It is
among the options given. parallel to 100 North latitudes so it
 is called 10-degree channel.
Cities Locations  Palk Strait is located between India
Janjira Raigarh and Sri Lanka. It connects Bay of
district of Bengal to Palk Bay.
Maharashtra  Barren Island is located in the
Sindhudurh Sindhudurg Andaman Sea in the Bay of Bengal-
district of 135 kms, North-East of Port Blair. It
Maharashtra is the only active volcano of South
Kannur Kannur Asia. It first erupted in 1787.The last
district of eruptions happened on 2005-07.
Kerala  The western coastal plain is divided
Nagercoil Kanyakumari into 3 regions: The Konkan Coast,
district of The Kanara Coast and The Malabar
Tamil Nadu. coast.
Udupi Karnataka.  The northern portion of west coast is
Tuticorin port city called ‘Konkan’ and southern
located on portion is called ‘Malabar’.
south-east  Sriharikota Island is located near
coast of Pulicat Lake of Andhra Pradesh. It
Tamil Nadu separates Pulicat Lake from the Bay
Auroville Tamil Nadu of Bengal. Satish Dhawan Space
and Centre is located in Sriharikota.
Puducherry  Adam Bridge is also known as
along the “Ram Setu”. It is spread as chain of
Coromandel shoals from Dhanushkodi tip of
Coast. India’s Pamban Island to Sri
Lanka’s Mannar Island.
 Pamban Island is semi connected to
17. Islands Indian mainland by 2 km long
Pamban Bridge.
 The Andaman & Nicobar located in
the Bay of Bengal have around 572
islands and islets, most of these
islands (about 550) are in the
Andaman Group.
18. Island Groups of
 The smallest Nicobar comprises of Arabian Sea
some 22 islands.
 Saddle Peak (732 meters) is the
highest peak in Andaman and  Lakshadweep is a group of Islands
Nicobar Islands. in Arabian Sea. These are scattered

13
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between 80 N – 12 0 N and 710 E-740
E. The entire Island group is built
of coral deposits. There are
approximately 36 islands out of
which 10 are inhabited.
 Minicoy is the second largest
Island separated from other Islands
by 900 Channel.
 Kavaratti is the capital of
Lakshadweep.
 The largest Island of Lakshadweep
is Andrott. These Islands are
located at a distance of 280 km –
480 km off the Kerala coast.
 Elephanta Island – It is located at
the distance of 10 km from
Gateway of India (Mumbai).
 Nicobar Island - It is located in
south east of Bay of Bengal
between 60- 100 north latitude and
920-940 East latitude. It consists of
22 Islands.
 Rameswaram Islands-
Rameswaram is located in Tamil
Nadu. It is separated from mainland
India by the Pamban channel.
 Salsette Island – It is an Island in
Maharashtra state of India. The
metropolis of Mumbai and the
cities of Thane are located here
making it most densely populated
islands of India.
 Bhatkal, Arnala and Henry come in
the category of peninsular islands.
 India’s largest city on an island is
Mumbai. The total area of Port
Blair is greater than that of Mumbai
however from town ship
perspective it is lesser.
Islands Location
Viyant Gulf of Kutch
Syodhar
Piram Gulf of
Combay
(Khambat)
Dwarka Coast of
Arabian sea
Diu Coast of
Kathiawar
 The Kori Creek is a tidal creek in the
Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat. It
is maritime border between India
and Pakistan.
 Sir Creek is a disputed area in Rann
of Kutch. It is a 96 km tidal estuary
on the border of India and Pakistan.
It separates Gujarat state of India
from Sindh province of Pakistan.
19. States and UT of
India
 “Latur” is a district in Maharashtra.
On September 30, 1993 Latur had
faced a severe earthquake.
 Vidarbha is north-eastern region of
the State of Maharashtra. Presently,
there are two divisions under this
region – Nagpur and Amravati.
 Vidarbha region comprises of
Nagpur, Amravati, Chandrapur,
Akola, Vardha, Buldhana,
Yavatmal, Bhandhara, Gondia,
Washim and Garhchiroli district of
Maharashtra.
 Pat region is found in the Chota
Nagpur region. High hilly peaks are
found in this region. The maximum
part of Chota Nagpur plateau lies in
the state of Jharkhand.
 Jhumri Telaiya is a city in the
Koderma district of Jharkhand.
 Andhra Pradesh due to its fertile
terrain is also known as Kohinoor of
India.
 Manipur is a landlocked small state
in north eastern India. The states
cover a 22,327 square km area
which is 0.7% of the total area of
India. It consists of 1843 square km
of river basin which includes 8% of
the total area of Manipur whereas
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92% of the area is hilly and  Punjab shares boundary with

mountainous. Rajasthan, Haryana, Himachal
 Phumdi is heterogeneous masses of Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
vegetation, soil and organic matter  Arunachal Pradesh has two National
at various stages of decomposition Parks: Mouling and Nam Dapha.
often found in Loktak lake. It is  Uttar Pradesh shares boundary with
home to the endangered deer species eight States and one Union Territory
called Sangai in Manipuri language. – Delhi. The eight States are
 Karnataka is known as the 'Silicon Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh,
state of India as it is a hub of Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya
Information and Technology Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
companies in India. and Bihar.
 The Silicon Valley of India is a  Chhattisgarh shares border with
nickname of Indian city Bengaluru Uttar Pradesh (North), Madhya
which is the capital of Karnataka. Pradesh (North West), Odisha and
 Malnad is a region in Karnataka. It Jharkhand (North East), Andhra
is covered with dense forest. Pradesh (South), Maharashtra
(West) and Telangana.
City State  Assam is surrounded by 7 States
Aurangabad Maharashtra namely West Bengal, Nagaland,
Palanpur Gujarat Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Hubli Karnataka Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
Guntur Andhra
Pradesh  According to 2011 census:

 The National capital region under State Area

Haryana sub-region includes 13 Madhya 308252sq km
districts: Faridabad, Gurgaon, Pradesh
Mewat, Rohtak, Sonipat, Rewari, UP 240928 sq.km
Jhajjar, Panipat, Palwal, Andhra Pradesh 160205 sq.km
Mahendragarh, Bhiwani, Jind, Bihar 94163 sq. km
Karnal. Tamil Nadu 130050 sq.km
 UP sub-region includes 7 districts: Gujarat 196024 sq.km
Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bulandshahar, Karnataka 191791 sq.km
Gautam Budh Nagar, Baghpat, Rajasthan 342239 sq.km
Hapur, Muzaffarnagar. Maharashtra 307713 sq.km
 Rajasthan sub-region includes two Chhattisgarh 135192 sq.km
districts Alwar and Bharatpur. Jharkhand 79716 sq.km
 The correct sequence of towns/cities Himachal 55673 sq.km
from west to east is Pradesh
Bikaner(Rajasthan), Aligarh (UP), Uttarakhand 53483 sq.km
Darbhanga(Bihar),Nagaon(Assam).
 Madhya Pradesh currently shares  Bihar is 13th largest state by area and
border with five States namely 3rd largest by population as per
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, 2008.
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.  Chhattisgarh comes under
 Bhopal is located to the south of peninsular upland.
Tropic of Cancer.

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 The altitude (height) of sea level of exceeding 10 years. The de facto

some cities is: capital city of Andhra Pradesh is
1. Bengaluru - 920 m Amaravati.
2. Delhi - 254 m  UP has maximum number of
3. Jodhpur - 232 m districts.
4. Nagpur - 312.42  Sonbhadra was carved out from
 Desert of Rajasthan is the most Mirzapur in 1989.
densely populated desert in the  Sonbhadra borders 4 States:
world, with a population density of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
83 person/sq. km. Jharkhand and Bihar.
1. It is about 4-10,000 years old.  Karnataka shares its boundary with
Here only 40% to 60% of the area six states – Andhra Pradesh,
is suitable for farming. Telangana, Maharashtra, Goa,
 In terms of population, Karnataka Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
stands 8th largest while it is 7th  Kerala shares its border with two
largest state in terms of area in India. states – Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
 Bengaluru lies on the longitude near If the Mahe region of Puducherry is
to Delhi. included, the number of states and
 28 0 North latitude passes through union territories bordering Kerala
Arunachal Pradesh and North will be three.
Rajasthan.  Tamil Nadu shares its border with–
 Arunachal Pradesh has over 80% of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
its area under forest cover and over and Puducherry.
12% of the forest is protected area. 
 The seven sister States in Northeast
India consist of Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Meghalaya Manipur,
Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.
 Sundarvan Mangroves are found in
West Bengal in the delta region
formed by Ganga and Brahmaputra.
 In an effort to gain a separate state
based on linguistic basis, Potti
Sriramulu fasted until death in 1952.
 After Shriramulu’s death, the
Telugu speaking areas Andhra State
was carved out of Madras State on 1
October, 1953 with Kurnool as its
capital city.
 In 1956, Hyderabad was made
capital of Andhra Pradesh. Andhra
Pradesh was bifurcated in 2014 and
a separate state of Telangana was
formed.
 In accordance with the Andhra
Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014
Hyderabad will remain the de Jure
capital of both Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana for a period not

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 The Union Territory of Puducherry

 Jaipur is known as pink city. Hawa consists of four small unconnected
mahal is in Jaipur. districts:
 Telangana is the last state to be 1. Yanam - Surrounded by
formed. Andhra Pradesh
2. Puducherry- Surrounded by
 Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar,
Tamil Nadu
Gandhinagar are well planned cities.
3. Karaikal - Surrounded by
 According to 2011 census the
Tamil Nadu
percentage of Scheduled Castes in
4. Mahe - Surrounded by Kerala
north eastern states are:
 Lakshadweep is the smallest union
1. Sikkim – 5%
territory of India having an area of
2. Arunachal Pradesh – 0.6%
32 sq.km. and a population of
3. Nagaland – 0%
64429.
4. Manipur – 2.8%
5. Mizoram – 0% 
6. Tripura – 17.4% UT CAPITAL
7. Meghalaya – 0.5% Delhi New Delhi
8. Assam – 6.9% Ladakh Leh
 It is quite evident that the percentage Jammu and Srinagar
of SC in north east is very small. Kashmir (Summer),
 The economy of north east is Jammu (Winter)
predominantly agrarian. However, Lakshadweep Kavaratti
little land is available for settled Puducherry Puducherry
agriculture. Jhum cultivation is also Dadra and Daman
practiced by few indigenous people. Nagar Haveli
 There are total 8 Union Territories and Daman
in India. and Diu
Andaman Port Blair
and Nicobar
Islands
Chandigarh Chandigarh

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 Maharashtra and Odisha.
20. Species/Tribes
 Mongoloids, who were originally
the inhabitants of America, reside in
north east and south east Asia. The
colour of skin of this race is yellow
and they have straight hair. Their
oblique eyes are a peculiar feature.
 Mongoloids are the racial groups
found in hilly and forest area of
north-eastern India.
 Tribes like Santhal, Bhil, Yeruva etc
which forms the population of South
India, belongs to pre-Dravidian or
Proto-Australoid race.
 White browed Gibbon found in
India’s northeast is an Anthropoid
ape of the Indian sub-continent.
 The Dravidian races are mainly
confined to South India. This race is
related to Dravidian language
family that includes Tamil, Kannad,
Malayalam, Telugu etc. They are
also found in central and south-east
India.
 According to 2011 census Punjab,
Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi and
Puducherry have not identified
tribal communities.
 8.6% of the total population of India
are tribal communities with the
maximum population concentrated
in the states of Madhya Pradesh,
 According to 2011 census, Tharu
tribe is found in Uttarakhand, UP
and Bihar.
 Kol tribe is found in Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Odisha.
 Munda Tribes is found across much
of Jharkhand as well as adjacent
parts of Odisha, West Bengal,
Chhattisgarh and Bihar,
 Tharu tribe of UP celebrates Diwali
as a sorrow.
 Tharu tribe dwells in the lowland
from Nainital in Uttarakhand to
Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh. They
follow Hinduism.
 Limbu or Yakthung tribe is found in
Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet.
 Karbi tribe is mainly found in
Assam and parts of north east India.
 Gaddi tribe lives in the Dhauldhaar
Range of Western Himalaya which
extends in Kangra and Chamba
districts of Himachal Pradesh.
 Gaddi Tribe relates themselves to
the dynasty of Garhwa Rulers of
Rajasthan. This is one of the main
tribes of Dhauldhaar Range which
constitute a population of around 1
lakh.
 The lifestyle of Gaddi tribe is
different from other tribes. Main
tribes of Dhauldhaar Range are
Gaddi, Laddakhi Gujjar, Bakarwal,
Laholi, Bari etc.
 Santhal tribe is one of the main
tribes of India. Santhals are
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indigenous to West Bengal, Bihar,
Tripura, Jharkhand and Odisha.
 Marriage among Santhals is called
Bupla. There are different types of
Bupla such as Sanga Bupla, Kirin
Bupla, Itut Bupla, Nir Bolok Bupla
etc. Generally, bride’s father asks
for ‘bride price’ which is called as
‘Pon’. Divorce is also a common
practice. Both male and female have
equal rights in this regard.
 ‘Bitlaha’ is a severe punishment is
Santhal society. It is a type of social
boycott.
 The chief of Santhal village is
known as ‘Manjhi’.
 Bhoksas, Jaunsaris and Tharus are
permanent settlers. These are all
agriculture-based tribes.
 Bhutias are found in frontier areas of
Sikkim adjacent to Nepal, Tibet and
West Bengal. Bhutias practice
transhumance. They are also known
as Lhasa, Palai and Fobetian etc.
They use Tibetan language.
 Bodo tribe is an ethnic and linguistic
group which mainly resides in Garo
hill of Meghalaya.
 Santhal Pargana is a Santhal
majority division of Bihar.
 Khasi and Garo speaking population
is found in the state of Meghalaya,
Assam and Mizoram.
 Chemchu tribe is mainly a tribe of
Nallamalai area of Andhra Pradesh
but also found in some parts of
Kerala.
 Lepcha tribe is found in Sikkim.
 Dafar tribe is found in Saurashtra
region of Gujarat.
 Dafla tribe is found in Arunachal
Pradesh and some parts of Assam.
 During 2000, Gond was the largest
tribe of India but according to 2011
census, Bhil is the largest tribal
group and Gond is the second
largest tribe.
 Toda tribe lives at Nilgiri Hills.
They are also known as Todi or
Tuda. They claim to be descendants
of Aryans. Their language is known
as Toda. They practise polyandry.
 Madhya Pradesh has the largest
tribal group. It has more than 1.6
crore Schedule Tribe population
which is 21% of state population
according to 2011 census.
 Munda tribe is found in Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Odisha and Bihar. They
celebrate many festivals like Mage,
Phagu, Karam, Sarhul and Sohrai.
Sarhul is celebrated between March
and April during spring season with
saal flowers.
 Oraon, Munda and Ho tribes in
Jharkhand celebrate the “Sarhul
Festival”. This is celebrated every
year in the Chaitra month of Hindu
calendar marking the beginning of
New Year. Trees are worshipped in
this festival. This shows the
closeness of tribes and nature.
 As per 2011 census the largest tribe
of Uttarakhand is Tharu.
 In Mizoram, the settlement pattern
is mostly of linear type along the
ridges because the valleys are cooler
than the ridges.
 As per 2011 census Tribes and their
population are:
1. Bhotiya – 5149 in UP
2. Khasi – 14,11,775 in Meghalaya
3. Toda – 2002 in Tamil Nadu
4. Santhal – 27,54,723 in
Jharkhand
 The ‘Youth Dormitory’ of Oraon
tribe is called Dhumkaria.
 Endogamy is prohibited in Oraon
tribe. Child marriage is not
permitted in Oraon society. The
most common form of marriage in
Oraon tribe is “arranged marriage”.
The Chief of Oraon village is known
as “Mahato” and Panchayat is called
as ‘Panchora’.
 States with their festivals:
1) Assam – Bihu
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2) Kerala – Onam
3) Tamil Nadu – Pongal
4) Punjab – Baisakhi
 Major languages spoken in Sikkim
are Nepali, Bhutia and Lepcha.
 Bhotiya tribe found in UP,
Uttarakhand.
 Angami tribe found in Nagaland.
 Apatani tribe found in Arunachal
Pradesh.
 Gonds are found in Bihar, West
Bengal, Jharkhand, Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and
Gujarat.
 The word Bhil is derived from the
word Billuwar of Tamil language
which means bow. They belong to
proto-Australoid race. They are
found in the states of Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra, Tripura, and
Rajasthan. They are famous for their
Ghoomar dance.
 In India, Jaunsari, Khas, Toda, Bota,
Tian, Irawa and Nayar tribes
practise polyandry.
 Raji tribes are found in Uttarakhand.
 Birhor tribes are found in
Jharkhand.
 Sahariya is one of the main tribes of
Rajasthan and is mainly located in
Baran district. The name Sahariya is
said to be derived from the Arabian
word ‘Sehara’ or ‘wildernesses.
They were in news for deaths due to
starvation.
 The criterion followed for the
determination of Tribes is cultural
specification, primitive trait,
distinctive culture, geographical
location.
 TRIBES DISTRICT
1) Pahadi Korba Jashpur
2) Baiga Mandala
3) Maria Patalkot
4) Sehariya Gwalior
 Moplah tribes are found in Kerala.
 Murias tribes are found in
Chhattisgarh.
 Indian constitution has not defined
the term scheduled tribes.
According to Article 366 (25) of
the constitution Scheduled Tribes
are those groups of people who are
notified as per Article 342 of the
constitution.
 Lotha language is spoken in
Nagaland.
 According to 2011 census, the
tribal population in north east is
11.90% including Sikkim.
 The Changpa are semi-nomadic
Tibetan people found mainly in
Zaskar region of Jammu and
Kashmir. The main occupation of
this community is animal
husbandry or ranching. They can
often be seen with yaks and goat
herds in the hilly areas. In 2001,
they were categorised as STs.
 Korba tribe is mainly found in
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
 Lambada tribe moved from
Afghanistan to Rajasthan and
spread to Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra.
 Zulu is a tribe found in South
Africa.
 The Agarias are one of the major
tribes of India engaged in the
production of iron in central. Their
main deity God is Lohasur (the god
of iron). The Agarias worship
“Lohasur’ or Kalabhairo as their
tribal God.
 Chhindwara – Bharia
 Mandals – Gond
 Jhabua – Bhil
 Shivpuri – Sahriya
 Shompen - Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.
 The people of Onge tribe live in the
west of Little Andaman Island in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
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 The Jarawa or Jarva tribe live in Langua L-1 L-2 Total

India’s South Andaman Island ge users
region of Andaman and Nicobar Chines 897071 193880 109095
Islands. They were in news as e 810 00 1810
Court passed an order banning to Spanis 426515 913084 517824
tourist in the areas of Jarwa. h 910 00 310
 Jarawa is the most primitive tribe English 339370 603163 942533
found in Andaman and Nicobar 920 010 930
Islands. Arabic 267092 - -
 Among the 32 tribes of Jharkhand, 450
8 tribes are included in “primitive” Hindi 260123 120490 380613
Tribe Groups’. They are Asur, 420 000 420
Birhor, Birajia, Korawa, Parahiya Portug 202225 120490 208525
(Baiga), Sabar, Mal Pahariya and uese 450 000 450
Sauriya Pahariya. Bengal 189144 192000 192000
 27% population of Jharkhand is i 830 00 000
tribal. Hindi 138000 120000 258000
 According to 2011 Census, (in 000 000 000
population of primitive tribe India)
groups is 2.23 lakh. Hindi 122123 490000 122613
 Manganiyar is a Muslim Abroad 420 420
community in the desert of )
Rajasthan which is famous for its Hindi 122613 NA NA
musical tradition. (Censu 420
 Jhum cultivation or shifting s)
cultivation is practiced by Khasi
tribe.
 Catechu – Khairwar  The largest linguistic group of India
 Andi and Oportipi of marriage is is Indo-Aryan. This is most
related to Ho tribe. important family of Indian
languages and comprises of all the
principal languages including Hindi,
21. Languages Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi,
Sindhi, Rajasthani, Assamese,
 L-1- People using a language as Oriya, Kashmiri Urdu and Sanskrit.
primary language or mother It is related to 76.87% of the total
tongue. Indian population as per census
 L-2 People using a language as 2001.
second language besides primary
language or mother tongue. The
total numbers of L-1 and L-2
considered as the total number of 22. Drainage System
users of a language.
 According to Ethnologue 7 most  The Ganga is the longest river in
spoken languages of the world are: India (2525 km).
 Ganga rises in western
Himalayas in Uttarakhand.

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 In 2017, Uttarakhand High
Court declared Ganga as a legal
person.
 Ganga is joined by Bhilangana
in Tehri and Alaknanda in Dev
Prayag. Flowing north to
Rajmahal hills at the border of
Jharkhand, Ganga enters
Bangladesh at Farakka in West
Bengal. Here Ganga is known as
Padma. Ganga merges in the
Brahmaputra River in
Bangladesh and further this
stream merges in Meghna
River. Meghna River finally
empties in the Bay of Bengal
and forms the largest delta. This
delta of Ganga and Brahmaputra
River is created between
Hooghly and Meghna Rivers.
 The Padma is joined by
Brahmaputra River and the
confluence is known as Jamuna.
 India’s and Asia’s first Dolphin
Research Centre are being set
up on the banks of the Ganga
River at Patna.
 Sunderban Delta is the world
largest delta formed by the
River Ganga, Brahmaputra and
Meghna.
 Two third of Sunderban Delta is
in Bangladesh while rest is in
India.
 Ganga is the most polluted
rivers of the world because a
large proportion of the polluted
water with a high organic load
of urban areas is dumped in the
Ganges.
 According to Oldham, the depth
of Gangetic alluvial soil below
the land surface is about 4000-
6000 meters and according to
Glany, it is about 2000 meters.
 Devprayag is located at the
confluence of the Bhagirathi
and Alaknanda Rivers.
 Rudraprayag is located at the
confluence of the Mandakini
and Alaknanda Rivers.
 Alaknanda flows in Chamoli,
Tehri and Pauri district.
 Badrinath is a Nagar Panchayat
of Chamoli district which is
situated at the bank of
Alaknanda River.
 Badrinath was established as a
major pilgrimage site by Adi
Shankaracharya.
 Kedarnath is known as Samadhi
Sthal of Adi Shankaracharya.
 The Ganga is the most
important River of India. It rises
in Gangotri glacier near
Gaumukh in Uttarkashi district
of Uttarakhand. Here it is
known as Bhagirathi. It cuts
through the Central and the
Lesser Himalayas. Bhagirathi
meet Alaknanda at Dev Prayag,
hereafter it is known as Ganga.
 Mandakini River originates at
Chorabari Taal near Kedarnath
in Uttarakhand. It merges with
Kaliganga at Son Prayag.
Further it merges with
Alaknanda in Rudra Prayag
south of Badrinath.
 Alaknanda emerges at
Satopanth Peak glacier and
Satopanth Taal located in
Alkapuri north east of Shivlinga
Peak.
 The famous ‘Panch Prayag’ and
Badri Vishal pilgrimage is
situated on the bank of
Alaknanda River.
 Mandakini River flows between
Kedarnath and Rudra Prayag.
 Alaknanda proceeds towards
Devprayag where it joins
Bhagirathi River to form the
Ganges River.
 The famous Badrinath temple is
situated near the bank of
Alaknanda River
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 Kedarnath Temple is located
near the banks of Mandakini
River in Uttarakhand.
 The Length of flowing Rivers of
India
1. Ganga River - 2525 km
2. Godavari River - 1465 km
3. Narmada River - 1312 km
4. Mahanadi River- 858 km
 Bhagirathi emerges from
Gomukh glacier, 19 km away
from Gangotri under the
Shivalinga Peak.
 Siyaganga merges in Bhagirathi
near Jhala. The joint stream of
Alaknanda and Bhagirathi
flowing Dev Prayag onwards is
known as Ganga.
 The Gomti River originates
from Gomat Taal which was
formally known as Fulhaar
Lake, near Pilibhit district in
Uttar Pradesh. It is the only
tributary of River which rises in
the plains.
 Yamuna becomes a dead river
between Delhi and Agra most of
the year because of domestic
discharge and industrial waste
in Delhi, Ghaziabad, Mathura,
Agra.
 Ramganga River originates
from Doodhatoli ranges in Pauri
Garhwal, Uttarakhand. It is a
tributary of the river Ganges.
 Chambal, Betwa and Ken are
tributaries of River Yamuna.
 Yamuna originates from
Yamunotri Glacier near
Bandarpoonch peak.
 Son is one of the main rivers of
Madhya Pradesh (MP).
 Betwa river rises in the Vindhya
Range. It joins Yamuna near
Hamirpur town in UP.
 The son which originates near
Amarkantak in MP is the main
tributary of Ganga. It merges
with Ganga near Patna.
 Kaimur Ranges forms the
watershed or divide two major
rivers of Peninsular India, the
Son on the south and the Tons
(Tributary of Yamuna) on the
north.
 Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy and
Mekong Rivers originate in
Tibet and flow parallel to
mountain range in upper
reaches. Brahmaputra makes a
“U” Turn in its course to flow
into India due to syntaxial
bending of geologically young
Himalaya.
 Yarlung Zangbo is known as
Brahmaputra River in India. It
originates at Angsi glacier in
western Tibet south east of
Mount Kailash and lake
Mansarovar. It is known as
Jamuna in Bangladesh.
 The source of Brahmaputra,
Indus and Sutlej is near
Mansarovar lake in Tibet.
 Lohit, Subansiri Rivers flow
through Arunachal Pradesh.
 Barak River flows from its
source in the Manipur Hills,
through Manipur, Mizoram and
Assam.
 The Subansiri River originates
in the Himalayas; it is a tributary
of the Brahmaputra River in the
Indian states of Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh, and the
Tibet Autonomous Region of
China.
 The Lohit River rises in eastern
Tibet, in the Zayal Chu Range
and surges through Arunachal
Pradesh for 200 kilometres
before entering the plains of
Assam. It is also a tributary of
the Brahmaputra River.
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 Dibang River flow across
Dibang Valley district of
Arunachal Pradesh.
 Kameng River also flows in
Arunachal Pradesh.
 Manas is the tributary of
Brahmaputra River.
 Brahmaputra is known as Tsang
Po or Sanpu in Tibet, Dibang in
Arunachal Pradesh,
Brahmaputra in Assam and
Jamuna in Bangladesh.
 Left bank tributaries oh
Brahmaputra: Siang, Dibang,
Lohit, Burhidihing, Dhansiri,
Kopili.
 Right bank tributaries oh
Brahmaputra: Subansiri,
Kameng, Manas, Sankosh,
Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta.
 The Tibetan Plateau is also
known in China as the Qinghai-
Tibet Plateau or the Qingzang.
With an average elevation
exceeding 4500 meters, the
Tibetan Plateau is also called
“the Roof of the World”. The
rivers originating from this 2.5
million sq. km. plateau are
Yangtze, Huang He (Yellow
River), Mekong, Indus, Sutlej,
Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy.
Hence it is clear that
Brahmaputra and Indus
originate from the Tibetan
Plateau.
 Major Rivers of the Peninsular
India originate from Western
Ghats. Eastward flowing
peninsular rivers follow long
route and also form Deltas.
 The Westward flowing
peninsular rivers pass through
tough rocks and follow small
route. This is why these rivers
do not make deltas.
 All major Rivers of Peninsular
India flow into the Bay of
Bengal except Narmada and
Tapti because of the rift valley
course of these rivers. These
rivers do not follow the slope of
the plateau and flow through
rift.
 Narmada River does not form
delta at its mouth. This is
because it flows through rift
valley and does not deposit silt.
 Narmada is the largest river of
Peninsula. It rises near
Amarkantak range of Maikal
mountains in MP.
 Narmada falls through Gulf of
Cambay into Arabian sea.
Before falling into the Arabian
sea, it flows over a length of
1312 km.
 The west flowing rivers like
Narmada, Tapti and Periyar etc
do not form delta rather they
make estuary. Due to their floe
through rift valley and high
speed, there is little silt in these
rivers. They do not make delta
at their mouth.
 Damodar River is known as the
'Sorrow of Bengal'. It originates
from Chhota Nagpur Plateau
region in Jharkhand. It is a
tributary of Hooghly.
 Damodar river has a rift valley
due to down warping.
 Mahanadi river originates in
Chhattisgarh. Hirakund dam,
one of the largest dams of the
24
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world is located on this river
near Sihava.
 Tapti river originates in MP.
Surat is situated on this river
bank.
 Narmada, Tapti and Mahi are 3
major westward flowing rivers
in India.
 Rapti is tributary of Ghaghara
River which flows North west to
south east direction.
 Tawa River is the longest
tributary of Narmada River. It
rises in Satpura range of Betul
and flowing north and west
joins Narmada at the village of
Bandra Bhan in Hoshangabad.
 The River Tapi or Tapti
originates from Satpura
Mountains near Multai in the
Betul district of Madhya
Pradesh. It is 724 km long. It
drains through Gulf of
Khambhat into the Arabian Sea.
It flows through the states of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
and Gujarat. It also forms
estuary at its mouth.
 Cauvery River rises from
Brahmgiri Hills in Coorg
district of Karnataka and flows
805 km. in the drainage area of
87900 sq. km. It empties into the
Bay of Bengal near
Tiruchirappalli. This river forms
islands of Srirangapattanam,
Shivasamudram and Srisangam
in the Deccan Plateau.
 An estuary is a partially
enclosed coastal body where the
river empties into the open sea.
Estuaries form a transition zone
between river environments and
maritime environments. The
world's largest estuary is formed
by the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
 Godavari is the largest river in
Peninsular India and second
largest river in India. The major
tributaries of Godavari are: -
1.Purna
2. Pranhita
3. Indravati
4. Sabari
5. Pravara
6. Manjira
7. Manair
 The Godavari River is second
largest River in India after
Ganga and the largest
peninsular River of India, about
1465 km long. It originates at
Trimbakeshwar near Nasik,
Maharashtra and flows into Bay
of Bengal.
 Godavari drains into Bay of
Bengal.
 A river basin is a portion of land
drained by a river and its
tributaries.
 There are three east flowing
rivers in Kerala – Kabani River,
Bhavani River and Pambar
River.
 The Tapti, Mahi and Narmada
Rivers originate in Madhya
Pradesh and flow from east to
west and empty into the Arabian
Sea.
 River basin with the largest
water area: -
1. Ganga - 861452 sq. km
2. Indus - 321289 sq. km
3. Godavari – 312812 sq. km
4. Krishna - 258948 sq. km
5. Mahanadi – 1,41,600 sq. km
6. Narmada – 98,796 sq. km
 Two important rivers, Narmada
and Son, originate from
Amarkantak in Madhya
Pradesh. Son flows towards
north and merges with River
Ganga flowing towards Bay of
Bengal.
 The quays of Sabarmati and
Tapti rivers have a deficiency of
water.
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 The Mahanadi rises near Sihava
in Chhattisgarh and flows
through Odisha to discharge its
water into the Bay of Bengal. It
forms delta near Paradip in the
Bay of Bengal. It is 858 Km
long.
 Mahanadi river makes delta and
falls into Bay of Bengal.
 Son, Narmada and Mahanadi
originate from Amarkantak
plateau.
 The rivers of south India have
mainly dendritic drainage
pattern.
 A drainage pattern which looks
like tree branches with lots of
twigs is called dendritic
drainage pattern.
 The correct sequence of the
eastward flowing rivers of
peninsular India from north to
south is Subarnarekha,
Mahanadi, Godavari, Pennar,
Cauvery, Vaigai.
 The correct sequence of the
rivers in descending order of
their length is Godavari (1465
km), Narmada (1312 km),
Mahanadi (858 km), Tapi (724
km).
 Krishna River water dispute is
between Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra
since 1957. Besides many
committees, two separate
tribunals were set up under the
chairmanship of Justice R.S.
Bachhawat and Brijesh Kumar.
 The project to link Godavari and
Krishna was completed in 2015.
16 links for peninsular rivers
and 14 links for Himalayan
rivers are proposed under River
Linking Project.
 Cauvery is known as the Ganga
of the south.
 The Cauvery River rises in the
Brahmagiri hills in Karnataka. It
is 805 km long.
 Godavari is also known as the
'Old Ganga' or 'Dakshin Ganga’.
 The Sutlej originates from the
Rakas Lake near Kailash Range
and Mansarovar Lake. Flowing
in North-West direction it enters
Himachal Pradesh near Shipki
La pass. It forms deep gorge by
eroding Himalayan ranges in
Himachal region. It has a length
of 1500 km.
 River named Doodh Ganga
flows in Jammu and Kashmir
and Uttarakhand.
 Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari,
Mahanadi, Krishna, Cauvery,
Pennar, Swarnarekha and
Brahmani are drainage systems
(rivers) which flow into Bay of
Bengal while Narmada, Tapti,
Sabarmati are important rivers
that fall into Arabian Sea.
 Tel is a tributary of Mahanadi
River.
 Major tributaries of Krishna
River are – Koyna, Yerala,
Dina, Varna, Panch Ganga,
Ghat Prabha, Bhima and
Tungabhadra.
 Hagari River originates in
Western Ghats and flows
through Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh to join Tungabhadra. It
is also known as Vedavathi.
Veda and Avathi Rivers
originate at Sahyadri; join each
other at Pura and known as
Vedavathi.
 Kishanganga is a tributary of
Jhelum in Jammu and Kashmir.
Thus, it is the northernmost
among the four. To its south is
the Ganga which rises from
Gangotri glacier in Uttarakhand.
 Painganga and Wainganga, both
are tributaries of Godavari.
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 Wain Ganga is located in north
and Painganga in south.
 The Correct order from north to
south of the four Rivers will be:
Kishangana, Ganga River, Wain
Ganga, Painganga.
 Sutlej, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and
Yamuna are the main rivers
which pass through Himachal
Pradesh (HP).
 Drainage map of India:
 Edon Canal is a 65 km long
canal taken out from Damodar
River in 1938. It provides
irrigation to 10,000 hectares of
land.
 The most polluted river of India
is Damodar River. The
enormous quantity of pollutants
coming out from the mines,
industries, cities and
agricultural fields have so much
degraded the quality of the river
water between Giridih and
Durgapur that it has virtually
become a biological desert.
 Rajarappa is a Shakti Peeth
temple at the confluence of
Damodar and Bhera.
 Luni River originates in
Aravalli range, south west to
Ajmer. It disappears in the Runn
of Kutch traversing a distance of
320 km. Thus, it does not come
in contact with the sea.
 Inland Drainage River is that
drainage in which River does
not reach ocean and falls into
lake or inland sea. The example
of Inland River is Ghaggar,
Mahi, Muni, Rugen, Saraswati,
Banas etc
 The Kosi River has seven
tributaries in which Aruna is
most important. It originates
from north of the Gosainthan
area.
 The Kosi River is known for its
dangerous floods and especially
for maximum shifting of its
course. Thus, it can be said that
the Kosi River changes its
course for maximum times
among all rivers of India.
 Khari river is a tributary of
Chambal River. It falls into Bay
of Bengal.
 Kosi river does not have its
source in glaciers.
 Kosi merges with Ganga near
Bhagalpur.
 Triveni canal receives water
from river Gandak.
 Shyok River in known as
“Yarkandi” in Central Asia and
“River of Death” in Karakoram.
Ancient evidences indicate that
it was also medium of trade
between Yarkand and Ladakh.
 Zanskar River flows through
hard rock and form deep gorge.
It originates on the border of
Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh.
It flows in north and then flows
in east and joints Indus at Nemu.
 Spiti River originates at height
of 16000 ft from Kunzun pass.
It merges into Sutlej River in
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Himachal Pradesh after flowing
60 miles.
 Sutlej River rises in Tibet it
crosses Great Himalaya and
Zaskar range and crosses Indo-
Tibet border near Shipki La.
 Spiti River merges in Sutlej
from north.
 Bist Doab - Between Beas and
Sutlej.
 Bari Doab - Between Ravi and
Beas.
 Rachna Doab - Between Ravi
and Chenab
 Chaj Doab - Between Chenab
and Jhelum.
 The correct order of river from
north to south is: Shyok,
Zansker, Spiti, Sutlej.
 The Hizla fair is organized on
the banks of the Mayurakshi
River in Dumka, Santhal
Pargana. Hizla is located on the
banks of the Mayurakshi River.
 On 25 August, 2005 a
Memorandum of Understanding
was signed for Ken-Betwa Link
project. It was signed by the
then Chief Minister of U.P.,
Mulayam Singh Yadav, the then
Chief Minister of M.P., Babulal
Gaur and the then Union Water
Resources Minister Priyaranjan
Das Munshi.
 Rajghat River valley is a joint
project of Govt of UP and MP
on Betwa River.
 Chambal River originates from
Janapav hills near Mahu in
Madhya Pradesh. It meets river
the Yamuna near Itawa.
 Source River
Brahmgiri Hills Cauvery
Verinag Spring Jhelum
Mahabaleshwar Krishna
Chhota Subarnarekha
Nagpur plateau
 Kali River rises near Diggi
village in Uttar Pradesh Kannad
district of Karnataka. It follows
an arch shape course in west
direction and flows into the
Arabian Sea. Total length of this
River is 184 km.
 Deccan Plateau is extended
from Narmada River to Kumari
Island and Arabian Sea to the
Bay of Bengal. Average
elevation of this plateau above
sea level is 600 meters. Western
Ghats parallel to the Arabian
Sea is high mountainous region
and eastern edge of the Deccan
Plateau gently slopes towards
the Bay of Bengal. All the rivers
flowing east wards from the
Western Ghats follow this slope
and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
 Kapili River is a Tributary of
Brahmaputra.
 Kamrupnagar is situated on the
bank of this river.
 River Tributary
Ganga Son
Godavari Indravati
Brahmaputra Teesta
Yamuna Chambal
 Luni River originates in
Aravalli range, passes through
Thar Desert and disappears in
the Runn of Kutch traversing a
distance of 320 km.
 Indravati river mainly flows
through Chhattisgarh.
 Bhima river flows through
Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Telangana.
 Ghatprabha flows through
Maharashtra and Karnataka.
 Superimposed stream or river
does not follow slopes of
Bhubaneswar is the capital of
Odisha. The famous city of
Odisha “Cuttack” is located on
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the bank of Mahanadi River.
lithosphere.
 Chambal and Son are best
examples of superimposed
rivers.
 The Sankosh River originate in
Northern Bhutan and flows into
Brahmaputra River near the
border of Assam and
Bangladesh It forms the
boundary between Assam and
Bangladesh.
 The Mahi River originates in
M.P. and enters Rajasthan in the
district of Banswara and then
flows to the south-west
direction of Gujarat and falls
into the Gulf of Khambat.
 The Kishanganga River is a
tributary of Jhelum.
 Tulbul Project is built on
Jhelum River.
 Eastern Dhauliganga is a
tributary of Kali River. Kali
River originates from Kalapani,
near Lipulekh pass. Main
tributaries of Kali River are
Gori, Sarju, Ladhiya, Lohavati
etc.
 Mithi River is originates from
Vihar Lake in Mumbai. After
flowing 2 km, the water of
Powai Lake also merges in the
streams. It traverses over a
distance of 18 km and falls into
the Arabian Sea near the Bay of
Mahim.
 Leh is located on the right bank
of Indus River in the UT of
Ladakh.
 Ludhiana (Punjab) are located
23. Waterfalls and
on the old bank of river Sutlej.
Presently Sutlej River flows 13
km north of these cities.
 Hyderabad is located on the
bank of the river Musi (a
tributary of the river Krishna).
 Bhubaneswar is the capital of
Odisha. The famous city of
Odisha “Cuttack” is located on
the bank of Mahanadi River.
 The list of cities with
corresponding Rivers on the
bank of which they are located
is as follows:
Cuttack – Mahanadi
Ludhiana – Sutlej
Nasik – Godavari
Ujjain – Kshipra
 Ahmedabad is located on the
bank of Sabarmati River,
Lucknow-Gomti River.
 Betul is a district of Madhya
Pradesh. Tapti River originates
in the Betul district from a place
called Multai. It flows from east
to west direction same as River
Narmada and Mahi. Its total
length is 724 km.
 Jagdalpur: It is a city in Bastar
district of Chhattisgarh. It is
located on southern bank of
Indravati River.
 Jabalpur: It is a district of
Madhya Pradesh. It is located
near Narmada River.
 Ujjain is the oldest city of
Malwa region of Madhya
Pradesh. It is located on the
eastern bank of “Kshipra”
River.
 Gaurikund, Rambara and
Guptakashi are located along
the Mandakini River.
 Govind ghat is located at the
confluence of Alaknanda and
Lakshman Ganga.
Lakes
 Hundru fall is located on the
course of the Subarnarekha
River. It is 45 km away from
Ranchi. Its height is 98 m (322
feet).
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 Kapildhara falls is located in Mawsmai Meghal 315 1035 ft

newly created district Anuppur Falls aya m
(Madhya Pradesh) on River Dudhsagar Goa 310 1017 ft
Narmada. Falls m
 Kynrem Falls Meghal 305 1000 ft
Waterfall Rivers aya m
Dudhsagar Mandavi Meenmutty Kerala 300 984 feet
River (On Falls m
the borders Thalaiyar Tamil 297 975 feet
of Goa and Falls Nadu m
Karnataka) Barkana Falls Karnat 259 850 feet
Duduma Machhkun aka m
d (Koraput, Jog Falls Karnat 253 829 feet
Odisha) aka m
Gukak Ghatprabha Khandadhar Odisha 244 800 ft
(Belgaum, Falls m
Karnataka) Vantawang Mizora 229 750ft
Jog Sharavati Falls m m
(Karnataka Barehi Pani Odisha 217 712 feet
) Falls m
Sivasamudra Cauvery Kune Falls Mahara 200 656ft
m shtra m
Chulia Chambal Soochipara Kerala 200 656ft
Dhuandhar Narmada Falls m
Magod Falls Karnat 198 650ft
 Jog fall is the biggest waterfall aka m
(by width) in India. Kunchikal Karnat 193 600ft
 Sivasamudram is the biggest Falls aka m
waterfall (by volume) in India.
 Chitrakoot waterfalls is  Lodh waterfall is situated in
popularly known as Niagara Latehar district of Jharkhand at
Falls of India. It is located near the source of Burha River. This
Jagdalpur, in Bastar district of is a major waterfall of
Chhattisgarh on Indravati River. Jharkhand and ranks 21st
Its height is 29 meters. It is a among the highest waterfalls in
natural waterfall. India. This fall is also called as
 Dhuandhar fall is in Jabalpur. It Budha ghagh falls its height is
is located on Narmada River in 469 feet.
Bhedghat.  Vembanad Lake is the largest
 Nohkalikai and Langshiang are lake of Kerala. Its length is 96
situated in Meghalaya. km and width are 14.48 km. The
 According to the latest world lake is bordered by Alappuzha,
waterfalls data base high water Kottayam and Ernakulam
falls of India are as follows: districts of Kerala.
 Lagoon Lake of Kerala is also
Nohkalikai Meghal 340 1115 ft called as “Kayal”. Some of the
Falls aya m Kayals (lagoon) found in Kerala
are Punnamada Kayal,

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Ashtamudi Kayal, Vembanad Lonar Maharashtra

Kayal etc. Nakki Rajasthan
 Lagoon is a stretch of salt water Kolleru Andhra
separated from the sea by a low Ashtamudi Kerala
sandbank or coral reef. Surajkund Haryana
 Periyar lake is spread on 55 sq.
km area. It is an artificial lake. It  KodaiKanal is an artificial water
is not lagoon as it draws water lake in Dindigul district in
from river. Tamil Nadu.
 Ashtamudi lake is a backwater  Roopkund is a glacial lake in
lagoon in Kerala. Uttarakhand. It is famous for
 Chilika Lake is a lagoon on the hundreds of human Skeletons
mouth of River Mahanadi in found at the edge of the lake. It
Odisha. Its maximum length is is called “Mystery Lake” and
29 km and width is 132 km. “Skeleton Lake”. These
 Pulicat lake is a saltwater skeletons were discovered by
lagoon on the border of Tamil H.K. Madhaval in 1942.
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh on  Anchar lake is located in Jammu
Coromandel coast. & Kashmir.
 Pulicat is the second largest lake  Hamirsar lake is in Gujarat.
after Chilika lake. Sriharikota  Chandubi, Chapanala and
separates the lake from Bay of Hafflong are main lakes of
Bengal. Assam.
 Chilika Lake is a lagoon on the  Snow covered Ghepan lake
mouth of River Mahanadi in formed by gradual receding of a
Odisha. Odisha coast is also gigantic glacier is located in
called Northern Circar. Lahaul Valley, Himachal
Karnataka coast is on Pradesh.
Karnataka’s coastal area.
Konkan coast is on
Maharashtra’s western coast
and Malabar Coast is on
Kerala’s western coast.
 Loktak Lake is in Manipur
whereas Didwana and Uday
Sagar lakes are located in
Rajasthan and Kolleru Lake is
located in Andhra Pradesh.
 Gomti River originates from
Fulhar Lake. Which is situated
in Mado Tanda. Pilibhit district
of Uttar Pradesh.

 Lake State
Vembanad Kerala
Loktak Manipur
Dal Jammu &
Kashmir
Pulicat TamilNadu

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starts from Kerala and is active

CLIMATE from June to September.
 In summer, the monsoon flows
from South west to North east
24. Monsoon direction.
 In winter, the monsoon flows
from North east to South west
direction.
 Leh is the driest place among
Mumbai, Delhi, Leh and
Bengaluru.
 The south west monsoon is
responsible for the most of the
rainfall in India. It is caused due
to high temperature and low
pressure over the subcontinent
during summer season which
draws air from the Indian
Ocean.
 The January isotherm taken as
 The climate of India is basis for dividing India into
essentially tropical monsoonal. tropical and subtropical zones is
 The lofty Himalayas in the north 180 C.
along with extension acts as an 
effective climate divide. The
towering mountain chain
provides an invincible shield to
protect the sub-continent from
the cold northern winds. The
Himalayas also trap the
monsoon winds, forcing them to
shed their moistures within the
subcontinent.
 India is home to diverse
climates. It hosts humid tropical
to temperature zones. Thus,
different geographical regions
experience different
temperature. The map depicts
annual mean temperature.
Northern India is relatively
warmer than south. Similarly,
 Desert areas of Rajasthan have
during winter northern area is
highest daily range of
colder than southern area.
temperature. Daily temperature
 In India, monsoon arrives first
variation is one of the main
in Kerala. India receives 92
features of Desert climates.
percent of its total rainfall from
Desert are hot during day but
south-western monsoon which
cold during night.

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 The period of October to
December is referred to as North
East Monsoon season over
Peninsular India. It is the period
of rainfall over South India,
particularly in Andhra Pradesh,
Rayalaseema and Tamil Nadu.
This is the main rainy season in
Tamil Nadu region. During this
monsoon on 26 December,
2004, Tamil Nadu was struck by
Tsunami.
 Indian monsoon is indicated by
seasonal displacement because
of different temperature of land
and Sea. Some of the important
concepts about the origin of
Monsoon are:
1. Thermal Concept: It
propounds that primary arrival
of the Indian monsoon
circulation is the differential
heating effect of the land and the
Sea.
2. Dynamic Concept: Put
forward by Flohn, according to
this concept, monsoon is the
result of seasonal migration of
planetary winds and pressure
belts.
 The amount of rainfall
decreases from east to west
owing to the progressive
decrease in humidity of the
winds. Southern part of India
being near to sea gets rainfall
early and for a longer duration
than the northern parts.
 Chhattisgarh basin is not
affected by the Arabian Sea
branch of monsoon.
 Arabian Sea monsoon is further
split into two branches being
obstructed by the western ghats.
 1. First branch moves parallel to
Aravalli range causing scanty
rainfall, further mingles with
Bay of Bengal.
 2. The second one after being
obstructed by Vindhya
Mountain causes rainfall in
Gujarat, MP and western
Chhattisgarh.
 Amritsar (31.640) and Shimla
(31.610) are almost on the same
latitude but their climate
difference is due to the
difference in their altitudes.
Amritsar is located at 768 feet
and Shimla at 7866.10 feet
above the mean sea level.
 Humid South-East climate is
found in the region of West
Bengal, Chhota Nagpur, Odisha
plain, southern Chhattisgarh and
Northeast part of Andhra
Pradesh. Sub humid transitional
weather extends to central
Gangetic plains (eastern U.P.
and western Bihar).
 Sub humid littoral weather
spreads on the coromandel
region and sub humid
continental weather spreads to
upper gangetic plains.
 Kochi and Tejpur experience
more humid climate due to
heavy rainfall. Kochi
experience rainfall up to 3228
mm. Ahmedabad- 800mm,
Ludhiana- 730mm and Tejpur-
1600mm. Compared to
Ahmedabad and Ludhiana,
Kochi and Tejpur experience
more rainfall which makes their
climate more humid.
 When monsoon returns from
north, there is slight increase in
temperature on Land. The low
pressure covers Bay of Bengal
and the sky is clear.
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
is also as the ‘Indian Nino’. IOD
is an irregular oscillation of sea-
surface temperature in which
the western India ocean
becomes alternately warmer and
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 CLICK HERE FOR FREE TESTS
then colder than the eastern part
of the Indian Ocean (not the
tropical eastern Pacific Ocean).
An IOD phenomenon can
influence an El-Nino’s impact.
 As per Koppen’s classification
of climate, Humid sub-tropical
climate with dry weather (Cwg)
is most suitable for north east
India including north Bengal,
Ganga plain etc.
 Westerlies flow between 300
and 600 latitudes of northern and
southern hemisphere. The
western cyclonic disturbances
enter the Indian subcontinent
from the West and northwest
during the winter months,
originate over the
Mediterranean Sea and are
brought into India by the
westerly jet stream causes
winter rains in the north and
north western India. They are a
non-monsoonal precipitation
pattern driven by westerlies.
25. Rainfall
 During April and May when the
Sun Shines vertically over the
Tropic of Cancer, the large land
mass in the north of Indian
Ocean gets intensely heated.
This causes the formation of an
intense low pressure in the north
western part of the subcontinent
followed by the northward shift
in the position of Inter Tropical
convergence Zone (ITCZ).
 The south west monsoon can be
seen as the continuation of the
southeast trades deflected
towards the Indian subcontinent
after crossing the equator.
 Southwest monsoon enters India
in two rain-bearing systems.
First originates in the Bay of
Bengal causing rainfall over the
plains of the north India. Second
is the Arabian Sea current of the
south west monsoon which
brings rain to the west coast of
India. According to data
provided by Indian
Meteorological department for
year 2014, south west monsoon
supplies over 90% of India’s
annual rainfall.
 Tamil Nadu, located in south
east peninsular India, receives
the major part of its annual
rainfall during the North East
monsoon season. Tamil Nadu
receives about 50-60% of its
annual rainfall during Northeast
monsoon.
 Sikkim among the Arunachal
Pradesh, Sikkim, karela and
Jammu Kashmir receives the
highest average annual rainfall.
 The highest average annual
rainfall occurs in Meghalaya
(3837.1mm).
 Ajmer in Shillong are located
along the same latitude but
rainfall in Ajmer is less as
compared to that of Shillong.
 According to Indian
Meteorology Station data, the
average temperature of Chennai
is 240 C in winter whereas 300C
in summer. The average rainfall
is 60- 70 cm. The average
temperature of Tamil Nadu for
whole year is 260 C. Its annual
rainfall is 63cm and annual
range temperature is 90C.
 Place Rainfall (cm) Kochi
250
Kolkata 150
Patna 100
Delhi 50
 Mango shower is the name of
pre-monsoon showers in
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Karnataka and Kerala that helps  India’s rainfall range:

in the ripening of mangoes. It is
also known as April rains or
summer showers. The reason of
the Mango showers is the
thunderstorms over the Bay of
Bengal. The shower prevents
mangoes from dropping
prematurely.
 Leh receives least rainfall in
India (9.20 cm).
 Bikaner receives 24.30 cm
rainfall annually.
 Jaisalmer receives 10 cm
rainfall annually (Lowest in
Rajasthan)
 Cherrapunji receives 1100 cm
of rainfall annually.
 Mawsynram is the place with
highest rainfall in India and the
world according to current data.
 India has an abundant volume of
rainfall but is still regarded as a  According to Indian
thirsty land because rapid runoff metrological department, a day
of water, quick evaporation of is defined as a rainy day when it
rain water, concentration of receives rainfall of 2.5 mm or
rainfall during a few months more in 24 hours.
only.  The monsoonal rainfall
 Rainwater harvesting is the decreases as one goes towards
water management strategy the West and northwest in the
which is cost effective in India Ganga plain. It means rainfall
Tamil Nadu is the leading state increases from West to east
in rainwater harvesting. direction.
 The northern part of Zaskar  The moisture bearing
range in Jammu and Kashmir monsoonal winds go higher as
and western part of Rajasthan one moves up in the Ganga
receives an average annual plain.
rainfall of 200 millimetre.  All India Water Divide map:
 Jharkhand receives its rainfall
during South West monsoon
i.e., June to September.

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 The climate of Chennai is
warmer than Kolkata due to
different in latitudes.
 Snowfall occurs in Himalayas
due to higher altitude.
 Rainfall decreases from West
Bengal to Punjab due to distance
from the sea and Sutlej-Ganga
plain gets some rain in winter
due to western depression.
 The hallmark of watershed
development in the semi-arid
regions of India is setting up a
system of tanks by embanking
water from seasonal rivers.
Today there are approximately
120,000 small tanks irrigating
about 4.12 million hectares of
agricultural land in semi-arid
areas of India.
 The Desert Development
Programme (DDP) was started
in the areas of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu &
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
in 1977-78. In 1995-96 the
coverage was extended to a few
districts in Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka.
 Inland waterways are not well
developed in India and one of
the important reasons for that is
India receives rainfall only for
four months in a year.
26.WinterRainfall
 Coastal areas of Tamil Nadu
receive winter rainfall up to 65-
75 cm due to retreating North-
East Monsoon.
 Punjab also receives winter
rainfall due to Western
Disturbances.
 Rainfall during winter in
northern India is due to the
western disturbance.
 Anti-cyclonic conditions in India
already exist and it has nothing to
do with winter rains.
 Anti-cyclonic conditions during
winter are formed when the
atmospheric pressure is high and
temperature is low.
 Winter monsoon winds do not
cause rainfall as they move from
land to the Sea. So, most parts of
India do not have rainfall in the
winter season. However, there
are some exceptions to it: A – In
north western India, western
disturbance causes rainfall in
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and
western Uttar Pradesh.
27. Natural Disasters
 On 26th December, 2004,
Tsunami originated from Indian
Ocean, worst affected the
Coromandel Coast of India. The
Coromandel Coast is south-
eastern coast of Indian
subcontinent. The coastline runs
from False Divi Point in north to
Kanyakumari in the south.
 The Indian Tsunami Early
Warning Centre (ITEWC) is
established at Indian National
Centre for Ocean Information
Science, (INCOIS- ESSO)
Hyderabad.
 The Indian Meteorological
Department was constituted in
1875 under the Ministry of Earth
and Science headquarter at New
Delhi.
 The headquarters of IMD is in
New Delhi.
 The ‘National Flood Forecasting
and Warning Network' of Central
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Water Commission, which
comprised of 175 flood
forecasting sites including 15
flood-prone States and one Union
territory, maximum in Uttar
Pradesh (35) followed by Bihar
(32). The flood region of Uttar
Pradesh is divided into high flood
prone and low flood prone
region. 48% of the total flood-
prone region lies under the high
flood prone region.
 Preconditions for the emergence
of a tropical cyclone are:
1. large and continuous supply of
warm and moist air that can
release enormous latent heat,
2. enormous Coriolis force that
can prevent the filling of low
pressure at the centre,
3. unstable conditions through
the troposphere that creates local
disturbance around which a
cyclone develops,
4. absence of strong vertical
wind.
 The most important factor for the
tropical cyclone in the month of
May is local temperature
variation.
 The frequency of landslides has
been increasing in Himalayas. Its
root cause is increased frequency
of earthquake as well as man-
made activities such as the
construction of road and dams.
There has been large scale done
for the construction of roads,
dams, and minerals in the
Himalayas in recent years.
 The first disaster management
Training Institute of Country has
been established in Latur,
Maharashtra.
 A cyclone is a large-scale air
mass that rotates around a strong
centre of low pressure. They are
usually characterized by onward
Spiralling winds that rotate anti-
clockwise in the Northern
hemisphere and Clockwise in the
Southern hemisphere.
 Tropical cyclones are
characterised by large pressure
gradients.
 The centre of the cyclone is
mostly a warm and low-pressure,
cloudless core known as the eye
of storm.
 The cyclones affect Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea.
Cyclones get formed in the Bay
of Bengal due to low pressure,
generated by high temperature.
 Eastern coast is more prone to
cyclone in western coast.
 Eastern coast of India lies in the
zone of North East trade winds.
 The Koyna region of
Maharashtra is likely to become
more earthquake prone in near
future.
 The Koyna dam is located on an
old fault plane which may get
activated more frequently with
changes in water level in Koyna
reservoir.
 The intensity of earthquakes in
different zones:

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 Cities Seismic Zones
 Bhuj Zone V
Hyderabad Zone II
Srinagar Zone V
Chennai Zone II
 The frequency of floods in north
Indian plains has increased due to
deposition of silts. There has
been reduction in the depth of
river valleys due to deposition of
silts which causes flood in
normal rain.
 Uttar Pradesh is divided into high
flood affected, medium flood
affected and low flood affected
regions. High flood affected
region covers 48% of total flood
affected regions of Uttar Pradesh.
Eastern areas are the maximum
flood affected regions of Uttar
Pradesh.
SOILS
28. Black Soil
 The black soil is also called
“Regur” (from the Telugu word
Reguda), cotton soils and tropical
Chernozen etc. This soil is
mainly found in Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh parts of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
 Geographically, Black soil is
spread over 5.46 lakh sq.km.
 The black soil of the Deccan trap
is also known as Regur or
Reguda.
 The black soil is very suitable for
cotton cultivation. It lacks in
phosphorous, nitrogen and
organic matter (humus).
 The black soil is rich in alumina,
iron, lime and magnesium
carbonates, potash.
 “Black Cotton Soil” is generally
clayey, deep and impermeable.
They swell and become sticky
when wet, and shrink when dried.
 During the dry season, black soil
develops wide cracks. Thus,
there occurs a kind of “Self-
ploughing”.
 Black soil lacks in phosphorous,
Nitrogen and humus.
 Black soils cover most of the
Deccan trap especially the States
of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and some
part of Tamil Nadu.
 Black soils are formed by the
weathering and erosional work of
Basalt Lava.
29. Laterite Soil
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 The Laterite soil is red in colour
due to the wide diffusion of iron
oxides through the materials of
the soil.
 Generally, Laterite soil is
deficient in nitrogen, lime,
humus and potash, but rich in
Iron & Aluminium.
 Typical Laterite soils generally
lack fertility and are of little use
for crop production. Topioca
and Cashew nuts grow.
 Laterite soil are well developed
in parts of Western Ghats,
Eastern Ghats, South
Maharashtra, Parts of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala,
Jharkhand, Meghalaya, and
Assam.
 The laterite soil is formed under
conditions of high temperature
and heavy rainfall with alternate
wet and dry periods, which
leads to the leaching of Soil,
leaving only oxides of iron and
aluminium. Humus content of
the soil is removed fast by
bacteria that thrive well in high
temperature.
30. Alluvial Soil
 Alluvial Soil is the most fertile
soil in India. It has less amount
of Nitrogen.
 Alluvial Soils are formed
mainly by Himalayan
sediments and sea retreat.
 Alluvial Soil is the largest and
the most important soil group of
India.
 Covering about 15 lakh sq km
or about 40% percent of the
total land area of the country,
these soils contribute the largest
share of our agricultural wealth.
 The widest occurrence of the
Alluvial soils in the Indo-
Gangetic plain starting from
Punjab to West Bengal and
Assam in the East. They are
also found in deltas of
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Cauvery, where they are
called deltaic alluvium.
 Along the coast, alluvial soil is
known as coastal alluvium.
Some alluvial soils are found in
Narmada and Tapi valleys.
 Geologically, the alluvium is
divided into newer or younger
Khadar and older Bhangar soils.
 Khadar is the new alluvium and
is deposited by floods annually
which enrich the soil by
depositing fine silts. They
always remain fertile.
 Bangar represents a system of
older alluvium deposited away
from the flood plains. Its colour
is pale radish brown and in this
nodule are formed at large
scale.
 Geographically, Black soils are
spread over 5.46 lakh sq.km
while the red soils occupy a vast
area of about 5.18 lakh sq.km.
 Alluvial sand soil has minimum
water retention capacity
because soil with limited water
holding capacity (i.e., sandy
loam) reaches the saturation
point much sooner than a soil
with a higher water holding
capacity (i.e., clay loam).
 The water holding capacity of
different types of soil in
descending order is clay > silt >
sandy.
 Clay soil has the least pore
spaces.
 Sandy soil have largest pore
spaces.
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 Generally, Loam soil has 40%
sand particles, 40% clay
particles and 20% silt particles.
31.Miscellaneous(soil)
 Legume crops enrich the soils
with nitrogen content by
atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
 Plants contributing to nitrogen
fixation are soyabeans, alpha-
alpha, lubins, peanuts, pulses,
rooibos etc.
 The crop of Black Gram (Urd)
is grown for improving the soil
fertility. Occasionally, it is also
used as fodder.
 Soils of western Rajasthan have
high calcium.
 Most of the red soils have come
into existence due to
weathering of ancient
crystalline and metamorphic
rocks.
 The red soils are short of lime,
magnesium, phosphates,
nitrogen and humus, but are
fairly rich in potash. In their
chemical composition, they are
mainly siliceous and
aluminous.
 The reason of the red colour of
the red soil is presence of ferric
oxide.
 Zinc is the micronutrient that is
maximum deficient in Indian
soils in the given options
copper, iron, manganese and
zinc.
 The Himalayan soils lack
humus while the Himalayas
have the largest area under
forest cover.
 Clayey oil has less than 50%
site, 50% clay and some amount
of sad. This soil slows air
ventilation due to which it
sustains water.
 Karewa soil is found in
Kashmir valley and this boost
for growing saffron called
zaffron.
 The soil pH is a measure of the
acidity or alkalinity in the soil.
The pH below 7 is acidic and
above 7 is alkaline.
 Soil pH is considered a variable
in soil as it controls many
chemical processes that affects
plants nutrient availability by
controlling the chemical forms
of the nutrient.
 Most nutrients at planet can
dissolve easily when the pH of
the soil solution is from 6 to 7.5.
 Lime is used to make acidic soil
cultivable.
 Excessive alkaline or acidic soil
is not good for soil health and is
not used for cultivation of
common crops.
 Calcium sulphate (Gypsum) is
used to remove salinity or
alkalinity of soil.
 The most alkaline soil is found
in UP.
 The largest area of solid soil is
found in Gujarat.
 Soil salinization is often a
problem in arid regions where
ions of soluble salt built up in
the soil. In these regions, where
irrigation is required for plants
to grow, the processes of
evaporation and transpiration
leave the salt behind in the soil.
 Tea is grown in variety of soils.
The best, however, is soil
slightly acidic and without
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calcium as tea is highly
intolerant to stagnant water.
 Although tea requires heavy
rainfall for its growth, stagnant
water is injurious to its roots.
 Tea is therefore, grown on hill
slopes where water drains away
easily and water-logging does
not place. However, it grows
equally well in the valley if the
drainage system is good.
 The most affected region by soil
erosion in India are badlands of
Chambal and Yamuna rivers,
Western Himalaya (Shivalik
region), Chota Nagpur plateau,
Malwa plateau, Black Soil
region of Maharashtra, arid
regions of Haryana, Rajasthan
and Gujarat, etc. Ravines of
Chambal valley are formed by
Gully erosion.
 The largest area under salt
affected soils exist in the state
of Gujarat, followed by UP,
Haryana and Punjab.
 Gully erosion is responsible for
the formation of Chambal
ravines.
 In Madhya Pradesh the problem
of soil erosion is found in
Chambal valley. Mainly
Morena, Bhind, Gwalior and
Shivpuri have become and
infertile due to gully erosion.
 Splash Erosion: The erosion
due to the impact of falling
raindrops on soil-surface
leading to the destruction of the
crumb structure is known as the
rain-drop or splash erosion.
This is the first stage of erosion.
 Sheet Erosion: it is a fairly
uniform removal of soil in thin
layers from the land surface
often costly perceptible
specially when caused by wind.
Areas where loose, shallow
topsoil overlays compact soil or
more susceptible to sheet
erosion.
 Rill Erosion: a form of water
erosion in which numerous very
small and more or less straight
channels are produced, the
channels get obliterated by
ordinary use. It can be removed
by normal tillage operations.
 Gully erosion: A form of water
erosion in which gullies are
produced by combination of
unattended rills.
 Stream Channel Erosion:
Stream banks are eroded by
water either flowing over the
sides of a stream or scouring at
the base. It is aggravated by
removal of vegetation,
overgrazing or cultivation
methods near stream banks.
 Farm land tends to erode most
rapidly when planted with
Sorghum while clove causes
minimum soil erosion.
 Seed modification method
affects crop production.
 Soil fertility can be improved
by crop rotation, mixed
cultivation and multiple
cropping methods.
 Crop rotation refers to the
practise of growing different,
types of crops over the same
area in different seasons. It
enriches soil fertility and helps
in pest control.
 The appropriate method for soil
conservation is done by crop
rotation, terracing and
windbreaks.
 The destruction of soil cover is
described as soil erosion. The
soil forming processes and the
erosional processes of running
water and wind go on
simultaneously. But generally,
there is a balance between these
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two processes. Sometimes, such
a balance is disturbed by natural
or human factors, leading to
greater rate of removal of soil.
 Deforestation is one of the
major causes of soil erosion.
Plants keep soils bound in locks
of roots, and thus, prevents
erosion. Terrace farming is a
method of soil conservation.
Tropical climate is not
responsible for soil erosion.
32. Natural Vegetation
 The birch tree is found in the
Himalayas. The white paper
like bark of the tree was used in
ancient times for writing
scriptures and texts. It grows
up at elevations up to 4500
meters.
  The Kattha is obtained from
wood of Khair. Kattha is a
white substance found in Khair
wood. It grows throughout
India from the Himalayas to the
south of India especially in arid
regions.
 Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest
occupies the largest area in
India. The tropical moist
deciduous forest is the second
largest forest area in India.
Teak and Sal are significant
products of it.
 The western Himalayan region
extends at elevation of 1500-
3600 meters. Its temperate
zone is rich in forests of
Deodar, Chir, Pine, other
conifers and broad-leaved
temperate trees.
 The trees of Deodar are
abundant in temperature zone
of western Himalayas than any
other plants.
 The Cinchona is an evergreen
tropical plant.
 In India, evergreen forests are
found in Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Kerala,
Maharashtra, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura,
West Bengal and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
 Chhattisgarh is suitable for
Tropical dry and monsoon type
forests.
 The Cinchona tree does not
grow in Chhattisgarh. It is
found in Assam, Kerala and
West Bengal.
 Butea monosperma is called
the “flame of the forest”. It is
known as Dhak or Palash also.
Palash (Butea monosperma)
has been declared as the State
Flower of Uttar Pradesh.
 Teak forests have specific
contribution in the economy of
the country.
 Teak, Sal, Shesham,
Rosewood, Deodar, Chir Pine
and Spruce are economically
important.
 Teak is found in total 8.9-
million-hectare area of India.
Total 50% of teak plants area is
found in Madhya Pradesh.
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 The fern is vascular plants that
reproduce by spores and have
neither seeds nor flowers.
These plants are seedless.
 Eastern Himalayas are nearer
to the equator and sea coast, the
snow line in the eastern
Himalayas is at a higher
altitude than western
Himalayas. As a result of this
there is a variation in the height
of vegetation in the Himalayas.
 Oryx is adapted to live in hot
and arid areas like Saudi
Arabia etc.
 Chiru is adapted to live in
Steppes and semi desert areas
of cold high mountains.
 Teak: The expansion of Teak
trees is found in Central India
i.e., Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and Odisha. Teak
is found in total 8.9-million-
hectare area of India.
 Deodar: Cedrus deodar is a
species of cedar native to the
western Himalayas at elevation
of 1500-2500 meters.
 Sundari: It is the dominant
mangrove trees species of the
Sundarbans of Bangladesh and
India.
 Cinchona: The Cinchona is
plant of Himalayan terai
region.
 Tropical moist deciduous
forest: These forests are found
in areas of moderate rainfall of
100 to 150 cm per annum
therefore they are known as
monsoon forests. Such areas
include a belt running along the
eastern slopes of Western
Ghats, North eastern region of
peninsular India and Bhabar
and Tarai regions.
 Tropical dry deciduous forest:
The dry deciduous forests are
mainly situated in the area,
where annual rainfall ranges
from 70-100 cm. These are
spread from central Gangetic
plains to southern India.
 Alpine Forest: The Alpine
forests grow all along the
Himalayas at altitudes ranging
between 2800 to 4000 meters.
The expansion of these forests
is found in Arunachal Pradesh.
 Tropical Evergreen Forests:
These are typical rain forests
which grow in those areas
where the annual rainfall
exceeds 250 cm. The evergreen
forests are found along the
Western side of the Western
Ghats (The Sahyadri) North-
East and in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
 Tropical Forest - Silent Valley
 Conifer Forest - Himachal
Pradesh
 Mangroves – Sunderbans
 Deciduous Forest – Rajasthan
 The Sunderbans (largest delta)
is a mangrove forest in West
Bengal.
 Coniferous forest is spread
across Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir in India.
 Silent Valley tropical
evergreen forest located in the
Palakkad district of Kerala.
 Dry Deciduous Forest spread
across Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh.
 Lisa is a significant forest
product obtained from pine
trees of Uttarakhand. It is also
tapped commercially for resin.
On distillation, the resin fields
an essential oil, commonly
known as turpentine oil and
non-volatile erosion which are
used in a wide variety of
industries such as paper, soap,
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cosmetics, paint, varnish,  Mangrove vegetation areas of

rubber and polish industries. Maharashtra: Achra, Ratnagiri,
 Lisa is prime resource of self- Raigad, Devgarh-Vijaydurg,
employment and a base of rural Kundalika Revdanda,
economy of Uttarakhand. Mumbara-Diva, Srivardhan,
 Multipurpose tree used in Vaitarna, Malvan etc.
social forestry is Khejri.  Mangrove vegetation areas of
 Kerala: Vembanad, Kanoor.
Grassland/ Location/  Mangrove vegetation areas of
Hill station State Tamil Nadu: Pichavaram,
Banni Gujarat Muthupet and Ramnad,
Grassland Pulicat, Kajuvelli etc.
Bugyal Uttarakhand  Mangrove vegetation areas of
Grassland West Bengal: Sundarbans
Khajjiar Himachal Mangroves vegetation areas of
Pradesh Odisha: Bhitarkanika, Devi,
Pahalgam Jammu and Dhamra, Chilika etc.
Kashmir

 Originally Mahogany trees are

33. Irrigation and
found in tropical region of Canals
North and South America. This
tree is abundant in West Indies
 One of the major sources of
Central America in South
irrigation practiced in
America.
Peninsular India is pond
 Juniper, Silver fir, Spruce are
irrigation as undulating relief
species of Himalayan
and hard rock makes it difficult
vegetation.
to dig canals and well.
 Tropical dry deciduous forest
 Most of the rivers in peninsular
or subtropical forest expansion
region are seasonal and dry up
is found in most parts of
during summer season. So,
Madhya Pradesh.
they cannot supply water to
 Deodar trees are found at the canals. Therefore, the main
highest elevation of 1500-2500 source for irrigation is tank.
meters above the sea level in
 Fertilizers/nutrients loss can be
western Himalayas.
reduced by micro-irrigation.
 Chir is native to Himalayas and
 In some areas of farming,
found at an elevation of
receding of ground water level
between 900 to 1000 meters.
can be checked by micro-
 Sal is mainly found in sub- irrigation due to limited and
Himalayan region, eastern beneficiary use of water.
region of central India and
 Lifesaving of protective
Tamil Nadu.
irrigation refers to irrigation of
 Open stunted forest with P.W.P. (Permanent Wilting
bushes and small trees having Point). Permanent wilting point
long roots and sharp thorns, is the extent at which the
repeated spines are commonly moisture is no longer available
found in western Andhra in sufficient quantity for plants
Pradesh.

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to sustain. The irrigation
become compulsory in this
situation.
 Plains across the River Saryu
lack canals. Hence irrigation is
this area is done by tubewells.
 The Garland Canal System in
India was proposed by Captain
Dineshaw J. Dastur.
 The thought of river
interlinking was first proposed
by irrigation engineer M.
Visvesvaraya.
 K.L. Rao also proposed
another project of River
interlinking. Then, Water
Resource Ministry rejected
both projects (river interlinking
& the Garland canal system).
 Sir Arthur Cotton was a British
irrigation engineer who
devoted his life to the
construction of irrigation and
navigation canal throughout
British India. He is regarded as
the Pioneer of irrigation works
in South India.
 Minor Irrigation Projects: All
ground water and surface water
schemes that have a Culturable
Command Area (CCA) up to
2000 hectares individually are
classified as Minor Irrigation
Schemes.
 The minor irrigation projects
comprise all ground water
development schemes such as
dug wells, private shallow tube
wells, deep public tube wells,
and boring and deepening of
dugwells, and small surface
water development works such
as storage tanks, lift irrigation
projects, etc.
 Medium Irrigation Projects:
Those having a CCA between
2000 hectares and 10000
hectares
 Major Irrigation Projects:
Irrigation projects having
culturable Command Area
(CCA) of more than 10,000
hectares each are classified as
major projects.
 Triveni Canal is made for
irrigation in north western part
of Bihar. This canal is related
to Chandan irrigation project.
 The Farakka Barrage project
with headquarters at Farakka in
West Bengal was designed to
serve the need of preservation
and maintenance of Calcutta
port and navigate ability of
Bhagirath - Hooghly River
system in 1975.
 The Saran irrigation canal is
drawn from the river Gandak.
 Triveni canal is made for
irrigation in north western part
of Bihar. This canal is related
to Chandan irrigation project.
 Indira Gandhi Canal originates
at Harike Barrage near the
confluence of Sutlej and Beas
Rivers in Ferozepur district of
Punjab. The total length of
main canal system is 649 km.
 Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jodhpur
and Jaisalmer districts of
western Rajasthan are mainly
irrigated by Indira Gandhi
Canal.
  Indira Gandhi Canal receives
its water supply from Sutlej,
Beas and Ravi.
 The Beas project is joint
project of Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan States. Under this
project, a dam was built on
Pong River to maintain water
flow in Indira Gandhi canal
during winter.
 Gang canal is one of the oldest
irrigation systems in Rajasthan
which was completed in the
year 1927. It is one of the most
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well developed and the oldest  The lower Ganga canal starts
canal systems of the world. from Narora (Bulandshahar).
 The Government of India  On January 1, 2015, the
initiated a centrally sponsored Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sichayi
Command Area Development Yojana (PMKSY) was
Programme (CADP) in approved for reducing the
December 1974 to improve dependence of agriculture on
irrigation potential utilisation monsoon and providing
and optimise agricultural irrigation facility to every
production from irrigated land farm. The rural development
through integrated and Ministry of Government of
coordinated approach of India introduced three
efficient water management. In watershed development
tune with objectives of the programmes till April 1, 2008.
programme, a number of These programmes are
components such as integrated - wastelands
construction of field channels Development Programme,
and field drains, enforcement Drought prone areas
of warabandi, land levelling programme and Desert
and shaping, realignment of development programme.
field boundaries/consolidation These programmes were
of holdings, introduction of brought under a
suitable cropping patterns, comprehensive programme
strengthening of extension known as Integrated
services etc. were included in Watershed Management
the programme and three Programme.
projects were launched:  Drip irrigation is a form
 1. Sharda Tributary irrigation that saves water and
 2. Ramganga fertilizer by allowing water to
 3. Gandak drip slowly to the roots of
 Nizam Sagar is situated on the many different plants.
Manjira River. It is a tributary  Advantages of practicing drip
of Godavari. irrigation are: maximum use of
 The tributaries of Godavari available water, maximum
River are Manjra, Penganga, crop yield, reduction in weed,
Wainganga, Wardha, Pranhita, reduction in soil erosion, low
Indravati, Maner and Sabri labour cost, no run off of
river fertilizers, less evaporation of
 “Hariyali” scheme was waters, improved seed
launched by the then Prime germination etc.
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee
on 27 January, 2003 under
watershed management 34. Multi-Purpose
project. This project is being
run through 2.32 lakh River Valley
panchayats of the country. This
project encourages people of Projects
afforestation.

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 Sardar Sarovar Project has
been established at Narmada
River in Gujarat (138.68 Meter
height). It will produce 1450
Megawatt of hydro-electricity.
 Beneficiary states of Sardar
Sarovar Project are Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh.
 Sardar Sarovar dam project
provides irrigation facility to
17.92 lakh hectare area of
Gujarat.
 57% of the total power
generated through Sardar
Sarovar dam project is supplied
to Madhya Pradesh.
 Medha Patekar is a social
activist who has led the
struggle for people affected by
the Sardar Sarovar Project on
the Narmada River in Gujarat,
India. She founded the
Narmada Bachao Andolan.
 Bargi, Omkareshwar and
Indira Sagar dams are among
the series of 30 major dams on
Narmada River.
 Ban Sagar dam is located on
Son River.
 Harsud town of district
Khandwa of Madhya Pradesh
was submerged in 2004 due to
construction of Indira Sagar
Dam.
 Raising the height of Sardar
Sarovar dam is being opposed
by Narmada Bachao Andolan.
 Bhakra Nangal Project is a
joint venture of the Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan States
designed to harness the
precious water of the Sutlej for
the benefit of the concerned
States. The project has been
named after the two dams built
at Bhakra and Nangal on the
Sutlej River.
 The oldest hydropower plant is
in Darjeeling district in West
Bengal.
 The hydroelectric power
station near Shivasamudram
was set up on the Cauvery
River in Karnataka. It is the
second oldest power station in
India. It was commissioned in
1902.
 Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala
and Puducherry are party in
Cauvery River Water Dispute.
 The Cauvery Water Disputes
Tribunal (CWDT) came up
with its final order in 2013,
giving 270 TMC (Thousand
Million Cubic) water to
Karnataka, 30 TMC to Kerala,
419 TMC Tamil Nadu and 7
TMC to Puducherry.
 Nagarjuna Sagar Project has
been built on Krishna River. It
was completed in 1969. It is
located at the border of
Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh. The irrigation facility
has been made available to
Nalgonda, Prakasam, Khamm-
am and Guntur districts
through this project.
 Hirakund dam is built across
river Mahanadi in the State of
Odisha. Length of the main
dam is 4.80 km, flanked by 21
km earthen dykes on left and
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right sides, making a total
length of 25.8 km.
 Hirakund dam has the capacity
to irrigate about 10 lakh
hectares of agricultural land.
 Chambal River originates from
Janapav hills in Madhya
Pradesh. It merges with river
Yamuna near Itawa, UP.
 Chambal Projects is a joint
project of Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh.
 Under Chambal project, three
dams have been constructed –
Gandhi Sagar Dam (M.P.),
Rana Pratap Sagar Dam
(Rajasthan), Jawahar Sagar
Dam (Rajasthan).
 Chambal project supplies
electricity to Gwalior,
Muraina, Bhind, Nagada and
Mandasur districts in Madhya
Pradesh and Kota, Jaipur,
Ajmer, Udaipur, Alwar and
Chittorgarh in Rajasthan.
 Mayurakshi project is shared
by West Bengal and
Jharkhand.
 Hirakund and Sharavasti
projects benefit Odisha and
Karnataka respectively.
 Gandhi Sagar Dam project is
the first among the four
Chambal valley projects.
 Govind Sagar is a man-made
reservoir situated in Bilaspur
district of Himachal Pradesh. It
is formed by the Bhakra-
Nangal dam.
 Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar is a
man-made lake situated in
southern region of Sonbhadra
(Uttar Pradesh).
 Gandhi Sagar (Madhya
Pradesh) and Jawahar Sagar
(Rajasthan) are associated with
Chambal Valley Project.
 Rana Pratap Sagar Dam has
been established in Rajasthan.
Jawahar Sagar Das was
constructed 30 km far from
Kota in Rajasthan.
 Tehri dam has been
constructed on the Bhagirathi
River in Tehri district of
Uttarakhand. Bhilangana River
flows into Bhagirathi at old
Tehri before the site of Tehri
dam. The major objectives of
the project are to impound
floodwaters of the Bhagirathi
and the Bhilangana Rivers into
large reservoir behind the dam,
generation of hydroelectricity
and irrigation of agricultural
land.
 Tehri dam project was cleared
by planning commission of
India in 1972.
 Maithon, Belpahari and Tilaiya
Dams were constructed on
Barakar River which is main
tributary of Damodar River in
Eastern India. These dams
were constructed in the first
phase of Damodar River
Valley project.
 Tilaiya dam is constructed on
River Barakar in Jharkhand.
This dam helps in irrigation
and hydroelectric generation.
 Damodar River was termed as
“River of Sorrow or Sorrow of
Bengal” because Damodar
River in its upper reaches flows
rapidly and in its lower
reaches, it runs too sluggishly
causing major floods in the
area and also the sediments
brought by the Damodar
creates the problem of
sedimentation.
 To control these devastating
floods Damodar Valley
Corporation (DVC) was
established to construct the
Damodar Valley Project.
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 Damodar Valley Corporation Tarapur Maharashtra

was established in 1948 in Nuclear
accordance with article 12 of Station
Damodar Valley Corporation Kudremukh Karnataka
Act, 1948. hills
 Mettur dam Tamil Nadu
Canal/Dam/Proj River Jawahar Rajasthan
ect Sagar
Midnapur Canal Kangsaba project
ti River
Tawa Project Tawa  Chukka dam project of Bhutan
River was constructed with the help
Mettur Dam Kaveri of India.
Ukai Project Tapi  Chukka dam is established at
Dulhasti Chenab the upper part of Raidak River
Gandhisagar Chambal or Wang Chu River in Bhutan.
dam  Chukka dam project was
Nangal Dam Sutlej handed over to Bhutan in 1991.
Cheruthoni Periyar 70% of the electricity produced
Dam from this project is exported to
Idukki dam Periyar India. It has a capacity of 336
Nagarjuna Krishna Megawatt.
Sagar dam  Telugu Ganga project is the
Almatti Dam Krishna joint venture of Tamil Nadu,
Shivasamudram Kaveri Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
project and Karnataka.
Jayakwadi Godavari  Mayurakshi river is a tributary
project of Hooghly which rises from
Kaplong Kaplong the Chota Nagpur plateau and
hydroelectric flows through Jharkhand in
project West Bengal.
Farakka Ganga  Mayurakshi project is the
Barrage multipurpose project of West
Ghatprabha Ghatprab Bengal.
hydroelectric ha  Telugu Ganga project provides
project drinking water to Chennai by
Kakrapara Tapti using water of Krishna River.
project  Jawaharlal Nehru called the
Rani Laxmi bai Betwa multipurpose River Valley
project (Rajghat projects as the temple of
dam project) modern India.
Panchet hill Damodar  Nagarjuna Sagar dam is one of
dam the major multipurpose River
Valley projects in Andhra
Haldia West Bengal Pradesh.
Refinery  Matatilla dam is built on the
Betwa River. It is the joint
project of Uttar Pradesh in
Madhya Pradesh.

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 Pochampad Project is built on
the Godavari River in Andhra
Pradesh.
 Kaplong hydroelectric power
project was the first ever
hydroelectric power project in
the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
 Rihand dam project (UP) is
also known as Govind Ballabh
pant Sagar project.
 Ukai is the multi-purpose
project of Gujarat.
 Koyna dam is built across
Koyna River in Maharashtra
 Singrauli small hydropower
project is located in Sonbhadra
district of Uttar Pradesh.
 Govind Sagar lake is on Sutlej
Himachal Pradesh near Punjab
border.
 Kolleru lake is located between
Krishna and Godavari River. It
serves as a natural flood
balancing reservoir for both the
rivers.
 Wular lake is situated in
Jammu and Kashmir on Jhelum
River.
 Ramganga dam is also known
as Kalagarh dam. It is built
across Ramganga river.
 Pong dam has been constructed
over the Beas River in
Himachal Pradesh.
 Tawa reservoir is nestled
between the western boundary
of Satpura National Park and
Bori Wildlife Sanctuary.
 Tawa project is located at
Hoshangabad district of
Madhya Pradesh on Tawa
River.
 Meja dam has been constructed
on the Kothari River near Meja
village in Bhilwara district of
Rajasthan. Kothari is a
tributary of river Banas. This
dam is mainly used for
irrigation.
 Tulbul navigable project has
been built at Jhelum River in
Jammu & Kashmir.
 Buglihar dam is built on
Chenab River in Jammu and
Kashmir.
 Buglihar hydropower project
issue was raised by Pakistan
before the World Bank.
 Damanganga hello is located in
Gujarat.
 Girna irrigation project is in
Maharashtra.
 Pampa irrigation project is
built in karela.
 Tapovan and Vishnugarh
hydroelectric projects are built
on Alaknanda River in
Chamoli district of
Uttarakhand.
 Mahakali treaty was signed in
1996 between India and Nepal
which pertains to sharing of
water of the river Mahakali or
Sharda.
 The kalapassar project
envisages building a dam
across the gulf of Khambhat for
tidal power production and
establishing a huge freshwater
reservoir.
 Chambal project is related to
Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh.
 Suil Hydroelectric power
project is built on the river Suil
which is a tributary of Ravi
River.
 Teesta low dam project 1 and 2
are related to Sikkim.
 Teesta low dam project 3 and 4
are related to West Bengal.
 Kol dam project has been
constructed on the river Sutlej.
 Bhadra reservoir is in
Karnataka.
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 Bhavani Sagar is reservoir in
Tamil Nadu.
 Gandak project is the joint
venture of India and Nepal.
The agreement was signed
between the two countries in
1959. Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
are participating Indian states.
 Babli Project is a highly
disputed project between
Maharashtra and Telangana at
Godavari River.
35. Agriculture
 The History of Indian
Agriculture” is written by
M.S. Randhawa. His full
name is Mohinder Singh
Randhawa. He played major
role in the field of agriculture
research and Green
Revolution in India.
 According to the National
Bureau of Soil Survey, India
has been divided into 20
Agro-Ecological Zones
(AEZs).
 Each AEZ is as uniform as
possible in terms of
physiography, climate, length
of growing period and soil
type for macrolevel land-use
planning and effective
transfer of technology.
 Green Revolution can be
brought in dry zones of India
by providing irrigation
facility. Agriculture is the
base of the economy of these
areas.
 National seed policy 2002 is
in place in India.
 There is the participation of
private sector seed companies
in the supply of quality seeds
of vegetables and planting
materials of horticultural
crops.
 There is a demand and supply
gap regarding the quality
seeds in case of low value and
high-volume crops.
 Govind Ballabh Pant
University of Agriculture and
Technology is the first
agricultural university of
India. It was inaugurated by
Jawaharlal Nehru in 1960 as
the Later the name was
changed to “Govind Ballabh
Pant University of Agriculture
and Technology.
 According to the Food and
Agriculture organization
standards if staff storage is to
be ensured the moisture
content of food grains at the
time of harvesting should not
be higher than 14%.
 According to the data of the
year 2009-10, the net sown
area is 45.82%, forest 22.92%
and other area is 31.26%.
 Double cropping in
agriculture means raising of
two crops at different times.
 Mixed farming has equal
emphasis on crop cultivation
and animal husbandry. Crop
rotation and intercropping
play an important role in
maintaining soil fertility.
Animal like sheep, cattle pigs
and poultry provide the main
income along with the crops.
 Sikkim is a hilly state in north
India most of its parts are
covered by forest.
 In India there is a dominance
of small and marginal
holdings rather than large
farms.
 Overcrowding in agriculture,
small land holding and
traditional agricultural
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practices all these are among
the main reasons of low
productivity in Indian
agriculture.
 Efficient irrigation, quality
seeds, use of pesticides, use of
fertilizers will increase
productivity in agriculture.
 Green revolution technology
played a crucial role in
gradually transforming
traditional agriculture into
modern scientific agriculture
with the use of irrigation,
specialized seeds, fertilizers,
pesticides and machinery.
 Green revolution does not
involve social and
environmental cost.
 Pressure of the population on
the land, disguised
unemployment and small land
holding are the reasons for
low productivity in Indian
agriculture.
 Cooperative farming is one of
the means of the development
of agriculture. Cooperative
farming is farming where each
member farmer is owner of
his land, but farming is done
jointly and profit is distributed
among member farmers.
 The average size of
operational holdings in India
is largest in Rajasthan
followed by Punjab.
 Agriculture in India is
considered as a means of
livelihood.
 The two largest consumers of
chemical fertilizers are Uttar
Pradesh and Maharashtra.
 In newly improved arid land,
Dhaincha is suitable crop for
the green manure.
 Cowpea contains the highest
amount of nitrogen among
Guar, Dhaincha, Sunhemp
and cowpea.
 Balanced fertilizers are used
to increase the production,
improve the quality of food
grains and maintain the
productivity of the soil.
 The high agriculture
productivity areas in southern
India are coastal areas of
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
area of Surat in Gujarat and
areas of Satara and Kolhapur
of Maharashtra.
 The richest state in
replenishable groundwater
resource is Uttar Pradesh.
 Punjab is the pioneer in
introducing contract farming
in India.
 Green Agriculture involves
the adoption of integrated pest
management, integrated
nutrient supply, scientific
water management and use of
appropriate crop varieties.
 Narsimha Rao Government
made major modifications in
its economic policy in 1991
by introducing Globalization
in India. It had large impact on
India Agriculture which
includes emphasis on cash
crops, growth of income
inequality, reduction of
subsidies and many more.
 Sead village concept refers to
a village wherein trained
group of farmers are involved
in the production of seeds of
various crops and cater to
their need of seeds
themselves, fellow farmers of
their village and the
neighbouring village at
affordable costs and at
appropriate time. The concept
is to increase the seed
production, meet local
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demands at a reasonable cost,
self-sufficiency and self-
reliance by a trained group of
farmers.
 Agmark is a quality
certification mark provided by
the Government of India
which is under agricultural
produce (grading and
marking) act 1937. This act
provides for the grading and
marking of agricultural and
other produce. This plan is
being implemented in India
since 1938.
36. Green Revolution
 Green Revolution started in
7th decade in the year 1966
which was its first stage and
underwent till 1981.
 In the first stage, Haryana,
Punjab and Western Uttar
Pradesh were included.
 Second stage commenced
from 1981 till 1995 and third
stage started from 1995,
which included all the States
of India.
 The term “Evergreen
Revolution” was used for
increasing agricultural
production in India. It was
used by Father of India’s
Green Revolution, Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan. He described
“Evergreen Revolution” as
increasing productivity in
perpetuity without ecological
harm.
 Norman Ernest Borlaug it’s
regarded as the father of green
revolution. He is from United
States of America. He was
given Nobel peace.
 High yielding varieties
program started in India with
the help of Rockefeller
Foundation based in the USA.
 High yielding varieties of
wheat increase the production
to 2.5 times.
 Wheat is the highest
beneficiary of green
revolution in both production
and productivity followed by
rice.
 The main crop used in the
green revolution was Mexican
wheat received from
Borlaug’s international maize
and wheat improvement
center based in Mexico.
 The Second Green Revolution
in India aims at extending
seed, water, fertilizer and
technology to areas which
could not be benefited from
the Green Revolution and
integrating agriculture with
animal husbandry, social
forestry and fishing.
 High yielding varieties of
seed, irrigation, rural
electrification, rural roads and
marketing were the
components of the green
revolution.
 Regional disparities have
aggravated due to green
revolution.
 Milk Production - White
Revolution
 Fisheries - Blue Revolution
(Pisciculture)
 Fertilizers - Grey Revolution
 Production of Fruits and
Vegetables - Golden
Revolution
 Production of Eggs/Poultry -
Silver Revolution
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 Production of Potato - Round
Revolution
 Production of Prawn/Onion -
Pink Revolution
 Production of Meat/Tomatoes
- Red Revolution
 Petroleum - Black Revolution
 Oilseed - Yellow Revolution
 The concept of rainbow
revolution is an integrated
development of crop
cultivation, horticulture,
forestry, fisheries, poultry,
animal husbandry and food
processing industry.
 Zero Till Seed cum-Fertilizer
Drill” was developed by G.B.
Pant University of Agriculture
and Technology, Pant Nagar.
This machine enables to sow
directly after paddy harvest
without prior seedbed
preparation.
37.Food Crops &
Cash crops
 On the basis of seasons, the
crops in India have been
divided into three types:
Kharif, Rabi, Zaid.
 Kharif Crops: The Kharif crop
is the summer crop or
monsoon crop in India. Kharif
crops are usually sown with
the beginning of the first rains
i.e., in June-July and
harvested in October-
November. Major Kharif
crops of India include Millets
(Bajra & Jowar), Cotton,
Soybean, Sugarcane,
Turmeric, Paddy (Rice),
Maize, Moong (Pulses),
Groundnut, Red Chillies etc.
 Rabi Crops: The Rabi crop is
the spring harvest or winter
crop in India. It is sown in
October-November last and
harvested in March-April
every year.
 Major Rabi crops in India
include Wheat, Barley,
Mustard, Sesame, Peas, and
Potatoes.
 Zaid Crops: This crop is
grown in some parts of
country during March/April to
July. Prominent examples are
Muskmelon, Watermelon,
Vegetables of Cucurbitaceae
family such as bitter gourd,
pumpkin, ridged gourd etc.
 In India, wheat requires 100 to
250 C temperature and 80 cm
average annual rainfall which
can be termed as moderate
temperature and moderate
rainfall.
 In Parallel cropping, two
crops are selected which the
different growth habits and
have a zero competition
between each other and both
of them express their full yield
potential.
 Wheat with mustard is an
example of parallel cropping
 Cash crops include
Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute,
Tobacco, Banana, Oilseeds
etc and Wheat, Rice etc. are
food crops.
 Government of India in the
year 1998 signed an
agreement with Australia to
import 15 lab tons of wheat.
 UP>Punjab >Haryana are the
three largest wheat producing
states.
 Mahi Sugandha is a variety of
Basmati Rice. It has longer
grains, and is non sticky
elongated after cooking.
 Other varieties of rice are:
Abha (R-155-355) Ajay
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(CRHR-7) Akashi, Ambika,
Deepti, Divya Gajpati (IET-
13251), Garima Geetanjali
(CRM-2007-1).
 Butachlor is an herbicide.
 Chlorpyrifos and Quinalphos
are pesticides.
 Carbendazim is a fungicide.
 According to Economic
Survey 2017-18 UP ranks first
in the production of wheat
potatoes and sugar cane.
 To increase the possibility of
increasing the wheat
production 5 dwarf varieties
were introduced: Lerma Rojo
64-A, Sonora-63, Sonora-64,
Mayo 64 and S227.
 Sonora-64 is developed
through induced mutation
exercise at IARI.
 Norin 10 is dwarfing gene of
wheat, Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen is
of rice, Opaque 2 is related to
maize.
 The production of macaroni
wheat is most suitable under
rainfed conditions.
 Raj 3077 is variety of wheat.
 Pusa Sindhu Ganga (HD
2967) is a variety of wheat
identified by 48th All India
Wheat and Barley Research
Workers Meet held at IAREI,
New Delhi.
 Other varieties of wheat are
Sonalika, Arjun, Amar,
Bhawani, Chandrika,
Deshratna, Kanchan, Girija
Gomti, Prabhani.
 U.P. 308 is Mexican dwarf
wheat variety. It is mainly used
in Dharbhanga district of
Bihar.
 Wheat is affected by three
different types of rust diseases:
yellow rust, brown rust, black
rust.
 U.P.A.S.-120 is a suitable
variety of pigeon pea (Arhar)
which can be used for double
cropping with wheat. Other
variety of Arhar are I.C.P.L.-
151, I.C.P.L.-87, Bahar,
N.D.A.-I etc.
 Triticale is across hybrid
between wheat and Rye.
 Karnal bunt is a fungal disease
of wheat. It is caused by
Tilletica Indica.
 Rises originated in Southeast
Asia.
 Rice requires temperature
above 200 C and average
rainfall of 150 cm.
 Gram, Pea, bean contain
symbiotic bacteria called
Rhizobium within nodules in
their root system that help in
nitrogen fixation.
 Paddy cultivation results into
emission of methane gas.
 Paddy crop is transplanted.
 Transplanting is commonly
practiced as a method of weed
control
 Compared to direct citing the
transplanted crops take longer
to mature due to
transplantation shock.
 Majority of rice fields in Asia
are manually transplanted.
 According to economic survey
of Indian governance food
crops are rice, wheat, maize,
millets, pulses and cash crops
are groundnut, mustard, cotton,
jute, tea, coffee, rubber, sugar
cane, tobacco, rapeseed etc
 Rice is the chief food crop of
India. Wheat is the second
most important food crop of
India.
 In India the largest area under
rice cultivation lies in the UP>
West Bengal > Odisha.
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(According to the year 2014-
15)
 Delta region of Krishna and
Godavari is known as rice bowl
of India.
 Highest productivity of rice in
India is in Punjab as per 2014-
15 data.
 Important varieties of rice are
Jamuna, karuna, Jaya, kanchi,
Jagannath, Krishna, Kaveri,
Hansa, Vijaya, Padma,
Annapurna, Bala and Ratna.
 Aman rice is harvested
between June-July to
November-December (winter
crop).
 Aus or Kar rice is harvested
between may-June to
September-October (autumn
crop).
 Boro or Dalua is harvested
between November-December
to March-April (summer crop)
 Pusa Sugandha-5 is an
aromatic variety of rice.
 Barani deep, Narendra Sankar,
Narendra Shuska Samrat,
Lalmati etc are varieties of rice.
 Pusa RH-10 is a hybrid variety
of Basmati Rice. Other
varieties are PHB-71, Ganga,
Suruchi, KRH- 2, Sahyadri-4
etc.
 The proper seed rate for
transplanting of Basmati Rice
is 15-20 Kg per hectare.
 West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab and Odisha account for
more than half of the total rice
production in India.
 Blue green algae,
Azospirillum,
Phosphobacteria, azolla etc.
are used as biofertilizers for
rice crop.
 The western coast receives
more rainfall than the eastern
coast because the western coast
is narrower than the eastern
coast and has high altitude
mountains.
 The water requirement for the
cultivation of rice is
comparatively higher than any
other growth. Rise is cultivated
in areas having over 100 cm
annual rainfall.
 UP largest area under hybrid
rice cultivation.
 Moong and Urad are the crops
which are mainly grown in the
irrigated areas during Zaid.
 6% of total agricultural land is
used for cultivation of cotton in
India and 75% of total cotton
production comes from four
States (Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Telangana and Rajasthan).
Hence North Western and
Western India produces largest
amount of cotton.
 About 80-90% of the area
under cotton in North-West
India and eastern region of
Pakistan is under the cotton-
wealth system.
 According to 2014-15 the four
largest cotton producing states
in India are Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh.
 Shajapur and Ujjain are known
as the areas of “White Gold”
because of cotton cultivation.
 Black soil is suitable for cotton
cultivation which covers
maximum area in Maharashtra.
 Cotton crop is known as White
Gold in Maharashtra.
 Tamil Nadu has the largest
number of cotton textile mills.
 India is the original home of
cotton.
 Cotton also finds mention in
Rigveda and Manusmriti.
 India is also the first country to
develop a hybrid variety of
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cotton which has resulted in
increased production.
 Cotton fibres are obtained from
seeds.
 Cotton, jute and Sunhemp fall
in the category of fibre crop
 Cotton is facing competition
from sugarcane in the region of
black soil in Maharashtra due
to expansion of irrigation. This
region has become more
suitable for sugarcane
cultivation.
 Sugarcane cultivation is more
profitable than cotton crop.
 According to 2014-15, the
largest area under sugar cane
cultivation as in Uttar Pradesh
followed by Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Gujarat, Bihar and Andhra
Pradesh.
 Molasses is the main by-
product of sugar production
process which is used for
alcohol production.
 Bagasse is used as a fuel to
generate steam in sugar mills.
 Sugar can not only be produced
from sugarcane but also from
beet root.
 The suitable sugarcane
initiative (SSI) is an innovative
set of agronomic practices to
increase cane yields
significantly. This system was
initiated in the year 2009 for
improvement in sugarcane
agriculture. The initiation of
this method was a joint venture
of ICRISAT and WWF.
 Sugarcane is a tropical plant.
The areas having temperature
of 200 to 260 C and an average
rainfall of 150 cm are suitable
for its cultivation. Thus, if frost
occurs during the period of
ripening, the Sucrose content
in the sugarcane decreases.
 India is the second largest
producer of sugarcane (after
Brazil).
 Sakkarnagar is an important
sugar producing centre located
in Andhra Pradesh (now in
Telangana).
 UP is known as Sugar Bowl of
India.
 The first Sugar Mill was set up
in India in 1903 at Pratappur in
Deoria district of Uttar
Pradesh.
 The factors which facilitated
the locational shift of the sugar
industry from North India to
South India are per acre higher
yield of sugarcane, higher
sucrose content of sugarcane
and longer crushing season.
 Breeding work on sugarcane is
being done in Coimbatore,
India. Sugarcane Breeding
Research Institute is a central
research institute established in
Coimbatore, India. It was
established in 1912 and is
affiliated to Indian Council of
Agricultural Research.
 Adsali Sugarcane planting is
mainly followed in low rainfall
area of Maharashtra. Planting
is done in the month of July-
August and it takes 18 months
to get ripen.
 Co. 1148 is an important
variety of sugarcane.
 Main oilseed crops produced
in India are Groundnut,
Mustard, Coconut, Soybean,
Castor seeds, Cotton seeds,
Linseed and Sunflower.
 Groundnut is most suitable
crop dryland farming.
 Begging is a useful
phenomenon in groundnut.
 India witnessed record
production of oilseeds in 1992-
93.
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 According to 2014- 15 the Gram Pant-114,

largest producers of soybean in Gaurav,
India was Madhya Pradesh. Radhe, K-4
 Punjab has low Acreage but Cotton Suvin,
very high per hectare yield of Sujata,
groundnut. (at the time when Desi
this question was asked) Shyamli
 Groundnut is obtained from the Groundnut Chitra-64,
root of the plant while sesame, Chandra,
Castor seeds and mustard are Kaushal
obtained from the flower of the Wheat Kundan,
plant. Kalyan,
 Main oilseed crops produced in Sona,
India are Groundnut, Mustard, Sonalika
Coconut, Soybean, Castor
seeds, Cotton seeds, Linseed  India has to import pulses
and Sunflower. despite being a leading
 According to the figure of producer due to high rate of
2014-15, Rajasthan is first in consumption. Thus, pulses are
Mustard Production in India generally not exported from
and Madhya Pradesh second. India whereas wheat, rice and
 The major varieties of mustard sugar are exported at times.
are pusa gold, Pusa, Jay kisan  In India there is shortage of
and Varuna. Pitambari is a pulses is high due to high
species of yellow mustard demand for pulses. India is
(RYSK-05-02). leading producer of person in
 Mustard is an oilseed. the world.
Pusabold, Jaikisan, Varuna are  According to 2014- 15, the
main varieties of mustard. largest producer of pulses in
 India is Madhya Pradesh,
Crop Oil content Maharashtra, Rajasthan and
Groundnut 48.2% Uttar Pradesh are at second
Soya bean 40% third and fourth place
Sunflower 42% respectively.
Sesame 52%  Legumes are quite unique
among the other crops as they
 Pitambari (RYSK-05-02) is a draw their nitrogen from the
variety of Yellow Mustard. air with the help of a
Maturity period of Pitambari specialized bacteria. So, it is
Mustard is 110-115 days does not require the same
while average production is application of nitrogen
1536 kg/per hectare. fertilizer like other crops.
 Large quantity of gypsum is  Cobalt is known to be
required for groundnut essential for symbiotic
cultivation. nitrogen fixation by
 Rhizobium.
Crop Varieties  Cobalt is also needed in the
synthesis of vitamin. It is
necessary for growth,

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photosynthesis and
evaporation.
 Rhizobium is a bacteria found
in the crops of pulses.
 Neelam is not the variety of
Arhar crop.
 Surya is a variety of mango,
papaya and potato.
 Gram, Pea and Moong have
the capacity of nitrogen
fixation in the atmosphere.
While it would not be correct
to say that Rajma does not do
nitrogen fixation at all.
 Red Kidney bean (Phaseolus
Vulgari) a king of annual
leguminous crop, native to
China is locally called Rajma
in Nepal. It is cultivated as a
crop or intercropped with
other crops. It is nitrogen
fixing crop with symbiosis of
Rhizobium.
 Unlike other pulses Rajma is
silk produced by spiders is
called inefficient in symbiotic
nitrogen fixation.
 Nodulation is poor in Rajma.
 Malaviya Chamatkar is a
variety of Arhar. Other main
varieties of Arhar are Amar,
Azad, Malaviya Vikas, Paras
and Bahar.
 Different crops demand soil
nutrients in different
populations. Legumes may
nude nutrients in a ratio of
0:1:1, 1:2:2 or 1:2:3.
 Aparna is a new high-
yielding, leaf-less variety of
pea.
 Karnataka is leading producer
of Mulberry Silk with 48% of
Mulberry Silk production.
Karnataka also produces 34%
of total raw silk produced in
India.
 China is the largest producer
of self in the world followed
by India.
 As per the star testicle
yearbook 2017 Karnataka
largest producer of silk yarn.
Andhra Pradesh second and
Assam third largest producer.
 India has the unique
distinction of being the only
country producing all the five
kinds of silk namely
Mulberry, Eri, Muga,
Tropical Tasar and
temperature Tasar.
 Silk varieties and their
relation with the States is as
follow:
Mulberry Silk - Karnataka
(48%),
Tussar Silk - Jharkhand
(81%),
Eri Silk - Assam (62.1%),
Moonga Silk - Assam (85.5%)
 Tussar silk also referred as
wild silk is obtained from
moth that is yellowish brown
in colour.
 Silk produced by spider is
called Gossamer silk.
 Karnataka is the largest
producer of silk garments in
India and Assam is the second
largest producer of silk
garments (at the time when
this question was asked)
 National horticulture road was
stablished in the year 1984.
 Hot and humid type of climate
is needed for coffee plants in
tropical regions.
 Cultivation of tea can be done
in both tropical and
subtropical regions.
 Coffee is propagated by seeds
but tea is propagated by stem
cuttings.
 Karnataka is team largest
producer of coffee in India
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state produces more than 70%
of coffee.
 Chikmangalur district of
Karnataka is famous for the
production of Coffee. In India,
Coffee was first time grown
here.
 Mandya district of Karnataka
is famous for Sugar.
 The largest producer of tea in
India is Assam.
 India is the second largest
producer of tea after China.
 India produces more tea than
its need.
 For the cultivation of tea
sloped hills with an annual
rainfall of 150-200 cm is
required.
 Grey Gold is a variety of tea.
 According to the figures of
2016 (FAO) India placed
fourth in the world in terms of
rubber production and second
in rubber consumption.
Thailand produces the largest
amount of natural rubber in
the world.
 Kerala is the largest rubber
producing state of India.
 India is 4th largest producer of
rubber globally after Kenya,
China and Sri Lanka.
 Coffee producing States of
India are – Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha and some States of
North East India.
 Rubber is produced in Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Tripura,
Karnataka, Assam,
Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Manipur and few other states.
 Tobacco is produced in
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, UP,
Karnataka, Uttarakhand,
Bihar, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra and some other
States.
 Andhra Pradesh is the top
producer of tobacco. Main
crop of Chhattisgarh is paddy.
 Top three Cashew producer
states of India are -
Maharashtra (269.44
thousand ton), Andhra
Pradesh (116.92 thousand
ton) and Odisha (58.59
thousand ton).
 Black Pepper is also known
as black diamond.
 Black pepper is best grown in a
hot and moist climate with at
least 200 cm of annual rainfall
in the places with sloppy
heights of 1100 to 1300 meters
and with a range of annual
temperature from 150C to
300C.
 The top three spice producer
states of India are:
 1. Rajasthan (1391.80
thousand Metric ton)
 2. Andhra Pradesh (1099.76
thousand Metric ton)
 3. Madhya Pradesh (1077.89
thousand Metric ton)
 Crops and their leading States:
 Crops States
 Jute West Bengal
 Tea Assam
 Rubber Kerala
 Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh
 Cloves are the flower buds of
medium-sized evergreen plan
of Eugenia Caryophyllata
family. It is a variety of species
having medicinal significance
too.
 According to the latest figures,
clove is produced maximum in
Tamil Nadu (970 Tonnes)
followed by Karnataka (170
Tonnes), Kerala (80 Tonnes)
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and A & N Islands (10  Jhuming cultivation is

Tonnes). practiced mostly in hilly areas
 Due to cultivation of several of north-eastern States. It is
Spices in 'Kerala', it is also more prevalent in Nagaland,
called as ‘Garden of Spices. Arunachal Pradesh and
 Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Meghalaya. In the hilly regions
Nadu Rd leading producers of of Assam also, Jhum
cardamom. cultivation is practiced by the
 According to FAO (2016) top tribals.
three pepper producing  Jhum cultivation is a problem
countries are Vietnam> in hilly areas of Assam and
Indonesia> India. Bihar (now in Jharkhand).
 Guatemala is the leading  Area Shifting
producer of cardamom and  Cultivation
Indonesia is the leading  Western Ghat Kumari
producer of cloves.  South-east Watra
 According to the Agricultural Rajasthan
Ministry of India, top Coconut  North-east India Jhum
producing states in the year  Madhya Pradesh Dahiya
2017-18 are:  Odisha Pondu
 1. Kerala (35.14%),  Madhya Pradesh Masha
 2. Karnataka (26.8%)  Kerala Poonam
 3. Tamil Nadu (25.3%).  Assam Jhoom
 According to agriculture
ministry, plantation crops  The Chapchar Kut is a festival
include - Coconut, Areca, of Mizoram. It is celebrated in
Cocoa, Cashew and Palm. March after task of Jhum
 According to commerce operation.
ministry plantation crop  Khongjom Parba is a style of
includes Tea, Coffee and ballad Indian from Manipur
Rubber. So, Coconut, Area, using dholak which depicts
cocoa, Cashew, Palm, Tea, stories of heroic battle fought
Coffee and Rubber are by Manipuri’s against the
Plantation crops of India. British Empire in 1891.
 The art of sword and spear is a
traditional martial art of
Manipur in northeast India.

38.JhumingAgriculture
 Jhuming is a type of shifting
cultivation which is done by
the tribes by clearing the forest.
When fertility of the place
degrades, they shift to other
place and the same procedure is
followed again and again.
39. Agriculture
Miscellaneous
 Kerala – Topioca
 Gujrat is the leading producer
of Cotton. Maharashtra is the
second largest producer of
cotton.

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 West Bengal – Jute and flax  Aphid is the creature which

 Gujarat – Groundnut arms meat as well as other
 UP is the leading producer of cereals and foods.
potato in India.  Ghundi Bag homes rice crop.
 Tamil Nadu is the leading  Top Shoot Borer Moth
producer of coconut in India. destroy sugarcane crop.
 Andhra Pradesh is the leading  Bullworm is harmful to gram.
producer of tobacco in India. 
 Maharashtra is the leading Crop Disease
producer of banana in India. Sugarcane Red Rot
 National Research Center for Paddy Khaira
banana was stablished in 1993 Arhar Wilt
at Trichy Tamil Nadu. Potato Late Blight
 The Periplus of the Erythraean Millet Green Hair
sea is a Greco-Roman Bajra Ergot,
Periplus that describes Smut
navigation and trading Pea Powdery
opportunities between Roman mildew
Egyptian ports. Gram Wilt
 Uttar Pradesh is top food grain Mustard White rust
producing state with a share of Groundnut Tikka
17.83% in total food grain Rice False smut
production of the country. In
this context, Madhya Pradesh
 Rajasthan is the leading
(11.96%) is at second and
producer of mustard.
Punjab (10.15%) is at third
 West Bengal is the largest
place.
producer of rice.
 Gujarat is the leading
 Sultana, Gulabi and Kali
producer of cotton,
Champa are varieties of
groundnut, salt and milk as
grapes.
per 2014 -15 data in India.
 Sugarcane, beetroot, sweet
 Karnataka is the leading
pea, Gram, Arhar and
producer of black pepper in
Frasbean come under the
India.
category of three plant family.
 West Bengal is the top
 India is one of the leading
producer of pineapple in
fresh fruits producing country
India.
and is placed second after
 Largest producer of wheat in
China.
India is Uttar Pradesh.
 India is the second largest
 Largest producer of coffee in
exporter of tobacco
India is Karnataka.
(manufactured) in the world.
 UP is the largest producer of
 Jute is produced in a loamy
Mentha oil. Mentha oil is also
soil.
called mint.
 West Bengal is the major
 Madhya Pradesh is the largest
producer of jute in India.
producer of soybean in India.
 Other jute producing states of
the country are Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha,

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Maharashtra, Meghalaya and
Assam.
 Jute is called India’s golden
fibre.
 Low gangetic plain provides
humid climatic conditions
with high temperature which
is suitable for production of
Paddy and Jute crop.
 West Bengal has largest area
under jute cultivation.
 Maize popularly known as
corn is one of the most
versatile cash crops having
wider adaptability under
varied climatic conditions
which can be grown
throughout the year. It is
called queen of cereals
globally.
 Maize oil can be used for
biodiesel.
 Maize is used for the
production of starch powder
in starch products like dextrin
and cyatex.
 Alcoholic beverages can be
produced by using maize.
 Maize is the largest produced
and consumed crop after rice
and meat in India. Mrs grown
throughout the year and in
almost all the states of the
country. The majority period
of maize is usually 90 to 150
days.
 C4 plants are the
economically important crops
of maize, sugar cane etc.
 Rice, wheat, cotton and
tobacco etc are the plants of
C3 category.
 The correct sequence of the
states in descending order of
their mass production is
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra.
 Shaktiman 1 and Shaktiman 2
are genetically modified crops
of maize.
 Commercial production of
saffron takes place in the state
of Jammu and Kashmir.
 Apart from India other
countries producing saffron in
the world are Spain, Iran,
Greece and Italy.
 Crops and their respective
geographical conditions:
Barley – cold climate with
poorer soil.
Rice - hot and moist climate
with rich soil.
Millets - hot and dry climate
with poor soil.
Tea – Warm and moist
climate with high altitude.
 Cotton - Rainfall 500 to 1000
mm, temperature 180 to 220 C.
 Flax – rainfall 600 to 800mm,
temperature 50 to 180 C.
 Sugarbeet – Rainfall 500 to
600mm, Temperature 180 to
220 C.
 Jute – Rainfall 1500 to
2000mm, Temperature 250 to
180 C.
 Cultivation of onion is done
by the first rowing seeds on
the ground. After rowing
these seeds, small plants are
grown which later are
transplanted.
 Paddy, maize and wheat are
considered as best crop cycle
for eastern UP.
 The credit of starting the
cultivation of rajma in potato
in Bhagirathi valley goes to
Frederick Wilson.
 India ranks second in the
world after China in vegetable
production.
 Coffee board- Bengaluru
headquarters.
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 Rubber board – Kottayam Mustard Rajasthan

headquarters. Soya bean Madhya
 Tea board – Kolkata Pradesh
headquarters. Coconut Kerala,
 Tobacco board – Guntur Tamil
headquarters. Nadu
 Sindhu is the only seedless Jute West
mango variety in the world. Bengal
 Amrapali variety of Mango Tea Assam
was developed by the Indian Rubber Kerala
Agriculture research institute Sugarcane UP
Pusa in the year 1971 by  Behar is one of the leading
hybridisation of Dasheri and producers of sugar. The sugar
Neelam variety of Mango. industry is more centralized in
 Lalit and Banarsi are the north Bihar.
advance variety of Guava.  Borlaug award is given in the
 The Dasheri 51 is a variety of field of agricultural science.
mango which is regular crop  The main objective of national
while other varieties of mango food security mission is to
which are regular crop are increase the production of
Bengalora, Neelam, Amrapali rice, wheat and pulses through
etc a expansion and productivity
 Kanchan, Krishna and enhancement in a sustainable
Banarasi are improved variety manner in identifying districts
of Indian Gooseberry (Amla). of the country restoring soil
Vitamin C is abundantly fertility and productivity at
found in it. engine individual farm level,
 Kashi Ganga is the variety of creation of employment
bottle gourd. opportunities and enhancing
 Kashi Madhu is the variety of farm level economy to restore
muskmelon. confidence among farmers.
  Coarse cereals and rice are
Crop Variety mostly produced under
Paddy Govind subsistence farming.
Rice Shusk  This time of ginger which
Samrat grows in the soil and stores
Arhar Paras food is known as Rhizome.
Pea Prakash  Cereal green product, oatmeal
is used as scored by people
 Production of Bajra in top 5 and also as fodder for cattle.
states:  Mandua (Koda) grain
Rajasthan>UP>Gujarat>Hary produced in Uttarakhand is
ana> Maharashtra. exported mostly to Japan.
  Groundnut, bajra and sesame
Crop State are cultivated in dry areas.
Groundnut Andhra Irrigation to these crops is
Pradesh, mostly dependent on rain.
Gujarat

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 Cowpea, green gram and
pigeon pea are used as
fertilizers, folder and pulses.
 Arunachal Pradesh has the
most suitable climatic
conditions for the cultivation
of large variety of orchids
through the minimum cost of
production and can develop an
export-oriented industry in
this field. It is emerging as a
major tourist destination.
 Sikkim is the first organic
state of India.
 Ministry of Commerce has
implemented the national
program for organic
production since 2001.
 The program for organic
production agriculture and
processed food products
export development authority
is the implementing agency
for the National program for
organic production.
 The northern part of Gujarat is
arid in semi-arid and in its
central part cultivation of
cotton crops is done on large
scale.
 Cultivation of cash crops
predominant over food crops
in Gujarat.
 Guar or Cluster bean is an
annual legume and the source
of Guar gum. This gum is
used in the extraction of shale
gas.
 As for 2015- 16 data leading
fish producing states in India
are Andhra Pradesh > West
Bengal > Gujarat > Kerala >
Tamil Nadu.
 The Leading state in the
production of marine fish is
Gujarat.
 Aman rice is sown during
June-July and harvested in
November-December.
 India is team second largest
producer of rice after China in
the world.
 There is 20% oil and 40%
protein in Soybean.
 Dr. B.P. Pal was the first
director general of Indian
Council of Agricultural
Research.
 Major areas of arecanut
production in India are
parallel, assam, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu.
 Major producers of mango are
Andhra Pradesh, UP, Bihar,
Karnataka, Tamil West,
Bengal and Maharashtra.
 Canyon is a V-shaped valley
with its depth be larger than its
breath it is formed by the
weathering and erosion
activity of the river.
 Moraines are accumulations
of dirt and rocks that are
falling into the glacier surface
as it moves.
 Zeugen and Inselberg are
formed by winds.
 Inselberg is an isolated hill or
mountain rising abruptly from
a plain.
 Zeugen has a layer of soft
rocks lying beneath the
surface layer of more resistant
roads formed by wind erosion.
 According to Indian
horticulture data 2014, India
is the second largest producer
of fresh fruits with 13.6%
share in the total fruit
production in the world.
40.Animal husbandry
.
 States and density of number
of cattle in their gross
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cultivable land is given the
following order–
Haryana - 25/ square km
UP - 77/ square km
Madhya Pradesh - 106/
square km
Bihar - 183/ square km
 According to the livestock
census 2017 three states with
highest livestock population
are UP, Rajasthan and
Andhra Pradesh.
 Top three Buffalo owner
states are UP, Rajasthan and
Andhra Pradesh.
 Top three sheep owner states
are Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Rajasthan.
 UP is the largest producer of
milk.
 Best cow breeds in India are
founded in Rajasthan.
 Dr. Varghese Kurien was the
father of India’s White
Revolution, which helped
India emerged as the largest
milk producer in the world.
 Operation Flood – milk
production and Distribution
 National Dairy Research
Institute in located in Karnal,
Haryana. The institute was
awarded the status of deemed
University in the year 1989.
41. Mineral
Resources
 Dharwar system is the most
important mineralised rock
system in India. These rocs
are economically very
important as they possess
valuable minerals like high
grade iron-ore, manganese,
copper, lead, gold etc.
 Dharwar system is region
ferrous and non-ferrous
minerals.
 Vindhya Range rocks are
actually sedimentary rocks
which were formed by
sedimentary of water
suspended particles. Among
these rocks, prominent
minerals are lime stone,
sand, China clay etc.
 Lime stone is the base of
cement industry.
 Gondwana system of rocks
provides about 95% of goal
of India. The important gold
bearing areas of this series
are Raniganj, Jharia,
karanpur and Bokaro of
Damodar basin in Odisha
and the Pench valley in
Chhattisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh.
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 Largest Minerals resources
in India are found mainly in
the region from South East to
North Eastern belt Chhota
Nagpur plateau,
Dandkaryanya plateau and
Odisha plateau are located in
this region. Largest mineral
resources are located in
peninsular region. Plenty of
coal, iron, mica, copper and
bauxite etc. are found here.
 The maximum prosperity of
mineral resources is in
Karnataka followed by
Kerala Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu according 2014-
15 data.
 Iron ore in India is found
mainly in Dharwar rock
system. Dharwar rock
system is the most important
rock system in terms of
economic value in India.
 The States which are rich in
Iron Ore in thousand tonnes
(Haematite + Magnetite) are
as follows: Karnataka>
Odisha>Jharkhand>Chhattis
garh.
 The availability of Hematite
in Odisha, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka,
Goa etc. While Magnetite is
found in Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Goa etc.
 Kudremukh is famous for
iron-ore main in Karnataka.
Mostly Magnetite iron-ore is
found in Karnataka.
 India has four major Iron-ore
producing regions –
 North-East region:
Jharkhand, Odisha.
 Central India Region -
Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra.
 Peninsular Region - 
Karnataka, Goa
 Other areas - Andhra
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kerala,
Gujarat, Haryana, West
Bengal.
 Nathra-Ki Pal area of
Rajasthan is famous for Iron
Ore.
 Bailadila mines are situated
at Dantewada district of
Chhattisgarh. These are
famous for iron-ore.
 Bailadila mine of Dantewada
district of Chhattisgarh.
 Bailadila is the largest
mechanized mine in India.
Bailadila Mine is connected
with Vizag Steel Plant of
Vishakhapatnam which
exports iron ore to Japan.
 Haematite and Magnetite
Ore is largely found inside
Bailadila Mine.
 Haematite is a high-quality
iron ore. It is mainly found in
the states of Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Odisha,
Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Goa etc
 Magnetite which is
comparatively low-quality
iron ore is found in the states
of Goa, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu etc.
 Haematite types of ore has
the largest iron ore reserves
in India.
 Most abundant reserves of
iron-ore are found in
Karnataka, Odisha,
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh
respectively. In terms of
production, Odisha is at the
first place.
 India is the fourth largest
producer of iron ore in the
world.
According to Indian mineral
yearbook 2017 silver
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reserves are found in
Rajasthan, Jharkhand,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh Kama Sutra
con, Odessa, Meghalaya,
Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and
Maharashtra.
 Rajasthan is the leading zinc
and lead producing State of
India. According to latest
data, Rajasthan has near
monopoly in zinc and lead
production.
 Asia’s best zinc and lead
reserves are located in
Rampur Agacha region of
Bhilwara district.
 Zinc Limited has established
a super smelter machine with
the help of Britain which is
used to melt zinc and lead.
 Other reserves of zinc and
lead in Rajasthan are – Zawar
region (Udaipur), Rajpur
Debari region (Udaipur),
Dungarpur, Alwar,
Banswara and Sirohi.
 Copper ore is found in
igneous and metamorphic
rocks. It is a good conductor
of electricity.
 As per Indian Mineral Year
Book 2018, States with
largest reserves of copper ore
are – Rajasthan > Jharkhand
> Madhya Pradesh.
 In terms of the production of
copper concentrate Madhya
Pradesh is at first place
followed by Rajasthan and
Jharkhand.
 Three important districts for
copper in India are –
Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan),
Balaghat (M.P.) and Poorvi
Singbhumi (Jharkhand).
Malanjkhand.
 Balaghat is a leading centre
for production of copper in
Madhya Pradesh.
 Bauxite containing 15- 25%
aluminium is the only order
that is used for commercial
extraction of aluminium
today.
 In India Orissa is the largest
bauxite producer.
 Khetri, famous for copper
production, is located in
Jhunjhunu district of
Rajasthan. Presently copper
mining in Khetri is done by
Hindustan copper limited.
 53.80% of copper reserve is
found in Rajasthan. 92% of
natural reserves of nickel is
found in Odisha. 42% of
natural reserves of Tungsten
in found in Karnataka.

 Copper Fields State
Chander Pur - Maharashtra
Hasan - Karnataka
Khamman - Andhra Pradesh
Khetri - Rajasthan
 Bauxite is an ore of
Aluminium. Its colour varies
from white-pink to red
depending on the quantity of
iron content.
 As per the figures of the year
2017-18, Odisha is the
largest producer (51%) as
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well as the state having
largest reserves of Bauxite.
 Bauxite is found in the
laterite rocks of the tertiary
period. It is mainly used in
the production of Alumina
and Aluminium. Originally
Bauxite is Hydrated
Aluminium Oxide.
 Leading Bauxite producing
states as per the figures of
2017-18 are - 
Odisha (11447740 Ton)
Gujarat (3101577 Ton)
Jharkhand (2590720 Ton)
Chhattisgarh (2558453 Ton)
Maharashtra (2028422 Ton)
 Chhattisgarh has immense
deposits of tin ore. Notably,
Chhattisgarh is the only tin
producing State in India. Tin
ore is known as cassiterite.
 All companies (1 Public
sector and 4 private sectors)
related to tin mining are
situated in Dantewada.
 found. It is also known as
  According to Indian
Minerals Year Book-2016,
the State with maximum
resources of Mica is as
follow: Andhra Pradesh
(41%), Rajasthan (28%),
Odisha (17%).
 According to the data of
Minerals Year Book-2016,
mica producing only State is
Andhra Pradesh.
 The state with
reserves/deposits of Mica are
as follows:
Andhra Pradesh - 41%
Rajasthan - 28%
Odisha - 17%
Maharashtra - 13%
Bihar - 2%
 India is at first the position in
the world in production of
Mica sheet.
 Largest Mica belt of India are
found in Hazaribagh, Gaya
and Munger and Koderma
districts which is known as
“Capital of Mica”, also come
under this belt. Mica is found
as veins of metamorphic
rocks.
 Makrana is located towards
west of Sambhar Lake where
the best quality of marble is
Makrana marble.
 Taj Mahal and Victoria
Memorial (Kolkata) are
made of Makrana Marble.
 Marble is a metamorphic
rock that is formed when
limestone is subjected to heat
and pressure of
Metamorphism. It is
composed primarily of
mineral calcite (CaCO3) and
usually contains clay mineral
such as micas, quartz, pyrite,
iron oxides and graphic.

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 Three largest coal producing

states in India are
Chhattisgarh > Jharkhand >
Odisha.
 Coal, designated as “Black
Diamond”, is one of the main
sources of energy. It is also
known as “Fuel Mineral”.
Chemically it contains
carbon which gives it not
only colour but also
determine its thermal
capacity.
 Singrauli region lies in
Sonbhadra district of UP.
 Karanpura is a coal field Deposits of coal are found in
located in the state of this region.
Jharkhand.  Chhotanagpur Industrial
 The coal deposits in India are region is extended in
primarily concentration in Jharkhand, North Odisha and
the Gondwana sediments West Bengal and is famous
occurring mainly in the for its heavy metallurgical
eastern and central parts of industry. Discovery of coal
Peninsular India, although in the Damodar Valley is
Gondwana coal deposits also main reason for the
occur in Assam and Sikkim development of this region.
in north Eastern part of the  Namchik- Namphuk coal
country. fields are situated at
 Indian coal has very high ash Changlong district of
content, which varies from Arunachal Pradesh.
35% to 45% as compared to  Korba coalfield is located in
15% in other parts of the Korba district of
world. Chhattisgarh in the basin of
 Indian coal also has ash the Hasdeo River.
fusion temperature of about  Korba Coalfield covers an
1500 degree Celsius. area of about 530 square km.
However Indian coal has low  Coal has been mined in
sulphur content at about Korba coalfields since 1941,
0.5%. but large-scale production
 99% of coal reserves of India could be initiated only on
are found in Gondwana Rock completion of the Champa-
system. Korba rail link in 1955.
 According to Energy Policy 
report (Planning Coal Coal
Commission), the petroleum producing fields
reserves in India will be areas/ states
depleted in 22 years, Gas Damodar Barakar
reserves in 30 years and Coal valley
reserves in 80 years.
Son Valley Umaria

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Godavari Singareni
valley
Mahanadi Talcher
valley
Jharkhand Rajmahal
MP Sohagpur
Chhattisgar Bisrampu
h r
West Bengal Raniganj
 Talcher is a prominent coal
region in Odisha. The
management of coal region
in Talcher is in the hands of
Mahanadi Coal field Ltd., a
subsidiary of Coal India
Limited.
 Chhota Nagpur plateau is
extended over Jharkhand,
Odisha and West Bengal. It
has 80% contribution in
India’s total coal production.
 Jharia coal field is located in
Dhanbad district of
Jharkhand. Most of Coking
Coal Reserves are found
here.
 Jamshedpur is famous for
Iron/Steel Industry.
 Lohardaga is famous for
production of Bauxite and
Ranchi is famous for heavy
machines.
 Lignite is an inferior variety
of coal containing 35-40
percent of Carbon. Lignite
coal is mainly produced in
two States- Tamil Nadu and
Gujarat.
 Neyveli is the lignite field
Tamil Nadu and it is the
lignite coal mine of India.
 Tamil Nadu has largest
reserves of lignite coal.
 Lignite is popularly known
as brown coal. It is formed
due to decay of vegetation,
metamorphism and other
geological processes over
thousands of years.
 Lignite is characterized by
high moisture content, low
ash content and low heating
value.
 Bengal-Jharkhand coalfields
are major source of coal
supply to north-western
States and the supply of inter
State coals is handled by
Railway. They form a major
component of handling inter
State traffic.
 Bisrampur is Surguja district
of Chhattisgarh is famous for
coal mining.
 Coalfields and their
respective States:
Karanpura - Jharkhand
Singareni - Andhra Pradesh
(Now in Telangana)
Neyveli - Tamil Nadu
Korba – Chhattisgarh
 Indian steel companies
require a huge amount of
coking coal. In order to fulfil
that requirement, huge
amount of good quality of
coal is imported which is not
available in India. Most of
the electric power plants in
India are coal based hence
internal supply of coal is not
properly fulfilled. This is one
more reason that coal is
imported.
 Coalbed methane and shell
gas are unconventional
sources of energy.
 Coalbed methane is 90%
more pure methane gas
extracted from the coal seam.
 Shale gas is extracted from
fine grained sedimentary
rocks.
 Shale gas is not only a
mixture of propane and
butane but it also contains
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more than it is 6% of
methane, 4% of ethane, 1%
of propane and various other
gases.
 Abundant coal bed methane
sources exist, and also huge
deposits of shale gas is found
in the Indo gangetic plains,
assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan
and coastal region of India.
 Currently coal industry in
India is facing a lot of
challenges which are low
quality coal, deficiency in
full washing establishment,
high import of cooking coal
and administered prices etc.
 Digboi, a town area in
Tinsukia district in the north-
eastern part of Assam, is the
birth place of oil Industry in
India. It is India’s oldest
operating refinery and one of
the oldest operating
refineries in the world.
 The historic Digboi Refinery
has been termed as
“Gangotri” of the Indian
Hydrocarbon Sector.
 Digboi Refinery field is part
of Brahmaputra Valley
Oilfield.
 Other Refineries in
Brahmaputra Valley are:
Naharkatiya field, Moran
Hugrijan field, Rudra Sagar
Lakwa and Surma Valley.
 Descending order see
petroleum producing states
is: Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu.
 Oil-field was commissioned
in 1958 in Ankleshwar
located about 80 km, south of
Vadodara and nearly 160 km
south of Khambhat.
 In Cambay Basin Lunej area,
oil is found in sedimentary
rocks of the territory period.
The estimated reserves are
30 million tonnes of crude
oil. The total production
includes about 15 lakh
tonnes of oil per year and 8-
10 lakh cubic metres of
natural gas per day.
 Navgam oil field is located
in Gujarat. Other oil field in
Gujarat are Ankleshwar,
Kalol, Bakrol, Mehsana.
 In India, first oil well was
drilled in the area of Makum
in upper Assam on 26th
March, 1867. The depth is
118 feet (35.5 m).

Oil Year of
Refinery Commissioning
Digboi 1901
Koyali 1965
(Gujarat)
Haldia 1975
(West
Bengal)
Mathura 1982
(Uttar
Pradesh)
 Barauni oil refinery, is an
Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.
refinery situated in Bihar.
 There is no oil refinery in
Loyna.
 Mathura oil refinery (Indian
Oil Corporation Ltd.) is in
UP.
 Visakhapatnam Oil Refinery
(Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation Ltd.) is in
Andhra Pradesh.
 The Numaligarh Refinery is
located in Assam.
 Jamnagar is a city located on
the Western Coast of India in
Gujarat in the Gulf of Kutch.
Petroleum Company,
Reliance Industries has
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established the world’s
largest oil refinery here.
 Following is the list of oil
refineries provided by Indian
Bureau of Mines. There are
23 Oil Refineries namely
Barauni, Koyali, Haldia,
Mathura, Panipat, Digboi,
Bongaigaon, Guwahati,
Paradip, Mumbai (2),
Vishakhapatnam, Bhatinda,
Kochi, Bina, Manali,
Narimanam, Numaligarh,
Tatipaka, Mangalore,
Jamnagar (2) and Vadinar.
 First oil/energy crisis
occurred during the year
1973 when oil exporting
countries (OPEC) suddenly
increased the oil price four
times.
 In India, industry and
transportation was developed
in such a way that demand of
petroleum was increasing
rapidly. Hence, due to the
rise in petroleum prices,
there was a huge oil crisis
during 1970-80.
 Noonmati suburb of the city
of Guwahati, Assam, is
known for the first oil
refinery to be commissioned
by the then Indian Oil
Company Ltd., Now Indian
Oil Corporation, listed as one
of the fortune 500
companies. Guwahati
Refinery was started on
January 1, 1962.
 Oil Refinery and their
respective States –
1. Haldia - West Bengal
2. Jamnagar - Gujarat
3. Kochi - Kerala
4. Numaligarh - Assam
5. Tatipaka - Andhra Pradesh
6. Koyali - Gujarat
7. Nagapattinam -Tamil
Nadu
8. Barauni - Bihar
9. Mangalore – Karnataka
10. Panipat – Haryana

Oil Established
Refineries
Bina B.P.C. L
(M.P.)
Tatipaka O.N.G.C
(A.P.)
Digbor I.O.C. L
(Assam)
Koyali I.O.C. L
(Gujarat)
 The Mangla Bhagyam and
Aishwarya constitute key oil
fields discovered in Barmer-
Sanchore basin.
 The Mangla field considered
to be the largest on shore
hydrocarbon field in India in
more than two decades, was
discovered in January 2004.
 Hydrogen Vision-2025 is
related to warehousing of
petroleum products.
 To ensure energy security,
the government of India had
decided to set up 5 million
metric tons of strategic crude
oil storage at three locations
namely Vishakhapatnam,
Mangalore and Padur. These
facilities are being managed
by Indian strategic petroleum
reserves limited.
 Oil exploration in India is
undertaken by oil India
limited. In addition to this
Oil and Natural Gas
corporation is a key player in
the field of oil exploration.
 Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur
Gas pipeline has been
constructed by Gas authority
of India.
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 A huge part of India natural
gas production comes from
Bombay High Complex. The
onshore fields of Assam,
Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat
are also major producers oh
natural gas.
 Bombay high also known as
Mumbai high is an offshore
oil field 160 kilometres off
the coast of Mumbai. The oil
operations are run by Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation.
 The Bombay high field first
discovered by a Russian and
Indian oil exploration team.
 DG- D6 block is the biggest
natural gas reserves in India
explode by Reliance
Industries in 2002.
 Krishna Godavari is a peri
Cratonic passive margin in
India spread across more
than 50,000 square km.
 Shield gas resources are
found in numerous reasons
with organic rich shales.
 In India for priority basins
are Cambay, Krishna
Godavari, Cauvery and the
Damodar Valley.
 The remains of plants and
animals body done under the
earth, millions of years ago
are called fossils.
 The only producer of
Asbestos as per the data of
the year 2016-17 is Andhra
Pradesh whereas its largest
reserve is found in Rajasthan.
 Petroleum and natural gas is
found in the sedimentary
rocks of tertiary plate.
 Koderma lies in Jharkhand
and is quite famous for its
Mica it is also known as mica
city of India.
 Metamorphic rock is a result
of the transformation of
existing rock, in a process
called metamorphism.
Metamorphic minerals are
formed under high
temperature and pressure.
 Garnet is associated with
Metamorphism.
 Quartzite is metamorphosed
from sandstone.
 Marble is a metamorphic
rock that forms when
limestone is subjected to heat
and pressure of
metamorphism.
 Nickel is being recovered as
nickel sulphate crystals by
product obtained during
copper production.
 Madhya Pradesh is the
leading Manganese producer
in India.
 Five leading states in
Manganese production as per
the figures of the year, 2016-
17 are: Madhya Pradesh>
Maharashtra>Odisha>Karna
taka > Andhra Pradesh
 Karnataka is the top
producing state of gold.
 India leads in the production
of sheet mica.
 China leads in the production
of copper, gypsum, Iron ore.
 Mineral oil – Rajasthan
 Gypsum- Rajasthan
 Bauxite- Odisha
 Non-metallic mineral
reserves are phosphorite,
dolomite, gypsum, Garnet,
cadmium, haematite,
Asbestos, Dunite, Zircon,
Ochre, etc.
 According to T data
published by Indian Bureau
of mines I just thought this
leading producer of gypsum
in India.
 Gypsum is found in large
quantity in Churu-Bikaner
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Shri Ganganagar belt. It is a  Nellore (In Andhra Pradesh)

source of environmental is famous for production of
pollution. It is used for mica and copper.
raising soil fertility and also 
used in health and Minerals Mining areas
construction sector. Graphite Rampa
 Diamond – Carbon (Andhra
 Marble – Calcium Pradesh)
 Sand – Silicon L Zawar
 Ruby – Aluminium oxide (Rajasthan)
Salt Didwana
 Minerals Centre (Rajasthan)
Coal Makum Silver Bellary
Iron ore Dallirajhara (Karnataka)
Bauxite Koraput Lead Zawar
Manganese Chitradurg
  Ankleshwar oil field is
Place Mineral located in Vadodara in state
Amguri Petroleu of Gujarat.
(assam) m 
Lanjigarh Bauxite Minerals Production
(Odisha) zone
Kamptee Coal Iron ore Keonjhar
(Maharashtr Copper Khetri
a), Giridih Coal Korba
Bellary Iron ore Mica Kodarma
(Karnataka)
Badam Iron ore  Kolar of Karnataka is a major
Pahar gold producing mine of the
(Odisha) country.
Kodarma Mica  According to the data
(Jharkhand) published by Indian Bureau
Mosabani Copper of mines in 2017, Odessa
(Jharkhand), continues to be the major
Alwar chromite producing state.
Rava Petroleu  Rock Phosphate – Jamar
(Krishna- m Kotra.
Godavari  Lead & Zinc – Rampura &
basin) Agucha
Dharwar Mangane
 Singhbhum shark and is
se
known for its iron ore
Jayamkonda Lignite deposit.
m
 Bailadala – Chhattisgarh
 Kemanagundi – Karnataka
 Noamundi is an iron ore zone
 Mayurbhanj – Odisha
in Jharkhand
 Panna in Madhya Pradesh is
famous for its diamond
mines.

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Lambapur (Andhra Pradesh),

 Koratpur is famous for Rohail (Rajasthan) and Gogi
Aluminium. (Karnataka).
 Gas plant – Auraiya  Jadugada Mine in eastern
 Aluminium - Korba Singhbhum district of
 Petroleum – Kochi Jharkhand is famous for
 Manganese is mainly found Uranium production.
in Balaghat and Chhindwara  Uranium is mined in
district of Madhya Pradesh Turamdih.
and Bhandara and Nagpur  Bauxite, dolomite, Iron ore,
district of Maharashtra. tin are all found in state of
 Manganese extracted from Chhattisgarh.
Odisha is rich in iron content  India is the third largest salt
and lack in Phosphorus. producing country in the
 Balaghat is an important world after China and USA.
district of Madhya Pradesh in
the perspective of Mineral
resources. The major 42. Electricity
minerals found here are
Kyanite, Manganese, Copper
 Idukki is a hydroelectric
etc
power project which is
 Granite is found in three
situated across the Periyar
districts of UP – Lalitpur,
River in Idukki district
Mahoba and Banda.
Kerala.
 Large reserves of diamond
 Sabarigiri hydroelectric
bearing kimberlite tracts
project is in Kerala.
have been discovered in
 Ghat Prabha is an irrigation
Raipur.
project and Ramganga is
 Uranium is found in Lalitpur
multi-purpose project.
in UP.
 Thermal projects and their
 Fireclay, limestone, China
Location –
clay, dolomite and potash are
 Thermal Project Location
found in Sonbhadra district.
Ukai Gujarat
 Andalusite & Calcite is
Patratu Jharkhand
obtained from Mirzapur.
Pench MP
 The heavy mineral sand
Dabhol Maharashtra
deposits in karela contain an
 Uran (Uran Gas Turbine
assemblage of Ilmenite,
Power Station) is gas-based
Rutile, Leucoxene,
thermal power plant located
Monazite, Zircon and
at Uran in Raigad district
Sillimanite.
Maharashtra.
 Monazite is an important or
 Largest source of energy in
for thorium, lanthanum,
India is coal.
uranium and cerium. India,
 The current sequence of
Madagascar and South
energy sources in order of
Africa have large deposits of
their share in power sector in
monazite sands.
India is thermal>hydro
 Uranium production regions
>wind>nuclear.
are: Domiasiat (Meghalaya),

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 Wanakbori Gujarat
Badarpur Delhi
Harduaganj UP
Utaran Gujarat
Paras Maharashtr
a

 Descending order of states

with respect to thermal
power capacity:
Maharashtra, Gujarat, UP,
West Bengal.
 Average oil India thermal
plant load factor (PLF) in
 The super thermal electricity recent years have been
plant established by National varying between 70 to 75%.
Thermal Power Corporation  Bokaro Thermal Power
(NTPC) in West Bengal is Station is located at Bokaro
situated at Farakka. district in Jharkhand. Bokaro
 Rajmahal Coal field is open ‘B’ Thermal Power Station
cast project which supplies has installed capacity of 630
coal to the Farakka Super MW. The first unit was
Thermal Power Station and commissioned in March
the 2340 MW Kahalgaon 1986. The station is located
Super Thermal Power on the banks of the Konar
Station. River.
 Neyveli Thermal Power  The now defunct Bokaro ‘A’
Corporation of Tamil Nadu Thermal Power Station
is the first plant of South- which was commissioned in
East Asia-working on 1952 was scrapped. In place
Lignite Coal. Lignite is a of which, one 500 MW unit
tertiary category coal. has been commissioned by
 Ramagundam Super BHEL (Bharat Heavy
Thermal one of the biggest Electrical Ltd.) in May,
thermal power stations in 2016.
India is situated in  Integrated Steel plant in
Telangana. Kalinganagar Industrial
 Obra Thermal Power Station Complex in Jaipur district of
was established in 1971 with Odisha, is working under
the help of Russian Tata Steel.
engineers.  Power point at Jamnagar –
Power State Essar Power.
Station  Nabinagar Power Plant –
Kothagude Andhra Indian Railways
m Pradesh  Kayamkulom Power Plant –
Raichur Karnataka National Thermal Power
Mettur Tamil corporation
Nadu

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 Tarapur Atomic Power
Station (TAPS) is located in
Maharashtra. It is the first
Nuclear Power Station of
India which commenced its
commercial operation in
1969.
 Uranium is most significant
nuclear mineral used as
nuclear fuel.
 Thorium is second important
nuclear mineral. Thorium is
extracted mostly from
monazite.
 India has estimated thorium
reserves of 4.5 million
tonnes. These reserves are
found in monazite coastal
sand of Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh & Odisha.
 Minor occurrences of
Thorium deposits have been
noticed in Bihar, Karnataka,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
also.
 Indian is self-sufficient is
supply of Thorium.
 Nuclear power stations and
concerned states is as
follows:
1. Kota (Rawathbhata)
Atomic Power Station -
Rajasthan
2. Tarapur Atomic Power
Station – Maharashtra
3. Narora Nuclear Power
Station - Uttar Pradesh
4. Kakrapara Nuclear Power
Station – Gujarat
 The year of commissioning
of nuclear plants are:
Kota - 1973,
Kakrapara- 1993,
Kiaga – 2000
Kalpakkam- 1984.
 Nuclear energy is a
promising source of future
demand of energy supply in
India.
 India has a flourishing and
largely indigenous nuclear
power programme and
expects to have 14.6 GW
nuclear capacity by 2024 and
63 GW by 2030. It aims to
supply 25% of electricity
from nuclear power by 2050.
 Uranium is available in
negligible quantities in India.
 India also signed civil
nuclear deal with USA.
 Thal - Maharashtra
 Manuguru - Andhra Pradesh
 Kakrapara - Gujarat
 Kaiga – Karnataka
 Rawat Bhata – Rajasthan
 Muppandal – Tamil Nadu
 Ennore – Tamil Nadu
 Kudankulam nuclear power
plant even nuclear power
station in Tamil Nadu.
 An Inter-Government
Agreement (IGA) on the
project was signed on 20
November 1988 by the then
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi
and the then Soviet head of
State Mikhail Gorbachev, for
the construction of two
reactors to be installed at
Kudankulam Nuclear Power
Plant in Tamil Nadu. Under
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this agreement, Russia is
constructing 2 nuclear
reactors from 2002 in India.
Russia has agreed to install
six units of nuclear reactors
in Kudankulam Nuclear
Power Plant.
 25th Nuclear Power Plant of
India is located at
Rawathbhata in the State of
Rajasthan
 The twentieth nuclear power
station of India is located in
Kaiga, Karnataka. It has four
units. All of the four units are
small-sized CANDU
(Canadian – developed,
pressurized heavy water
reactor used for generating
electric power) plants of 220
MW.
 Heavy water plants for
atomic energy are located in
Hazira (Gujarat), Baroda
(Gujarat), Kota (Rajasthan),
Manuguru (Telangana),
Talcher (Odisha), Thal
(Maharashtra) & Tuticorin
(Tamil Nadu).
 Mithivirdi nuclear plant will
be set up in collaboration
with the United States of
America.
 Anushakti Vidyut Nigam
Limited is a major venture of
Nuclear Power Corporation
of India Limited (NPCIL)
which hold 51% Equity share
and National Thermal Power
Corporation Ltd.
 Koyna hydroelectric project
is the largest hydroelectric
power plant in India
constructed on the river
Kona one is run by
Maharashtra state electricity
board.
 The 172 MW capacity Rana
Pratap Sagar Hydel Power
Station is located in the
Rawathbhata near Rana
Pratap Sagar Dam. All the
equipment of this power
house were imported from
Canada under Colombo Plan.
 Chalkewadi wind energy
project in Satara
(Maharashtra) is developed
for generating electricity.
Five hundred wind mills are
put up all along the plateau to
generate electricity.
 In the context of wind power
generation, Tamil Nadu
(7455 MW) is at first
position, after that
Maharashtra (3645.4 MW)
holds second rank.
 India has a long coastline
with the estuaries and gulfs
where tides are strong
enough to move turbines for
electrical power generation.
 Total identified potential of
tidal energy is about 9000
MW.
 West Coast Gulf of Cambay
has production capacity of
7000 MW, Gulf of Kutch has
1200 MW capacity and
Sunderban has the capacity
of less than 100 MW.
 India as a result of being
surrounded by sea on three
sides has high potential to
harness tidal energy.
 The three most potential
locations in this regard are
Gulf of Cambay (west coast),
Gulf of Kutch (West coast)
and Ganges Delta,
Sundarbans, West Bengal
(East coast).
 NHPC is related with
electricity generation. NHPC
Limited (National
Hydroelectric Power
Corporation) is an Indian
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Hydropower generation
company that was
incorporated in the year 1975
with an objective to plan,
promote and organize an
integrated and efficient
development of
hydroelectric power in all
aspects.
 NHPC expanded its objects
to include other sources of
energy like Geothermal,
Tidal, Wind etc. The present
installed capacity of
Hydropower (as on
31.03.2020) is
approximately 45699 MW
which is 12.4% of total
electricity generation in
India.
 Gujarat stands first in
installed capacity and
generation of electricity.
Whereas Maharashtra ranks
first in Gross installed
capacity of electricity.
Present Installed capacity (in
MW) of power utilities in the
states (as on 31.03.2020) is
as follows:
 1. Maharashtra (43496.29)
 2. Gujarat (35210.58)
 3. Tamil Nadu (32840.34)
 4. Karnataka (29824.81)
 Rampura became the first
village in India to have its
solar power plant, is situated
in UP.
 There are various loopholes
in the functioning of State
Electricity Boards in India
and they have faced
hardships due to
administrative deficiencies,
lack of financial resource,
wide transmission and
distribution losses, skewed
tariff structure leading to
unsustainable cross subsidies
etc.
 State Governments have
implemented social subsidy
policies through SEBs in
agrarian sector.
 According to 11th five-year
plan, India has higher
transmission and distribution
losses than other countries.
The great deal of electricity
in remote areas and less
investment in distribution
system etc. are prime
roadblocks to these losses.
 The power plant of
Manikaran based on
geothermal energy is located
in the Parvati Valley on river
Parvati, is in Himachal
Pradesh. The area is well
known as for its hot springs.
 The hot springs in the valley
temperature ranges between
320 C to 960 C.
 Jwalamukhi is in Kangra
district of Himachal Pradesh.
 Coal, Petroleum and its
products and Natural Gas are
conventional sources of
energy also known as non-
renewable and traditional
resources whereas wind,
solar, biomass, geothermal,
tidal and hydropower energy
sources are non-conventional
(renewable sources) of
energy, also known as non-
traditional resources.
 Renewable sources are those
that are recognized by the
environment over a relatively
short period of time. Solar
energy, wind energy, energy
of earth are some examples
of renewable source of
energy.
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43. Industry
 Stainless steel is metal
alloy, made up of steel
mixed with elements
such as chromium,
nickel, molybdenum,
silicon, aluminium and
carbon. Iron mixed with
carbon to produce steel is
the main component of
stainless steel.
 2018.
 Some iron and steel
plants are planned along
the western coast of
India. The main reason
for locational shift of this
industry is occurrence of
high-grade iron ore
deposits in Goa and parts
of Madhya Pradesh and
the comparative ease of
exporting steel.
 Iron and steel industry is
one of the important
industries of India as
India is the third largest
producer of crude steel
as per 2015.
 The local supply of coal
is not available to VSL
Bhadravati.
 TISCO (Tata Iron &
Steel Company Limited)
is prime steel company
of India. It was
established in 1907.
 The steel plant at
Tatanagar (Jamshedpur)
produces four million
tonnes of hot and cold
rolled flat and long
products. It is eleventh
largest steel company of
the world with an annual
crude steel capacity of
27.27 million tonnes in
 Rourkela Steel Plant, the
first integrated steel
plant in the public sector
of India, was set up with
collaboration of
Germany.
 Rourkela Steel Plant gets
its supply of iron ore
from Keonjhar.
 Bhilai Steel Plant is the
collaborative project of
Indian Government and
Russia, located in Bhilai
in Chhattisgarh. The
plant was commissioned
in 1959.
 Bokaro steel plant is the
fourth public sector steel
plant is India built with
Soviet (Russia) help. It
was started in 1965. It
was incorporated as a
limited company on 29
January, 1965 and later
on merged with SAIL
(Steel Authority of India
Limited). This plant is
removed as first
Swadeshi Plant.
 Durgapur steel plant in
West Bengal was set up
with the help of United
Kingdom.
 Lasundra hot spring is in
Gujarat.
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 The main raw materials producing aluminium in

used in Iron and steel 1974.
industry are iron ore,  Hindustan Aluminium
coal, manganese, Company Ltd
limestone, silica, (HINDALCO) is located
chromite, felspar etc. in Sonbhadra district of
Uttar Pradesh.
 Centre Energy  National Aluminium
 Patratu Thermal Company Ltd (NALCO)
 Jhakri Hydel has units in
 Kalapakkam Nuclear Bhubaneswar, Odisha. It
Korba Thermal is Asia’s largest
integrated aluminium
 Various prominent complex encompassing
industrial units are bauxite mining,
situated here which are aluminium refining,
as follows: aluminium smelting and
 Bharat Aluminium casting power
Company Ltd. generation, rail and port
(BALCO), operations.
 Korba Super Thermal  Hindustan Copper Ltd.
Power Plant (HCL) is located at
 Minimata Bango Hasdeo Khetri, Rajasthan. HCL
Project is the only vertically
 BALCO Captive Plant integrated copper
producer in India,
 IBP Explosive Plant
engaged in a wide
 South Eastern Coalfields
spectrum of activities
Limited (SECL)
ranging from mining,
 Hasdeo Thermal Power
Beneficiation, Smelting,
Station
Refining and Continuous
 Bango Hydel Electric Cast Rod manufacturer.
Plant
 HINDALCO an
 Tata Engineering and Aluminium & Copper
Locomotive Company, manufacturing company,
known as Tata Motors is a subsidiary of the
Limited now, is the Aditya Birla Group. The
largest manufacturer in Hindustan Aluminium
India automotive Corporation Limited was
industry and commercial established in 1958 by
vehicles. the Aditya Birla Group.
 BALCO is located in  The Indian Aluminium
Korba district of Company Ltd. (INDAL)
Chhattisgarh. It was is an integrated plant
incorporated in the year having three units at
1965 as a public sector different places. Its three
undertaking. It is the first smelting units are
public sector enterprises located at Alupuram
in India which started (Kerala), Hirakund

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Odisha, and Belaum tractors, watches under

(Karnataka). its watch division and
 National Aluminium industrial machines and
Company Limited tools mainly under its
(NALCO) has units in Praga division.
Odisha at Angul and  Hindustan machine tools
Damanjodi (Koraput). It limited has its
was incorporated as a manufacturing units in
public sector enterprise Bangalore, Pinjore,
by the Ministry of Hyderabad, Ajmer and
Mines, Government of kalamassery.
India in 1981.  Fertilizer corporation of
 Aluminium State India limited is a private
Plant sector undertaken in
Alupuram Kerala India under the
Angul Odisha administrative control of
Belgaum Karnataka the department of
Korba Chhattisgarh fertilizers, ministry of
 chemical and fertilizers.
Centre Industr It has units in five states
y namely: Sindri in
Kankinara Jute Jharkhand, Gorakhpur in
Virudhnag Cotton UP, Ramagundam in
ar Textile Telangana, Talcher in
Channapat Silk Odisha and Korba in
na Chhattisgarh.
Bhadohi Carpet  Petronet LNG Ltd has set
up its first LNG terminal
 Heavy engineering at Dahej in Gujarat.
corporation limited is  The Head Office of
one of the leading Dredging Corporation of
suppliers of capital India is strategically
equipment in India for located on the eastern
steel, mining, railways, seaboard of India at
power, defence, Space Visakhapatnam. DCI
Research, nuclear and helps to ensure the
strategic sectors. continuous availability
 Heavy engineering of the desired depths in
corporation limited was shipping channels of the
set up in the year 1958 in Major and Minor Ports,
Ranchi. Navy, fishing harbours
 Hindustan machine tools and other maritime
limited it’s a state- organisations.
owned manufacturing  Narwapahar Mine is the
company until the trackless uranium mine
ministry of Heavy located in Jharkhand
Industries and public which is being operated
enterprises in India. The by Uranium Corporation
company manufacturers of India Limited.

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 Mon is a district of
Nagaland.
 Shangnyu village of
Mon has best wooden
architect among Nagas.
 Nalbari, Assam is
located near, Guwahati
and is famous for
products made bamboo
 Pasighat is the oldest
town of Arunachal
Pradesh famous for Lali
wild life Sanctuary.
 Tura is one of the largest
towns in Meghalaya in a
valley located at the
foothills of the tura hills
right below Tura Peak.
 Kakinada (Andhra
Pradesh) - Bio Diesel
Plant
 Dundigal (Hyderabad) -
Indian Air Force
Academy
 Margao (Goa) - Skybus
Metro rail test-run
 Bhadrachalam - ITC
paper board unit
 Aonla – Fertilizers
 Modinagar – Rubber
 Brabanki – Polyfibres
 Kanpur – Explosive
 Bhopal - Zari Batua
 Bhairavgarh - Ujjain
 Handicrafts of Bagh -
Dhar
 Sarees of Chanderi -
Ashok Nagar
 Sugar industry is more
developed in South
India. Per hectare
production and quantity
of Juice of sugarcane is
higher in the southern
states.
 Masuria Sari is related to
Kota district of
Rajasthan.
 Rajasthan is the sole
producer of lead and zinc
ores, calcite, selenite and
wollastonite.
 The Diesel Locomotive
Works (DLW) is located
in Varanasi. Founded in
1961. It is the largest
diesel electric
locomotive
manufacturer in India.
 The DLW is a
production unit owned
by Indian Railways that
manufactures diesel-
electric locomotives and
its spare parts.
 Indian Telephone
Industries Limited,
commonly known as ITI
Limited, is a State-
owned manufacturer of
telecommunication
equipment in India. It
was founded in 1948.
 Bharat Electronics
Limited (BEL) was
incorporated in 1954.
 Manufacturing cities of
BEL are in Bangalore,
Tamil Nadu, Haryana,
Uttarakhand, UP
(Ghaziabad), Pune
Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh.
 The Mathura Refinery,
owned by Indian Oil
Corporation.
 Chunar is renowned for
cement industry.
 Cement industry mainly
depends on limestone.
 Dalmianagar is one of
the oldest and biggest
industrial towns of India.
It is situated on the Bank
of stone river in Bihar. It
is famous for cement
industry.
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 Bhopal is known for  Panki is a significant

pesticide industry. place for the fertilizer
 The shipyard factory was industry.
established at  The rubber industry is
Vishakhapatnam in 1941 located at Panjima in
and was taken over by India.
Government in 1952 and  Centres and their
renamed as Hindustan concerned industries:
Shipyard Ltd. 1. Ramagundam
 Apart from (Telangana) - Fertilizers
Vishakhapatnam, there 2. Chittaranjan (West
are four main centres of Bengal) - Locomotives
shipbuilding industry at 3. Pipri (UP) –
Goa, Kolkata, Kochi and Hydroelectricity
Mumbai in India; all are  Nepnagar is an industrial
public sector Township in Madhya
undertakings. Pradesh. The Township
 The alumina plant is is famous for its
located in Damanjodi newspaper print.
(Odisha), Korba  Phulpur (Allahabad,
(Chhattisgarh), Uttar Pradesh) has
Renukoot (Uttar largest co-operative
Pradesh), Mettur (Tamil fertilizer factory. The
Nadu), Muri (Jharkhand) Phulpur unit of IFFCO
& Belgaum (Karnataka). (Indian Farmers
 At present, most of the Fertilizer Co-operative
vehicles are Limited) was established
manufactured in India. in 1981. The units of
The premier units related IFFCO are at Kalol,
to this industry are Kandla, Aonla and
Hindustan Motors Paradeep.
(Kolkata), Premier 
Automobile Limited Units Industry
(Mumbai), Ashok Brajraj Paper
(Leyland) (Chennai), Nagar
Tata Engineering (Odish
Company Limited a)
(Jamshedpur), Mahindra Kaimu Cement
& Mahindra (Pune), r
Maruti Industries Haldia Petrochemi
Limited (Gurugram) and (WB) cal
Sunrise industries
(Bangalore).  Industry and their States:
 India is the third largest Amlai - Madhya Pradesh
producer of phosphorus Ballarpur - Maharashtra
and nitrogenous Brajrajnagar - Odisha
fertilizers. Rajahmundry - Andhra
Pradesh.

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 Tamil Nadu is a leading Fort Gloster near

producer of mill-made Kolkata, although this
cotton yarn in the mill was a failure.
country. Presence of  The second cotton mill
numerous spinning which was established
mills, skilled labour by KGN Daber in
force, cheap by Mumbai, 1854 is called
hydroelectricity the true foundation of
availability etc. are main modern cotton industry
factors for good in India. Its name was
production. Bombay Spinning and
 As for the new mining Weaving Company,
law – Mines and Bombay.
Minerals (Development 
and regulation) Industry Centre
amendment act 2015, Silk Mysore
non-coal mines have to Textiles (Karnata
be auctioned by the ka)
respective state Petroche Jawahar
governments. micals Nagar
 Andhra Pradesh and (Gujarat
Jharkhand have gold )
mines. Fertilizer Talcher
 s (Odisha)
 In India, cotton is mainly Pharmace Rishikes
produced in black soils. uticals h
Some of the important
centres such as  Steel Authority of India
Ahmedabad, Solapur, Limited - Delhi
Nagpur, Coimbatore and  Hindustan Zinc Limited
Indore are located in the - Udaipur
areas of large-scale  Heavy Engineering
cotton cultivation. Corporation Ltd. –
 Cotton is a pure raw Ranchi
material, in the sense that  Instrumentation Limited
it does not lose its weight – Kota
in the process of 
manufacturing and slight Location State
loss in weight is more
Koyali Gujarat
than compensated by the
Nagapattin Tamil
use of sizing materials.
am Nadu
 Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Numaligar Assam
Tamil Nadu, Punjab and
h
Madhya Pradesh etc. are
Manali Tamil
prime centres of cotton
Nadu
textile centres.
Muri Jharkha
 The first Indian cotton
nd
cloth mill was
Alwaye Kerala
established in 1818 at

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Dharmapu Tamil  S. Ramadorai-TCS

ri Nadu  Sunil Arora - Indian
Airlines
 Atlas Cycle Ltd. is  Vivek Paul - Wipro
located in Sonipat. Technologies
 Bharat Earth Movers 
Ltd. is located in Distingui Organisa
Bangalore. shed tion
 Indian Farmers Lady
Fertilizers Co-operative Amrita National
Ltd. is located in Kalol. Patel Dairy
 National Aluminium Develop
Company Ltd. is located ment
in Bhubaneshwar. Board
 Diamond Park is the Anu Aga Thermax
industrial zones which Limited
have been created to Mallika Tractors
promote manufacturing Srinivasa and Farm
and export of diamonds n Equipme
and synthetic jewelleries nt
and ornaments. Limited
 Granite Polishing Priya Park
Industry of Jharkhand Paul Hotel
state Minerals
Development  Ludhiana in Punjab is
Corporation is located at famous for Hosiery
Pupudana (Ranchi). Industry.
Bishrampur Graphite  The order of the
project is located in industries in terms of
Palamu. water usage is as
 B.V. Rao - Poultry follows: thermal power,
Farming engineering, pulp and
 C.K. Prahalad- paper, and textiles.
Management Science 
 John Kurien- Fisheries Industry Locations
Economy Alumini J.K Nagar
 Kiran Karnik- um
Information Technology Copper Malanjkh
and Software and
 V.R.S. Natarajan - Zinc Tundoo
Bharat Earth Movers Jute Bhatpara
Limited Glass Jaipur
 A.K. Puri-Bharat Heavy Cement Udaipur
Electricals Limited Syntheti Kota
 V. Thulasidas - Air India c silk
 Jagdish Khattar - Maruti Fertilize Srigangan
Udyog Limited rs agar
 C.P. Jain - NTPC

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 UP state leather
44. Research
development and
marketing corporation is
Centres of India
located in Agra.
Research Location
 The largest
Centre /
petrochemical factory is
Institutes
located in Jamnagar in
Gujarat. Central Lucknow
drug
 Kancheepuram in Tamil
Research
Nadu and Chanderi in
Institute
Ashok Nagar district of
National Kolkata
Madhya Pradesh is
Atlas and
famous for traditional
sarees/ fabric. thematic
mapping
 A graphical indication
organizati
(GI) is a name or sign
on
used on certain products
National Chennai
to the specific
Institute
geographical location.
of ocean
 Banarsi Silk and Tirupati
technolog
Laddu are registered as
y
Geographical Indication.
Temperat Shimla
 Kolkata Hooghly region
e forest
– Titagarh.
Resource
 Ahmedabad Vadodara
Center
region – Bharuch
Central Hyderabad
 Mumbai Pune region –
Research
Ambernath
Institute
 Green garden for
shipbuilders and dryland
engineers limited Diesel agricultur
engine plant is located at e
Ranchi. Hyderabad
National
 Shivkashi center is Academy
located in Madurai, of
Columbus, Bengaluru agricultur
industrial area. It is al
located in Virudhnagar research
district of Tamil Nadu. It managem
works for fireworks, ent
matchbox industry, print National Jaipur
industry. It was termed Institute
little Japan by Jawaharlal of
Nehru. agricultur
al
marketing

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Universit Solan, Indian Kanpur

y of Himachal institute
horticultu Pradesh of pulses
re and research
forestry Indian Varanasi
Indian Dehradun, institute
institute Uttarakhand of
of remote vegetable
sensing research
Central Mysuru Central Lucknow
food institute
technolog of
y subtropic
Research al
Institute horticultu
Central Shimla re (central
potato mango
Research Research
Institute Institute)
Central Rajahmundry Central Dhanbad,
tobacco mining Jharkhand
Research Research
Institute Institute
National Nagpur Indian Surat, Gujarat
environm diamond
ent institute
engineeri National Gujarat
ng dairy
National Jhansi Develop
Research ment
for Board
agroforest Indian Jhansi, Uttar
ry grass and Pradesh
Central Cuttack, Odisha fodder
rice Research
Research Institute
Institute National Kanpur
Central Bhopal, sugar
institute Madhya institute
of Pradesh Institute Kamptee
agricultur of
e military
engineeri law
ng Institute Pune
National Karnal, of
dairy Haryana national
Research integratio
Institute n

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Indian Lucknow pulses

institute research
of National New Delhi
sugarcane Bureau of
research plant
Directorat Meerut genetics
e of research
farming National Hyderabad
system plant
research protection
Indian Bhopal training
institute institute
of soil National Ghaziabad
science Center for
Central Karnal organic
soil farming
salinity Central Mysore
Research food
Institute technolog
Central Thiruvananthap ical
tuber uram Research
crops Institute
Research
Institute  According to the National
Central Jodhpur Center for Antarctic and
arid zone ocean research, Maitri is
Research dedicated to conducting
Institute researches on diverse
Internatio Manila disciplines including earth,
nal rice science, glaciology,
Research atmospheric science,
Institute communication, medicine,
National Ajmer human Physiology and cold
Research region engineering.
Center on  The 3rd research centre in
seed Antarctica was established
spices in 2015 with the name of
Directorat Hyderabad Bharti.
e of rice  India’s first station in
research Antarctica (South Gangotri
Directorat Karnal 1983) was abandoned in
e of wheat 1988-89 after it was
research submerged in ice. It was
Directorat New Delhi succeeded by the “Maitri”
e of maize which was set up in 1988-89.
research  International Crops
Directorat Kanpur Research Institute for Semi-
e of Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is
an International Non-Profit

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Organization that undertakes
scientific agrarian
researches for development
in South Asia & Sub-
Saharan Africa.
 ICRISAT has headquarter in
Patancheru near Hyderabad.
 Central Research Institute
for dryland agriculture is
under Indian council of
agricultural research.
 The headquarter of Central
institute for arid horticulture
is located on National
Highway 15 in Rajasthan.
 VV Giri, National Labour
institute under Ministry of
Labour, Government of
India is an autonomous
institute. It is located in
Noida (UP).
 Central institute of
agricultural engineering was
established in 1976 during
the fifth five-year plan to
address research related
issues.
 National dairy Research
Institute has been awarded
the status of deemed
university in 1989.
 The headquarters of Indian
Bureau of mines is located in
Nagpur. It was established in
1948.
 The Indian Diamond
Institute is a Government of
India sponsored autonomous
higher school of learning in
the fields of diamonds,
germs and jewellery in India.
It was established in 1978.
 Indian grass and Fodder
Research Institute
established in 1962, is
located in Jhansi, Uttar
Pradesh. It is under
administrative control of
Indian council of
agricultural research.
 Indian meteorological
department was established
in Kolkata in 1875. Its
headquarters is in New
Delhi.
 The National Museum of
Natural History (NMNH)
established in New Delhi on
5th June, 1978.
 The NMNH has extended its
geographical range by
establishing Regional
Museums of Natural History
(RMNH) in many parts of
the Country such as
Southern Region (Mysore),
Central Region (Bhopal) and
Eastern Region
(Bhubaneswar). Two more
museums are being
established in Western
Region (Sawai Madhopur)
and North-Eastern Region
(Gangtok).
 Indian farmer fertilizer
cooperative (IFFCO) is a
multi-state corporative
society engaged in the
business of manufacturing
and marketing of fertilizers.
Its headquarters is in New
Delhi. It was started in 1967.
It is not concerned with
exporting of agricultural
goods.
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45. Transport
 At present, the road network
in India is about 59 lakh km
which is the second largest
road network in the world. In
the transportation sector,
67% traffic goods and 90%
passenger traffic commutes
through road networks.
 India has 151,019 km of
National Highways as of
March 2021.
 There are more than 265
National Highways in the
country.
 The longest national
highway is NH-7 connecting
Varanasi and Kanyakumari.
 NH-4 (total length is 1,235
km) covers the North –
South Corridor (UP,
Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu).
 NH-4 is running over 2,369
kilometres from Varanasi to
Kanyakumari.
 1375-kilometer-long
highway NH-8 connects
Indian capital to Mumbai.
 Delhi Kolkata road is known
as NH-2. It is one of the
busiest road networks in
India.
 NH-1 one expands from
Delhi to Amritsar.
 NH-4 links Mumbai to
Chennai.
 NH6 begins from his Hazira
Gujarat and ends at Kolkata.
 NH15 connects Samakhiali
Gujarat with Pathankot in
Punjab.
 According to National
Highway Authority of India,
the highest length of
National Highway is found
in Maharashtra (15136 km).
Thereafter Uttar Pradesh
(8711 km), Rajasthan (7906
km) and Madhya Pradesh
(7854 km) stand at second,
third and fourth place
respectively.
 Golden Quadrilateral is a
National Highway project
which was started in 2001
connecting India’s four top
metropolitan cities, Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai and
Kolkata. Its total length is
5846 km.
 Pradhan Mantri Bharat Jodo
Pariyojna is ambitious
scheme of Indian
Government which is related
to the development of
highways. Under this
project, tourist places and
economically important
places will be connected by
corridors built on (BOT-
Build, Operate, Transfer)
principle. This project
envisages construction of
4376 km road.
 East West corridor connects
Silchar to Porbandar and the
north South corridor links
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Srinagar to Kanyakumari.
They cross each other at
Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Jhansi
is considered as the junction
of north South and east West
corridor.
 The North-South corridor is
the largest ongoing highway
project in India. It is second
phase of National Highway
Development Project
(NHDP). It is 4000 km
connecting NH-1A
(Srinagar to Jalandhar), NH-
1 (Jalandhar to Delhi), NH-2
Delhi to Agra, NH-3 Agra to
Gwalior, NH-75 Gwalior to
Jhansi, NH-26 Jhansi to
Lakhnadon, NH-7
Lakhnadon-Nagpur-
Hyderabad-Bangalore-
Madurai-Kanyakumari),
NH-47 Salem-Coimbatore-
Kochi).
 The Mumbai Pune
Expressway is India’s first
six-lane concrete, high
speed, access controlled,
tolled expressway. It spans
over a distance of 93 km
connecting Mumbai with
Pune.
 This six-lane project was
completed under the
stewardship of the
Maharashtra State Road
Development Corporation
(MSRDC) at a cost 16.3
billion (US$ 362 million).
 National Highway Number-
3 (total length is 1161 km)
passes through, Madhya
Pradesh (712 km),
Maharashtra (391 km),
Rajasthan (32 km) and Uttar
Pradesh (26 km). Its total
length is 1161 km. Route of
National Highway No-3 is
Agra-Gwalior-Shivpuri-
Indore-Dhule-Nasik-Thane-
Mumbai.
 Pradhan Mantri Gram
Sadak Yojana was launched
in 2000 as a fully funded
centrally sponsored scheme
to provide road connectivity
in rural areas.
 Indian Railways is largest in
qAsia and 4th largest in the
world.
 National Highway are just
2% of the total length of
Indian roadways, they cater
40 to 45% of the total
transport demand.
 Maharashtra has the highest
density of the surface road.
 NH-1: Delhi-Ambala-
Jalandhar-Amritsar Indo-
Pak Border.
 NH – 2: Delhi-Mathura-
Agra, Kanpur-Allahabad-
Varanasi-Mohaniya-Barhi-
Barthaman-Kolkata.
 Major cities falling on NH-4
are - Thane, Pune, Kolhapur,
Chitradurg, Bengaluru,
Ranipettai-Chennai.
 NH-8 - Delhi, Jaipur, Ajmer,
Udaipur, Ahmedabad,
Vadodara, Mumbai.
 Indian road network of 59
lakh km, is the second
largest in the world.
 National Highways are
constructed and maintained
by Public Works
Department (PWD) and
national highways authority
of India (NHAI).
 NH 1 & NH 2 are
collectively known as Grand
Trunk Road.

NH Num Len
ber gth
in
km
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Agra- 3 116
Mumbai 1 distance between the two
Chennai 4 123
5 
Kolkata - 6 194
Thane 9 is 1.676 m or 1676 mm or
Pune- 9 841
Machilip
atnam
 National Waterway (NW 1)
is expanded from Haldia to
Allahabad.
 NH-50 is located between
Nasik & Pune.
 Durgapur- Kolkata is
interlinked with Express
Highway-2.
 The Headquarter of South-
Central Railway is situated
in Secunderabad.
 Jawahar Tunnel or Banihal
Tunnel is a road tunnel in the
State of Jammu and
Kashmir. It is maintained by
Border Road Organisation
(BRO).
 Analysing the shortest travel
by road from Kohima to
Kottayam, the minimum
number of states within
India through which one can
travel, including the origin
and destination is 7 that is
Nagaland, Assam, West
Bengal, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh and then through
either Tamil Nadu Kerala or
through, Andhra Pradesh to
Karnataka to Kerala.
 In the tenure of Lord
Dalhousie, country’s first
railway was built by the
great Indian peninsula
railway, opened on 16th
April 1853 between Bombay
to Thane.
 The Indian Railways routes
are divided into three parts:
(I) Meter Gauge- The
tracks is 1 meter or 1000mm.
(ii) Broad Gauge - The
distance between the tracks
5½ Feet.
 (iii) Narrow Gauge- The
distance between the two
tracks is 762 mm or 610 m
 Shortest rail route of
Mumbai from Gorakhpur
runs through Allahabad.
 Former Indian Prime
Minister Manmohan Singh
approved the plan to
introduce bullet train
between Mumbai and
Ahmedabad in 2004. There
was an agreement with
Japan for this project. Japan
international cooperation
agency submitted a plan for
bullet train between Mumbai
and Ahmedabad in June
2015.
 The headquarter of south
eastern railway is located in
Kolkata while the
headquarter of eastern
coastal railway is located in
Bhubaneswar.
 Headquarter of north
western railway is located in
Jaipur.
 Indrail pass provides
excellent value for money
and also enhances the charm
of holidays from abroad. It
offers the foreign tourists
NRI’s to travel as they like,
over the entire railways
without any route restriction
within the period of validity
of the pass.
 The fairy queen is the oldest
working steam locomotive
in the world, built in 1885.
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 Rail transport in Bihar
started in the year 1860-62
when East India Company
laid the main lines of
Railway going from banks
of the Ganges to Kolkata.
 Currently Indian Railway
has been divided among 18
zones (Headquarters).
Among these only one
headquarter of Indian
Railway in Bihar is East
Central Railway located at
Hajipur. Headquarters
started functioning since 1
October, 2002.
 Of the 18 railway zones in
India, the lines of 5
Headquarters’ passing
through Bihar are as follow:
1. North East Railway
2. Eastern Railway
3. South-Eastern Railway
4. North-Eastern Railway
5. East Central Railway
 The headquarter of North
Central railway is situated in
Allahabad.
 The headquarter of the North
Railway Zone is located at
New Delhi while the
headquarter of the Western
Central Railway zones is
situated in Jabalpur.
 Per unit (tonne/km) cost of
transport is not cheaper in
the road compared to rail
transport.
 Rail Coach Factory -
Kapurthala
 Wheel and Axle Plant -
Bangalore
 Diesel Locomotive Works -
Varanasi
 Integral Coach Factory –
Perambur
 Chittaranjan locomotive
works - Electric locomotive
1947.
 Tata engineering and
locomotive Company
limited (Jamshedpur) -
steam locomotive 1954.
 Kapurthala of Punjab and
Perambur of Tamil Nadu are
the states where passenger
rail coaches are
manufactured widely.
 The National Academy of
Indian Railways formerly
railway staff colleges a
centralized training institute
for Group A and Group B
officers of Indian railway. It
is located in Vadodara.
 Wood of Sal tree is used for
making railway sleepers.
 First CNG train was
launched on Rewari- Rohtak
section northern zone. It is
based on the dual fuel
system, diesel and CNG.
 Gujarat is the first State
where the Railway track was
made on PPP (Public-
Private-Partnership) model.
 The Gandhi Dham- Tuna –
Tekra rail line, built under
PPP model was
commissioned on 14 July,
2015. It was built by Kandla
Port Trust.
 The Konkan railway Begins
from Roha station of
Maharashtra and ends at
Mangalore, Karnataka
passing through Madgaon,
Goa. It connects entire
Arabian Sea coastline
featuring major states
including Maharashtra Goa
Karnataka.
 Madgaon, Ratnagiri and
Udupi are connected by
Konkan railways.
 The Mountain Railways of
India are outstanding
examples of hill railways.
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 The Mountain Railway of
India consists of three
railways: the Darjeeling
Himalayan Railway located
in the foothills of the
Himalayas in West Bengal
(Northeast India), the Nilgiri
Mountain Railways located
in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil
Nadu (South India) and the
Kalka Shimla Railway
located in the Himalayan
foothills of Himachal
Pradesh (Northeast India).
 The Darjeeling Himalayan
Railway, the Nilgiri
Mountain Railway and the
Kalka- Shimla Railway have
collectively been designated
as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1999.
 In November, 2014
Meghalaya came on the
country’s rail map, when PM
Narendra Modi flagged off
the first train from
Mendipathar, Meghalaya to
Guwahati. He also unveiled
the plaque for a new rail line
from Bhairabi to Sairang.
 Now, except for Sikkim, the
network of railway has
expanded to all the states of
India.
 Thiruvananthapuram
Rajdhani train (12431/32)
covers the longest distance.
 Pir Panjal rail tunnel - 11 km
 Karbude rail tunnel - 6.5 km
 Nathuwadi rail tunnel - 4.3
km
 Berdewadi rail tunnel - 4 km
 Kochi-Sea Port (Kerala) is a
graceful natural harbour
located at Malabar Coast
which is used for the whole
year.
 Tides are helpful in
navigation and fishing High
tides enables big ships to
enter or leave the harbour
safely. Tides prevents
situation in the harbours.
Kandla and Diamond
harbours are tidal ports.
 Shipyards and dockyards are
places where ships are
required and built.
 Cochin Shipyard Limited
(CSL) is one of the major
shipbuilding and
maintenance facilities in
India. This shipyard was
incorporated on 29 March,
1972 as a company fully
owned by the Government.
It started commercial
production in 1976.
 Ports State
 Kolkata West Bengal
Paradeep Odisha
 Kochi Kerala
 Kandla Gujarat
 Kandla port is located in the
Kandla Creek and is 90 km
from the mouth of the Gulf
of Kutch. It is a protected
natural harbour.
 Vishakhapatnam is the
deepest land-locked and
protected port.
 Chennai has an artificial
harbour which is one of the
oldest ports of India and the
second largest port in the
country.
 The Kandla Port is the First
Special Economic zone in
India.
 Kandla Port is a hub for
major imports like
petroleum, chemical and
iron and also exports like
grains, salt and textiles. It is
natural port and one of the
highest earning ports of
India.
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 Kandla Port handles highest
tonnage of import cargo and
export cargo in the year
2014.
 Paradip port is situated 210
nautical miles south of
Kolkata and 260 nautical
miles North of
Vishakhapatnam. It can
accommodate vessels up to
60000 DWT.
 Paradip port is developed for
reducing the traffic of
Kolkata & Vishakhapatnam
ports.
 Marmugao Sea port is an
important port of Goa
located at the entrance of
Zuari estuary and occupies
fifth position in handling the
traffic. This is a major export
port from where 40% of the
total iron is exported from
the country.
 Union territory Puducherry,
has three sub areas in
addition to main area which
were ruled by French the
areas: Mahe, Karaikal
Pondicherry, Yanam.
 Chennai is the oldest and
biggest artificial harbour of
India. It mainly handles
petroleum products,
fertilizers, iron-ore, and
general cargo.
 Vishakhapatnam and Kochi
are natural harbours.
 There are 111 officially
notified inland waterways in
India.
 National waterway 1 (1620
km) – Prayagraj - Haldia
stretch of Ganga Bhagirathi-
Hooghly rivers. States
covered are UP, Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal.
 India has five liquefied
natural gas terminals which
are as follows:
1.Dahej (Gujarat)
2.Hazira (Gujarat)
3.Kochi (Kerala)
4. Dabhol (Maharashtra)
5. Pradip (Odisha)
 Kanyakumari is located at
the southernmost tip of India
where the three waterbodies
Bay of Bengal Arabian Sea
and Indian Ocean meet.
 Dahej is situated in Gulf of
Khambhat in Gujarat. It is
one of the non-major ports
which is strategically
situated on an International
Maritime route and provides
easy access to the dense
industrial hub of Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh.
 There is total 12 major ports:
Kolkata, Paradip (Odisha),
Vishakhapatnam, Chennai,
Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu),
Kochi, New Mangalore,
Marmugao, Mumbai,
Jawahar Lal Nehru port trust
(Maharashtra), Ennore
(Tamil Nadu), Kandla Port.
 Krishnapatnam Port is
located in Nellore district of
Andhra Pradesh.
 Mumbai port is a natural
deep-water harbour and
biggest port which lies on
the West Coast of India. This
port has created significant
role in industrial
development of India.
 Indian coastline – More than
7500 km. One of the biggest
peninsulas in the world.
 India has 12 major sea ports
and about 187 non-major
seaports.
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 Rajasthan government is
exploring a way to develop
an artificial inland port in
Jalore by bringing in
Arabian Sea water into
Rajasthan through Gujarat.
 Jawaharlal Nehru Port
(Nhava Sheva) port was
created to relive pressure of
Mumbai Port in 1989.
 Daman, Janjira and
Ratnagiri are located on the
Western Coast of India
while Karaikal is located on
Eastern Coast of India.
 Mundra port is in Gujarat.
 Cochin International Airport
is the first airport in India
developed under PPP. It has
become world’s first fully
solar powered airport.
 highest direct Water fall in
Shipyard States
Garden West
Reach Bengal
Hindustan Andhra
Shipyard Pradesh
Mazgaon Maharashtra
Docks
Cochin Kerala
Shipyard
 Chabahar is a city in Sistan
and Baluchistan in Iran.
Chabahar is a free port on
the coast of Gulf of Oman.
 India signed bilateral
agreement for the
development of Chabahar
port in 2015. The port
opened new strategic transit
route between India, Iran
and Afghanistan.
 Haldia port, is located 90 km
from Kolkata is a specific
example of ‘Out Port’.
 The National Inland
Navigation Institute has
been set up by Inland
Waterways Authority of
India at Patna, Bihar.
 12th major port coal operator
is built in Ennore near
Chennai. It is the first
incorporated port of the
country.
 With a coastline of more
than 7500 km, India forms
one of the biggest peninsulas
in the world. The Country
has 12 major sea port and
about 187 non-major sea
ports and intermediate ports.
46. Tourism
 Chakrata: It is a cantonment
town in Dehradun.
 Tiger fall is one of the
Uttarakhand.
 Hafflong is a town and
headquarters of Dima Hasao
in the state of Assam. It is
the only hill station in
Assam.
 Kalimpong is a hill station of
Darjeeling district in West
Bengal.
 Kufri is a small hill station in
Shimla of Himachal
Pradesh.
 Udvada - Udvada is a town
in Gujarat, renowned for its
Zoroastrian Fire Temple.
 Point Calimere - Point
Calimere, also called Cape
Calimere is located in the
Nagapattinam district of the
State of Tamil Nadu, India.
It is the apex of the
Coromandel Coast.
 Gulmarg - Gulmarg is a hill
station in Jammu and
Kashmir.
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 Kasauli is a town, located in
Solan district Himachal
Pradesh.
 Kyelang is a tourist site of
Himachal Pradesh.
 Auli is located in
Uttarakhand.
 Chikmangalur in Karnataka
 Ooty is a tourist site of Tamil
Nadu.
 Kanha Tiger Reserve is one
the tiger reserves of India
and the largest National Park
of Madhya Pradesh. It is the
1st Tiger reserve in India to
introduce a mascot,
Bhoorsingh the Brasingha.
 Jaipur, popularly known as
Pink City and Paris of India.
 Udaipur is known as the City
of Lakes.
 Kolkata is known as city of
joy.
 Ujjain is known as City of
Mahakal.
 South Indian temple of Lord
Raganath (also known as
Lord Venkatesh) is located
on Biligiriranga hills
situated in South – eastern
Karnataka.
 Ministry of Tourism –
‘incredible India’.
 Sabarimala Temple,
dedicated to Lord Ayyappa
is the most famous and
prominent among all the
Sastha temples in Kerala.
The temple is situated in
Kerala. It serves as a great
bridge between the
followers of Shaiva and
Vaishnav sects.
 A ghost town is a town that
has been abandoned for
member of reason-natural
calamity, drought, rumours
etc.
 Srisailam is in Kurnool
district of Andhra Pradesh.
 The Shrine of Lord
Mallikarjuna and
Bramaramba Ammavaru is
picturesquely situated on flat
top Nallamalai Hill. It comes
in 12 jyotirlingas of Lord
Shiva.
 Omkareshwar is also one on
12 Jyotirlingas of Lord
Shiva in Khandwa district of
Madhya Pradesh on an
island called Manadhata in
the Narmada River.
 Pushkar is also a religious
place in Ajmer district on
Aravalli Hills where only
temple of Lord Brahma is
situated.
47. Miscellaneous
 Biogas is a mixture of
different gases produced by
the breakdown of organic
matter in the absence of
oxygen.
 Bio gas can be produced
from raw materials such as
agricultural waste, manual,
sewage, green waste etc. It
provides both power and
manure.
 The Indian postal department
started the speed post service
on 1st August 1986.
 India is the second largest
producer and consumer of
nitrogenous fertilizers in the
world.
 India is the 3rd largest
producer of steel.
 Locust enters India from
Pakistan.
 At the seashore of Chandipur
in the state of Odissi one can
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walk into the beach and the  Indira Gandhi Agriculture

sea water recedes away from University (IGAU) is an
the shoreline during the ebb agriculture University
tide. located in Raipur,
 Sriharikota - Andhra Pradesh Chhattisgarh.
 Thumba - Kerala  Puthukkuli shawls are made
 Bhabha Atomic Research- by Todas of Nilgiri Hills in
Maharashtra Centre Tamil Nadu.
 Pokhran – Rajasthan  Sujani is a form of
 Alibag - is famous for embroidery originating from
Holiday resort. Bihar.
 Balapur - Petro Chemical  Uppada Jamdani Saris is a
complex silk style woven in Uppada
 Nhava Sheva Fully of east Godavari district in
mechanized port Andhra Pradesh.
 Ratnagiri Fishing Centre.  Cairn is one of the world's
 leading oil and gas
Area Important exploration and development
resources company.
Kolhan Mineral  CAIRN has its headquarters
resources in Edinburgh (Scotland). The
Kutch Water company is listed on the
Resources London Stock Exchange.
Malabar Water This company is engaged in
Coast Resources oil production in Rajasthan
(India).
Middle Soil
Ganga Resources  Rameswaram is situated in
Plain Madurai district of Tamil
Nadu.
 Thumba is a suburb of  Dwarka is situated Gujarat.
Thiruvananthapuram city,  Sarnath is situated in
capital of Kerala. Varanasi district of Uttar
 Under the leadership of Dr. Pradesh.
Vikram A Sarabai, the Indian  Mahakal Temple is situated
National Committee on in Ujjain district of Madhya
Space Research Pradesh.
(INCOSPAR) decided to  Aish Bagh Stadium – Bhopal
established Thumba  Brabourne Stadium-Mumbai
Equatorial Rocket launch  Green Park - Kanpur
station (TERLS) at Thumba  Eden Gardens – Kolkata
in 1962. Thumba was a  Kolkata metro is the first
unique choice because of its underground metro railway
proximity to the geomagnetic in India.
equator.  Ratnagiri is famous for
 The Himalayan mangoes.
Mountaineering Institute  Aligarh is famous for locks.
(HMI) is located at  Dehradun is famous for rice.
Darjeeling (West Bengal).

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 Diamond Harbour and Salt
Lake City is situated in
Kolkata (West Bengal).
 Dindigul is a district of Tamil
Nadu. Haider Ali established
a modern arsenal in Dindigul
with the help of France.
 The Government of India
launched its green highway
(plantation transplantation
beautification and
maintenance) policy 2015.
Its aim is to help the
environment help local
communities, and generate
great employment
planting trees along the
by
highway.
 Prime Minister Narendra
Modi has laid the foundation
stone of Urja Ganga, the
highly ambitious gas pipeline
project in Varanasi Uttar
Pradesh in 2016.
 Moradabad is famous
worldwide for Brassworks
and Glassware. Moradabad
is also famous by the name of
Peetal Nagri.
 Chanderi is a town of
historical importance in
Ashoknagar district of
Madhya Pradesh. Chanderi is
famous for its hand-woven
sarees.
 The kanjivaram silk sarees
are made in Kanchipuram of
Tamil Nadu.
 Jungle Mahal is situated in
West Bengal.
 India’s first nuclear reactor is
‘Apsara’ which started its
operation at Bhabha atomic
research centre Mumbai.
 In 1850, experimental
Electric Telegraph started for
the first time in India
between Calcutta (Kolkata)
and Diamond Harbour. In
early 1881, Oriental
Telephone Company
Limited of England opened
telephone exchange at
Calcutta (Kolkata), Bombay
(Mumbai), Madras
(Chennai) and Ahmedabad.
On 28th January 1882 the
first formal telephone service
was established.
 Iraq replaced Saudi Arabia in
August 2018 as the top oil
supplier to India.
WORLD
GEOGRAPHY
1. The Universe
 The “Big Bang Theory” is
related to the origin of the
Universe, Milky Way and
Solar system.
 Big Bang theory was
propounded by Georges
Lemaitre (1894-96). Later in
1967, Robert Wagoner
explained this theory.
 According to Big Bang
theory, whole universe was
concentrated on a hot and
dense point some 15 billion
years ago. Due to high
concentration, there was a
sudden explosion which was
termed as Big-Bang.
 According to the theory
propounded by Georges
Lemaitre, 15 billion years
ago the total cosmic
substance was in the form of
dense mass which spread to
form a number galaxy.
Infinite group of these
swirling galaxies are visible
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to us collectively in the form
of Universe.
 Every Galaxy is estimated to
contain 100 billion stars.
 The galaxy in which our
solar system is situated is
known as “Milky-Way”.
 There is various shape of
galaxies, for example
elliptical, spiral, irregular
etc.
 Spitzer space telescope in
2005, produced clear proof
against the preconception
about the shape of Milky
Way and made it clear that
the shape of our Milky Way
is Barred spiral.
 Sun is one of the billion stars
of our galaxy (Milky Way).
Every star of the galaxy
revolves around the galactic
centre and the time taken by
a star in revolving around
this centre depends upon the
distance between the galactic
centre and the star.
 Sun is at a 7.9 KPC or 30
thousand light years away
from the centre and with a
speed of 220 km/sec, it takes
22.5 to 25 crore years, to
revolve around the centre of
the Milky Way galaxy. This
period is called “Cosmic
Year or Galactic Year”.
 The colour of a star indicates
its temperature.
 red giant.
Colours Temperature
Range
Blue 50,000-
28,000 K
Blue- 28,000-
White 10,000 K
White 10,000-7500
K in this mature phase for
White 7500-6000 K
Yellow
Yellow 6000-4900 K
Orange 4900-3500 K
Red 3500-2000 K
 Stars are the most
fundamental building blocks
of galaxies.
 Stars are formed by nebula
having ingredient hydrogen
and helium present in the
galaxies.
 The limit beyond which stars
suffer internal collapse is
called Chandrasekhar limit.
 The stages the star will go
through and how long it will
last in each stage depends on
the mass.
 Heavy stars evolve quicker
than light stars. Heavy stars
live shorter lives than the
common stars because even
though they have a larger
amount of hydrogen for
nuclear reactions their rate of
consuming their fuel is much
greater.
 Once a star has burned
through all its fuel that is
hydrogen fuel in its core
nuclear reactions can no
longer continue.
 The core begins to contract
within its own gravity. The
advocate temperature and
pressure are enough to cause
fusion around the core. In
this stage a star is termed as
 In this second (maturing)
process a star takes millions
of years from the beginning
of the collapse to adulthood.
 A star of the size of our sun
requires about 50 million
years to mature and will stay
approximately 10 billion
years.
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 The smallest star known as
red dwarf may contain as
little as 10% the mass of the
sun, while the most massive
stars known as hypergiants
may be 100 or more times
more massive than the sun.
 In the stage of a red giant or
hypergiant a burst of nuclear
fusion occurs by which
dwarf may become Nova or
supernova. After this the
stars, according to their size
reaches to one of the three
stages, Black Dwarf,
Neutron star or Black hole,
of death.
 first gave details on Black
 Small Stars Like Sun – If
after Novae explosion the
remaining Mass is within
1.44 times of solar masses,
the star will become white
dwarf and shall reach to
death in the form Black
dwarf.
 Stars of Medium Size – If
after Supernovae explosion
the remaining mass of star is
within the limit of 1.44 times
to 3 times of solar masses it
will become Neutron Star.
 Stars of Large Size - If after
Supernovae explosion the
remaining mass is more than
3 times of the Solar masses,
star will become Black hole.
 It is not possible to observe a
black hole directly with the
telescope.
 The intense gravitational
field of black hole due to
high density does not allow
any type of radiation. Even
light rays cannot escape from
this.
 The presence of black hole is
a certain by the behaviour of
stars, gases and masses near
it with the help of Space
Telescope.
 Subramanyam Chandra
Sekhar was a great scientist
and Noble Prize winner who
Hole theory. He is known for
Chandrashekhar limit.
 Event horizon is the
boundary which defines the
area surrounding black hole
in space.
 Singularity is a place in the
spacetime where the
gravitational area of the
celestial bodies become
infinite.
 String theory states that all
matter in the universe is
composed of tiny one-
dimensional strings, not
point particles.
 Supernova is a large
explosion that takes place at
the end of the star’s life
cycle.
 According to International
Astronomical Union there
are 88 constellations in the
sky.
 Brittle stars are echinoderms
in the class Ophiuroidea
closely related to starfish.
These are aquatic creatures
and crawl on the sea surface.
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 Pulsar is celestial body
emitting very regular pulses
of radio waves.
 Quasar is and astronomical
object of very high
luminosity, found in the
centres of some galaxies at
distance of billions of light-
years.
 Constellation is a group of
stars forming a recognizable
pattern. It is traditionally
named after its apparent form
or identified with a 
mythological figure.
 Betelgeuse is second-
brightest star in the
Constellation of Orion. It is
at a distance of 427 light year
from the Earth.
 Betelgeuse was first seen by
Sir John Herschel in 1836,
but in 1995, Hubble Space
Telescope captured its
images. It was the second
star after Sun, whose image
had seen captured.
 Due to the absence of
atmosphere in space, the sky
appears black and stars do
not twinkle.
 Twinkling of stars is caused
by the passing of light
through different layers of
turbulent atmosphere
similarly it is due to the
atmosphere that light scatters
to let us see the blue sky.
 Light year is the distance
which light can travel in a
vacuum in one year with a
speed of 3×108 m/sec.
 Standard Time is not a
natural unit of time.
 Stars move parallel to
celestial equator around
North and South celestial
poles.
 Celestial North and South
poles are straight overhead to
geographical North and
South poles.
 Celestial equator is almost at
overhead to the geographical
equator and at 900 to the
poles.
 Pole star shines in the north
direction. In order to move
towards the east, pole star
should always be on the left
side.
Saptarishi is a group of stars
that indicate the direction of
pole.
 Byte is a group of binary
digits or bits operated on as a
unit in computer
terminology.
 The solar system was
formed around 4.568 billion
years ago
 Solar system consists Sun
(star), cosmic dust or masses
attached with each other by
gravitational force, planets,
dwarf Planets, natural
planetoid, asteroids, comets,
meteoroid, and cosmic dust.
 In 1514, Nicolaus
Copernicus propounded the
Heliocentric Theory of the
solar system in his work.
Notably Indian astronomers
Varahmihira propounded the
same theory around a
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thousand year before. He
mentioned that the moon
revolves around the earth
and the Earth Rotate around
the sun.
 The average density of Earth
is highest among all the
other eight planets of our
Solar System. It is 5.515
gm/cm3.
 The density of other planets
is as follows (Unit-gm/cm3)
Mercury (5.4), Venus (5.27),
Mars (3.95), Jupiter (1.33),
Saturn (0.69) Uranus (1.3),
Neptune (1.60).
 The largest constituent
element of earth is Iron
(35%).
 Oxygen (30%) is the second
and Silica (15%) is the third
largest element in the
composition of Earth.
 The Sun comprises of 99.8%
mass of the solar system.
The diameter of the Sun is
about 109 times of the
Earth’s diameter.
 There are total eight planets
in the solar system:
1. Mercury - 57.9 million km
2. Venus - 108.2 million km
(Brightest planet)
3. Earth - 149.6 million km
4. Mars - 227.9 million km
5. Jupiter - 778.3 million km
(Largest planet).
6. Saturn - 1427.0 million
km
7. Uranus - 2871.0 million
km
8. Neptune - 4497.1 million
km (Slowest moving planet)
 Planets are non-luminous
body but they shine because
they reflect the light of the
Sun.
 Size of planets in decreasing
order is as follow: Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune,
Earth, Venus, Mars,
Mercury.
 Hydrogen, Helium and
Methane gages are present
on Jupiter, Saturn, and
Mars.
 In Astronomy, the
circumstellar habitual zone
is called “Goldilocks Zone”.
It refers to the habitable
zone around a star where the
temperature is just right- not
too hot and not too cold for
liquid water to exist on a
planet.
 Earth is the only planet
situated in the Goldilocks
zone of the solar system.
 Moon is a satellite
(Natural).
 Halley is a comet and
Mariner is planetoid or
artificial satellite.
 The temperature of centre of
Sun is very High (nearly
150000000 C) and because
of such a high temperature
all the substance present at
the Centre of the Sun are in
the form of Gas and Plasma.
 Plasma is the fourth state of
a matter.
 Nuclear reaction may be
divided into two categories
namely, Nuclear Fusion and
Nuclear Fission.
 In Nuclear Fission, one
heavy nucleus divides into
two or more nuclei while in
Fusion process, two or more
small nuclei combine
together to form a heavy
nucleus.
 Energy, Heat, and light
released by stars is due to
the nuclear fusion.
 The diamond-ring effect
occurs at the beginning and
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end of totality during a total
solar eclipse. As the last bits
of sunlight pass through the
valley on the moon’s limb
and the faint corona around
the sun is just becoming
visible, it looks like a ring
with glittering diamond on
it.
 A total solar eclipse cannot
last for more than 8 minutes.
 A solar eclipse occurs when
the Moon falls between
Earth and the Sun, and the
Moon casts a shadow over
the Earth.
 
 A solar Eclipse can only
take place at the phase of
New Moon (Amavasya),
when it passes directly
between the Sun and the
Earth and its shadow falls
upon the Earth surface.
 A solar eclipse occurs when
the Moon falls between
Earth and the Sun, and the
Moon casts a shadow over
the Earth. In this situation,
the part of earth which is
towards the Sun receives the
shadow of Moon and also
the Moon’s shadow falling
on the Earth is smaller than
the cross-section of the
Earth. This is the reason that
the total or full Solar eclipse
in not visible on every part
of the Earth together, but
visible only to limited
portion of the Earth.
 The Sun’s halo is a circle
which appears around Sun.
Whenever Sun rays pass
through the ice crystal
present at the upper level of
cirrus clouds, Sun’s halo
become visible due to
refraction of rays.
 Astronomical unit (AU) is
the mean distance between
Earth and sun.
 1 AU = 149.597 x 106 meter
1 AU = 15. 813 x 10-6 light
year.
The distance between sun
and earth is minimum on 3
Jan, this position is called
‘Perihelion’.
 The distance between sun
and earth is maximum on 4
July, this position is called
‘Aphelion’.
 According to NASA, size of
the Sun is 109.2 times the
diameter of Earth. The
diameter of Sun is 1392000
km while the equatorial
diameter of the earth is
12756 km.
 The closer a planet is to the
Sun, the stronger the Sun’s
gravitational pull on it.
Thus, the planet moves
faster.
 The time taken by all eight
planets to complete one
rotation around the Sun is as
follows –
Mercury - 87.96 Days
Venus - 224.68 Days
Earth - 365.26 Days
Mars - 686.98 Days
Jupiter - 11.862 Years
Saturn - 29.456 Years
Uranus - 84.07 Years
Neptune - 164.81 Years
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 There are only two planets
in our solar system having
no natural satellite which
are: Mercury, Venus.
 The planet having satellite
are as follows –
 Earth – 1
 Mars – 2
 Jupiter - 67
 Saturn - 62
 Uranus – 27
 Neptune – 14
 The term albedo is
commonly used to
determine the brightness of
planet. Planet Mercury
receive greater sunlight in
comparison to Earth but its
albedo is less than that of
Earth. The albedo of
Mercury is 0.138 while of
Earth, it is 0.367.
 Average temperature of all
Planet in our Solar System
is as follows –
Mercury - 452 K (Day+3500
C, Night – 1700 C)
Venus - 726 K = 4750 C
Earth - 260-310 K = 150C
Mars - 150-310 K = (-220 C)
Jupiter - 120 K = (-1230 C)
Saturn - 88 K = (-1800 C)
Uranus - 59 K = (-2180 C)
Neptune - 48 K = (-2280 C)
 Venus is known as the
Evening Star and also as the
Morning Star as it is the
brightest planet. Venus is
also called “twin sister” of
earth.
 Mars is called the Red
Planet.
 Saturn is one which has
rings known as Saturn’s
Rings.
 There is evidence of
atmosphere at Venus. 90%
of its atmosphere is up to
height of 1 km.
 The atmosphere of Venus
mainly contains Carbon
dioxide (CO2). In addition
to this, the surface
temperature of Venus is
more than 4000 C.
 The Magellan spacecraft
was sent to Venus on
surface mapping mission. It
was named after Portuguese
explorer Fredined
Magellan.
 The life of on Earth is
possible due to ecology
present on it. Earth is known
as Green Planet for the
presence of ecology.
 The equatorial diameter of
Earth is 12756 km. and
polar diameter is 12714 km.
 The centrifugal force
generated by the Earth’s
axis rotation is maximum at
equator. Due to this force,
the weight of any object is
minimum at Equator and
maximum at poles and also
increases towards high
latitude.
 The shape of Earth is
nearest to oblate spheroid.
This shape is also known as
Geoid.
 Like the fluid core of the
Earth, Moon too has a fluid
core.
 Oxygen is the chemical
element found in abundance
in the Earth’s crust.
 The percentage of various
chemical elements in
Earth’s crust is as follows –
Oxygen (O) - 46.71%
Silicon (Si) - 27.69%
Aluminium (Al) - 8.07%
Iron (Fe) - 5.05%
Calcium (Ca) - 3.65%
Sodium (Na) - 2.75%
Potassium (K) - 2.58%
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Magnesium (Mg)- 2.08%
 Radiation from the Sun,
which is popularly known
as Sunlight, is a mixture of
electromagnetic waves.
 Sunlight takes an average of
8 minutes and 17 seconds to
travel from the Sun to the
Earth.
 The sun is the closest star to
the earth.
 Polaris is at a distance of
431 light years from the
earth while Sirius is at a
distance of 8.6 light years
from the earth.
 Alpha centauri is the nearest
neighbour to the sun with a
distance of 4.35 light years
from the sun.
 The list of planets in
increasing order of distance
from Earth is –
 Venus - 41.4 million km
 Mars - 78.3 million km
 Mercury - 91.7 million km
 Jupiter - 628.7 million km
 Saturn - 1277.4 million km
 Uranus - 1634.4 million km
 Neptune - 4347.5 million
km
 Earth takes earth 365.25
Days or 365 Days, 6 hours 9
mins and 9.57 seconds to
complete orbit around the
Sun. This period is also
known as solar day. The
solar day is also known as
the tropical year.
 Earth revolves around the
Sun with an average speed
(orbital Velocity) of 29.8
km/second (30 km/sec).
 The orbital velocity in
29.km/sec. This speed is
comparative to the speed of
light.
 The orbital Velocity of
other planets is as follows –
1. Mercury - 47.9 km/sec
2. Venus - 35 km/sec
3. Earth - 29.8 km/sec
4. Mars - 24.1 km/sec
5. Jupiter - 13.1 km/sec
6. Saturn - 9.6 km/sec
7. Uranus - 6.9 km/sec
8. Neptune - 5.4 km/sec
 Earth’s equatorial perimeter
is about 40,075 km. This
distance is covered by Earth
in 24 hour and this indicates
that cruising speed of Earth
on its axis per hour is 40075
km/24 hour = 1670 km/hour
(approx.). According to this
calculation the cruising
speed per minute is = 1670
km/60 min = 27.83 km/min.
 Earth moves around on its
axis with approximately a
speed of 1000 miles per
hour due to its tilt.
 Earth takes approximately
24 hours to complete one
rotation on its axis.
 The Earth rotates about an
imaginary line that passes
through the North and South
poles of the planet. This line
is called axis of the rotation.
The Earth axis of rotation is
always inclined at an angle
of 23.50 from the elliptic
axis.
 The magnetic pole of the
earth in northern
hemisphere is situated at
Queen Elizabeth Island of
northern Canada.
 Earth’s magnetic equator
passes through Thumba (90
N, 770E) in South India.
This is the reason for
establishing Thumba
Equatorial rocket launching
station as it proves to be
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suitable place for satellite
launch.
 The earth magnetic field has
reversed every few 100,000
years.
 The earth is approximately
5 billion years old.
 The Northern end of Earth’s
axis is called North pole.
 450 latitude passes from the
middle of the equator and
pole.
 When the distance between
the sun and the earth is
maximum and in this
situation of Aphelion, the
cruising speed of course
goes slow.
 The Earth experiences day
and night as result of Earth
rotation on its axis.
 When a place on Earth faces
Sun it has Day time, when it
faces away from Sun it has
night.
 Aryabhata was the first to
explain the rotation of the
earth on its axis accounts for
daily rising and setting of
the sun.
 The sun rays fall
perpendicular at the equator
twice in a year (on 21 march
and on 23 September). On
these dates, the duration of
day and night becomes
equal in both hemispheres.
 The biggest reason for
seasonal changes is earth’s
axial tilt by 23.50.
 If the distance between sun
and the earth is reduced by
quarter to present distance,
then the size of the earth’s
orbit in which it revolves
around the sun will be
smaller and the duration of
the year would be less than
365 days. Due to this the
speed of the earth will
increase.
 The earth rotates from west
to east and so the satellite
attains the escape velocity.
 Desert climate is also
known as arid climate.
 The perfect climate for the
desert is tropical climate
which is spread mostly
between 15- 300 latitude.
 There are four main
geographical situations for
the formation of desert:
1. The presence of high
pressure near 300 latitudes.
Sahara and Australia desert
fall under this climate
2. The western coastal side
of the continent found
between 200- 300 latitude.
Arizona desert, Mexican
dessert, Atacama Desert,
Namibia desert come under
this climate.
3. Death Valley (North
America), Patagonian
Desert (Argentina) and
Peruvian desert are found in
mountains rain shadow
region.
4. The desert situated in the
mid part of the continents,
far from humid area. Gobi
Desert (Mongolia),
Australian Desert and Great
Basin Desert.
 Most satellites are launched
in east direction from Earth
to get momentum but not all
satellites are launched from
east direction.
 Any object thrown out of
artificial satellite will
revolve around like the
satellite.
 There is an outer core and
inner core below the mantle
in the structure of our Earth.
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 The outer core is about 2260
km thick, and mostly
composed of liquid iron and
nickel.
 The Inner core is hot dense
ball of (mostly) Iron. It has
a radius of about 1220 km
and temperature about
52000 C.
 Earth Day is celebrated on
22 April every year to mark
birth anniversary of Modern
environmental movement in
1970.
 The duration of day on
Earth is 23 hours, 56
minutes 23 second and tilt
of its axis is 23027’.
 The Planet Mars has nearly
the same value as of Earth
for it day duration is 24
hours, 37 minute 23 second
and Mars tilt of axis is
23059”.
 The duration of day and tilt
of axis of other planet is as
follow: - Uranus - duration
of its day – 11 hours tilt of
its axis- 8205”
Neptune - duration of its
day – 16 hours tilt of its
axis- 28048”
Saturn - duration of its day-
10 hours 40 minutes tilt of
its axis - 26044.
 The time taken by any
planet to orbit around Sun
depends on the distance
between Sun and the planet.
The distance between Sun
and Mars is 227940000 km,
while the Earth is at
distance of 149600000 km,
from Sun.
 orbital period of Earth is
356.256 days and that of
Mars is 686.98 days.
 In beginning, Mars was
treated equivalent to Earth
because of its atmosphere
composition. In Mars
atmosphere, it has 95.3%,
Carbon dioxide, 2.7%
Nitrogen, 1.6% Argon,
0.15% Oxygen and 0.03%
water.
 Mars polar ice caps and
frozen water is most
relevant for the presence of
life on Mars.
 The average temperature of
Mars (150-310K) is quite
similar to Earth (260-310
K).
 Europa is one the moons of
Jupiter.
 Voyagers mission was
launched by Europa to
research whether life is
possible.
 Europa is frozen and
covered with a layer of ice.
It’s surface seems like the
frozen Ocean on Earth.
Depth of these frozen ocean
are approx. 50 km. If it is
true, the Europa will be a
place in solar system
besides Earth, where such
amount of water is
available.
 Phoenix Mars (information
about the presence of ice on
the Mars) Lander was
launched on 4 August, 2007
and landed on 25 May, 2008
at North Pole on Mars.
 Jupiter is the largest planet
of the solar system.
 The four largest moons
(LO, Europa, Calisto,
Ganymede) are known as
Galilean moons as these
were discovered by Galileo
Galilei in 1610.
 Planets diameters:
 Jupiter - Diameter 142, 796
km
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 Saturn - Diameter 120, 660
km
 Uranus - Diameter 51,118
km
 Neptune - Diameter 48, 600
km
 Earth - Diameter 12,756 km
 Venus - Diameter 12,104
km
 Mars - Diameter 6,787 km
 Mercury - Diameter 4878
km
 The average density of
Jupiter is 1.33 gm/cm3.
 Jupiter is the planet of Solar
system which rotates on its
axis with maximum speed.
 Jupiter has maximum
number of natural satellites
or moons. At present total
67 moons or satellite of
Jupiter have been
discovered.
 Jupiter's ring was first
discovered by the Voyager
1 spacecraft in 1979. These
rings are also known as
Jovian Rings. These rings
are mostly made of silicate.
 Saturn is probably best
known for the system of
planetary rings. Planetary
rings A, B, D and E of the
planet Saturn are visible
from Earth. Saturn from
earth seems yellow.
 On October 15, 1997 the
Cassini spacecraft was
launched to the Saturn and
began its revolution around
this planet in June 2004.
 The Saturn is warmer than
Neptune.
 Titan is the largest moon
(satellite) of Saturn.
Diameter of Titan is 5150
km.
 A day on Uranus is
approximately 17 hours and
9 minutes.
 The year is largest on Pluto
because it is farthest among
the other celestial objects
from the Sun. Pluto takes
the period of 247.7 earth
year to complete one
revolution around the Sun.
 From the Mercury up to
Neptune only 8 planets
come into the category of
true planets.
 In the 26th General
Assembly of the
International astronomical
unit 2006, Pluto was
removed from the category
of planets and was assigned
the status of dwarf planet.
 Neptune is the farthest
planet from Sun. The
temperature of the Neptune
surface is -2200 C and its
atmosphere is made up of
hydrogen, helium and
methane.
 Pluto has five satellites
(moons). According to the
distance from the Pluto
(from inner to outer side)
their names are Charon,
Styx, Nix, Kerberos and
Hydra.
 Charon is biggest satellite.
 On 20th July 1969 for the
first time, man landed on
Moon.
 Three Astronauts sent with
Apollo-11 mission to the
moon were Neil
Armstrong, Michel Collins
and Aadvin Aldrin.
Among these astronauts
only Neil Armstrong and
Aadvin Aldrin walked on
the surface of the moon.
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 On 16 July 1969, initiating
its flight from Florida
(USA) Apollo-11 landed
on the “Sea of
Tranquillity” upon the
Moon on 20 July 1969. On
21 July 1969 it started
return journey from the
Moon towards the Earth
and finally landed in
Pacific Ocean on 24 July,
1969.
 Area of large black patch
as seen from the Earth is
called Lunar Mare of the
“Sea of Tranquillity”
which is found on the large
area of the Moon where
spacecraft Apollo-11
landed in 1969. Neil
Armstrong was the first
person to touch the surface
of the Moon, followed by
Aadvin Aldrin.
 Orbit of the Moon around
the Earth is elliptical and
titled and therefore we can
see only 59% of the
Moon’s surface at a time.
 Moon takes 27 days, 7
hour, 43 minutes to rotate
on its axis. This is also the
time of one revolution of
the Moon around the Earth.
This is the reason why we
see always the same face of
the Moon.
 There is no atmosphere at
the moon.
 When the earth comes
between the moon and the
sun, the moon gets dark
due to obstruction of light
rays coming from the sun
by the earth.
 Type of lunar eclipse and
its length depends upon the
relative position of the
moon and its orbital path.
 A lunar eclipse only occurs
on the full moon.
 The main condition
responsible for greater
brightness of the moon on
the full moon day of 22nd
December 99’ was
Perigee.
 When the Moon size is half
of the full Moon, the angle
between the Sun, the earth
and the Moon is 900.
 Perigee is the closest point
to the earth.
 Moon is a satellite. It
revolves around the Earth.
 A blue moon is a
phenomenon involving
appearance of an
additional full moon within
a given period. Since full
moon occurs roughly after
every 29.5 days.
Therefore, after every
2.7154 year, an additional
duration of 29.5 days
accumulates in the
calendar giving way to an
additional full moon. It is
called blue moon.
 Weight of any object on
any planet is equal to the
product of its mass and
gravitational acceleration.
 Moon’s gravitational
acceleration is 1/6 of earth.
 When an object is taken to
the moon its weight
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decreases to 1/6th of its
original weight.
 Average distance of the
Moon from the Earth is
384400 km.
 Minimum distance
between the Moon and the
Earth is 363300 km and
maximum distance is
405500 km while average
distance is 384400 km.
 SELENE also known as
“Kaguya” is an orbiter
spacecraft sent to the orbit
of the moon by Japan on 14
September, 2007. It
revolved around the moon
for 1 year 8 months
successfully and after that
it fell upon the surface of
the Moon at Gill crater
voluntarily.
 The group of small pieces
of rock revolving around
the Sun between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter are
called asteroids.
 Asteroids are rocky debris
of varying sizes orbiting
the sun
 Asteroids vary in size and
some could be of 1000 km
diameter.
 Asteroids are found
between Mars and Jupiter.
 Asteroids are generally
considered to be made up
of metals and rocky
material,
 Asteroids are found much
closer to the Sun.
 Asteroids typically
remain much more solid
and self-contained even
when near the sun.
 Comets are made up of
ice, dust, and rocky
material.
 Comets are formed
farther from the Sun in
“Kuiper Belt” and Oort
cloud.
 In the outer solar system,
comets remain frozen and
are extremely difficult or
impossible to detect from
Earth due to their small
size.
 As a comet approaches
the inner solar system,
solar radiation causes of
the volatile material
within the comet to
vaporize the steam out the
nucleus, carrying dust
away with them.
 The steams of dust and
gas thus released from a
huge, extremely tenuous
atmosphere around the
comet called Coma and
the Force exerted on the
Coma by the Sun’s
radiation pressure causes
an enormous tail to form,
which points away from
the Sun.
 Hale-Bopp is a long
period comet that was
discovered in 1995. It was
shining near the orbit of
Jupiter. This comet
looked 1000 times
brighter than that of
Halley Comet although
distance of both were
nearly the same.
 Comet Shoemaker-Levy-
9 collided with the
massive planet Jupiter in
1994. In this collision no
harm was done to the
Jupiter. It was first event
of collision of two
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components of the solar
system seen from the
Earth.
 A meteor is a bright streak
of light in the sky also
called a shooting star or a
falling star but actually it
is not a star but just a
small piece of rocks and
minerals.
 Meteor starts glowing
because when it enters
into the Earth’s
atmosphere with a very
high velocity it burns due
to heat caused by air
friction. Most of the
meteors burn to ashes
before reaching upon the
surface of the Earth.
2. The Earth
 Latitudes shows the
places towards North
and South of Equator.
900 Northern latitude is
called North Pole while
900 Southern latitude is
called South Pole which
are just points not the
circle, but other latitudes
on both sides of Equator
are imaginary circles.
East and West of Prime
Meridian are 3600.
 Great circle is that line
which divides a Sphere
into two hemispheres.
Upon the Earth all the
meridians longitudes and
the Equator are great
circles.
 Except equator no other
latitude is a great circle
because they are similar
in comparison to the
Equator.
 The point at which
Equator (00 latitude) and
the Prime Meridian (00
longitude) intersects has
no real significance but it
is the Gulf of Guinea in
the Atlantic Ocean.
 On the globe the
Northernmost and
Southernmost position
of a place, city and the
country are decided by
latitudes.
 The more the angle of
latitude of a place in
southern or northern
hemisphere will be the
more Southernmost or
Northernmost point,
Position of the following
cities are –
Cities Latitude
Beijing 39055’N
New-Delhi 28038’N
New-York 40045’ N
Rome 41054’ N
 Cairo (Egypt) is located
at 3003’ N latitude and
31014’ E longitude. Time
of Cairo is 2 hours ahead
of Greenwich.
Therefore, its position
approximately falls near
the 300 East longitude.
 The Earth being
spherical in shape rotates
on its axis by 3600 in 24
hours.
 Earth’s movements for
10 of longitude takes the
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time of 4 minutes. So, it
can easily calculate, that
in 120 minutes (2 hours)
angle for longitude will
be 300.
 When there is mid-day at
82030’ E longitude then
6.30 in the morning
means there is difference
of 5:30 hrs in time. As in
one hour, change in
longitude is 150 therefore
82030’ difference in 5:30
hours are 82030’-
82 30’=0 latitude.
0 0
 The Prime Meridian is
the Zero-degree line of
longitude that passes
near London.
 The Prime Meridian was
accepted as Zero degrees
longitude at an
international conference
in 1884. It is also known
as Greenwich meridian.
 Just opposite to 00
longitude there is an
Imaginary line located at
about 1800 E or W as
International Date Line
which forms great Circle
with Prime meridian
along the Globe.
 The first day of sunrise
in India on the occasion
of new Millennium was
seen upon the castle
island near Andaman
and Nicobar Island. It
was seen in 930 30’E
Meridian of India.
 Prime Meridian passes
through United
Kingdom, France, Spain,
Algeria, Mali, Burkina
Faso, Tonga, Ghana,
Antarctica.
 Greenwich meantime
(GMT) is calculated
from Royal Greenwich
Observatory (London)
(at 00 meridian).
 Some countries which
are away from it also
uses time of GMT as
given here –
Iceland - Sierra-Leone
Ireland – Liberia
Portugal - Ivory Coast
Kinnari Islands -
Burkina-Faso
Mauritania - Tonga
Mali - Ghana
Senegal – Guinea
 London, Lisbon and
Accra (Ghana) have
similar times as all three
uses Greenwich time.
 Addis Ababa, capital of
Ethiopia is located at
38074’E, whose time is 2
hours, 36 minutes, 26
seconds ahead of GMT.
 For a ship to travel in the
least possible time from
one place to another, it
must travel with respect
of Meridian.
 At 1800 Meridian
travelling from east to
west, it gets one day less
in this way while moving
from west to east one day
increases.
 The Equator usually
refers to an imaginary
line, on the Earth surface
at equal distance from
the North Pole and South
Pole, dividing the Earth
into the Northern
Hemisphere and
Southern Hemisphere.
 The total length of the
Equator is 40,075 km
length (approximately
24,901 miles). 78.7% of
the line passes through
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water while 21.3% lies closest to the

passes through land. Equator (00latitude).
 Equator line passes  Singapore is situated
through 13 countries only at distance of 137
which are as follows – km from the Equator.
1. Brazil  Equator, Tropic of
2. Colombia Cancer and Tropic of
3. Democratic Republic Capricorn all the three
of the Congo lines pass though the
4. Equator African Continent.
5. Gabon  Equator and the Tropic
6. Indonesia of Capricorn pass
7. Kenya through the South
8. Kiribati American continent.
9. Republic of the Congo  The winter Solstice falls
10. Sao Tome and around 22 Dec when rays
Princip of sun fall perpendicular
11. Somalia upon Tropic of
12. Uganda Capricorn because Earth
13. Maldives is tilted at its axis by
 Trick to Remember: 23030’.
 When at the Tropic of
Capricorn elevation of
the sun is 900, the
elevation of the sun at
Tropic of cancer will be
900 – 470=430.
 Annual temperature  The difference between
difference at Equator is Tropic of cancer and
minimum throughout the Tropic of Capricorn is
year. Since sun rays fall 470.
perpendicular, there is 
little temperature
fluctuation throughout
the year. There is no
winter season in equator
region.
 The Intertropical
Convergence Zone is a
low-pressure zone
located at the equator.
 Colombo is situated at
6055’30” latitude,
Jakarta at 6 08’ South
0
 Udaipur in Tripura is the
latitude, Manila at city nearest to the Tropic
14 35’30” latitude and
0
of Cancer.
Singapore lies at  Jabalpur is nearest city to
1 18’30’’
0
latitude. Tropic of Cancer among
Therefore, Singapore

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Jabalpur, Ahmedabad,
Ujjain, Varanasi.
 Tropic of cancer passes
through:
 Tropic of Capricorn
passes through:
 When sun shines
vertically over Tropic of
Capricorn, the north
western part of India
becomes colder than
Arabian Sea and high
pressure develops over
north west India.
 Day and Night are of
equal duration on the day
of Equinox.
 Equinox is an
astronomical event in
which Sun is vertically
overhead of the equator,
which occurs twice each
year, i.e., 21st March and
23rd September.
 Day and night are of
equal duration of
Equator (12 hours each).
Duration of day and
night varies in the
direction of north or
south to the equator.
 There is no winter season
on equator. It only
experienced wet and dry
weather.
 Two types of solstices
occur in a year
1. Summer Solstice
2. Winter Solstice.
 The Sun reaches at tropic
of Cancer in the month
of June in Northern
Hemisphere and the
Summer solstice takes
place and just opposite to
it in Southern
Hemisphere Winter
Solstice takes place.
 At the time of summer
solstice longest day and
shortest night occur in
Northern Hemisphere,
but in the Southern
Hemisphere shortest day
and largest night occur.
At the same time there is
not much difference in
days and nights at the
Equator.
 The shortest day of the
year in Northern
Hemisphere occurs
during Winter solstice on
21/22 December.
Contrary to it on 20/21
June longest day occurs
in Northern Hemisphere
during the Summer
solstice. Opposite to it, in
Southern Hemisphere,
shortest day occurs on
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20/21 June and longest  Continents rest on

day on 21/22 December. massive slabs of rocks
 On 21 June the shadow called tectonic plates.
at noon is the smallest. These plates are always
 James Jeans is related to moving and interacting
the tidal hypothesis of in a process called Plate
the origin of Earth. tectonic activity.
 F. Hoyal and Littleton  Through tectonic
presented Nova activities, continents
hypothesis shift position on Earth’s
 Otto Schmidt gave the surface.
hypothesis of gas and  By about 175 million
dust for the genesis of years ago the Pangea (the
Earth. Supercontinent)
 Uranium dating method landmass began
is used for determining breaking up due to
the age of Earth. continent drift, theory.
 The Pleistocene Epoch Slowly-slowly it
was the time during separated in pieces and
which extensive ice assumed their position as
sheets and other glaciers the continent we
formed on the landmass. recognize today.
This time period has  In carboniferous period,
been informally referred the whole land mass on
to as the “Great Ice Age” the Earth was unified and
and began about one was named as Pangea.
million years ago or  Pangea Supercontinent
more. was surrounded by a
 Little Ice Age is period super ocean which was
between 1650 A.D. to named “Panthalassa” by
1870 A.D. during which Wegener.
Europe and North  Due to the process of
America were subjected continental drift, the
to much colder winter Pangea splited into
than during the 20th northern most and
century. southern most
 The time of existence of supercontinent.
dinosaurs is estimated 6  The northernmost
Crore 70 lakh years ago. supercontinent was
It is remains were found known as Gondwana
at Ravioli in Kheda land which split into
district of Gujarat and South America,
Barashimla hills of Australia, Africa,
Jabalpur M.P. Madagascar, Antarctica
 The right chronology is: and Peninsular India.
1. Shelled Animals  Gondwana included
2. First insects most of the landmass as
3. First reptiles of today, southern
4. First Mammals hemisphere including

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antarctica, South
America, Africa,
Madagascar, Australia,
Arabian Peninsula and
Indian subcontinent.
 According to book
“Bhautik Bhugol Ka
Swaroop” written by
Savindra Singh, the
continental drift and
glacial cycle both the
phenomenon have
influenced the revolution
of organisms.
 Folding is a result of
Orogenic forces.
 The first fossil evidence
of existence of life on
Earth dates back to
Archean Age approx. 3.5
billion ago.
 The dynamic changes on
the Earth’s surface are
caused by endogenic
forces.
 The origin of endogenic
force is due to thermal
asymmetry in the inner
part of the Earth and
compression and
expansion of rocks. In
addition to these electro-
magnetic radiation,
gravitational force,
rotation of Earth and its
revolution functions are
also liable for changes on
the Earth’s surface.
3. Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are
formed by the
accumulation of
sediments. These
sediment or debris
accumulates in low
laying areas like-lakes.
 Ocean is largely
responsible for
transporting sediment to
locations where it
accumulates.
 The sedimentary
materials may be formed
from eroded fragments
of other or pre-existing
rocks or even from the
remains of plants or
animals and fossils, most
frequently found in
sedimentary rocks,
which comes in layers,
called Strata.
 Rock cycle:
 Granite is formed of
magma from a volcanic
eruption.
 Conglomerate,
sandstone and shale are
examples of sedimentary
rocks.
 “Metamorphic” means
“changing form”.
 Metamorphic rock is a
rock that has changed
from one type of rock
into another. As a result
of intense heat from
magma and pressure
from tectonic shifting,
these metamorphic rocks
are produced from either
Igneous rocks or
Sedimentary rock.
 Granite is an Igneous
rock.
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 The examples of Helium (He) gas is also

Metamorphic rocks found in it.
formed through Igneous  Mountain Cotopaxi is
rocks are as follows – highest volcanic
Granite - Gneiss mountain in the world.
Basalt – Amphibalite  Height of the Mountain
Basalt – Schist Cotopaxi is 5911 m.
 Marble is an example of  The height of Mount
metamorphic rock Pinatubo is (1460 m) and
formed by sedimentary Mount Kilimanjaro
rock. (5897 m).
 The other examples of  Magma is a molten and
Metamorphic rocks semi-molten rock
formed through mixture found under the
Sedimentary rock are as surface of Earth.
follows –  Magma is a very fluid
Shale – Slate and dynamic substance
Limestone – Marble having a temperature
Chalk and dolomite - between 6000 C to 12000
Marble C.
Sandstone – Quartzite  When Magma is ejected
Conglomerate – by a volcano, the
Quartzite material is called Lava.
 Metamorphosed rock Magma on cooling
from of Metamorphic coverts into a solid
Rocks – known as igneous rocks.
Slate - Phyllite  On the basis of silica’s
Phyllite - Schist concentration lava is of
Gabbro – Serpentinite two types –
1. Acidic lava – It
contains large amount of
4. The Volcano Silica, highly viscous.
2. Basic Lave - It
contains small amount of
 The most abundant
silica and is highly fluid.
volcanic gas is water
 Igneous rocks are
vapour (H2O).
formed by cooling and
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
solidification of erupted
and Sulphur dioxide
magma.
(SO2) are two other
 Internal Igneous rocks
important gases present
are of basically two types
in volcanic eruption.
1. Plutonic Rock
 A significant amount of
2. Hypabyssal Rock.
Hydrogen sulphide
 When Magma cools and
(H2S), Hydrogen (H2),
solidifies below the
Carbon monoxide (CO),
Earth’s surface at a great
Hydrogen chloride
depth the “Plutonic
(HCL), Hydrogen
Rocks” are formed.
fluoride (HF) and

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 As plutonic rocks are forms igneous rocks

situated deep inside the through erupted lava.
ground, it takes much  The most active volcano
time to cool and hence in the world is Kilauea
their crystals are of on Hawaii Island,
larger size. America. Kilauea is
 The volcanic eruption is followed by Etna in Italy
related to Plate’s edges and Piton de la fournaise
in convergence and and Nyamuragira
divergence area. volcanos on the basis of
 Volcanic Eruptions does eruptions.
not occur in the Baltic  Mount Vesuvius is
Sea. situated at the Bay of
 Mount Etna is an active Naples, Italy.
volcano on the East-  Mount Erebus is an
coast of Mediterranean active volcano on
Sea, Sicily, Italy. Its Antarctica’s Ross Island.
maximum height is  Mount Rainier is in
about 3350 meters. USA.
 Mount Saint Helens is an  Paricutin is situated in
active strata volcano Mexico.
located in skamania  Mount Taal is in
country. Philippines.
 Mauna Loa means Long 
Mountain. It is one of the Volcano Country
active volcanoes. Sabankay Peru
 Washington in the a
Pacific North West Colima Mexico
Region of United States Mount Indonesi
of America. It is also Merapi a
known as the “Fuji of Mount Malaysi
America”. Kinabalu a
 Cotopaxi, Etna, and Elburz Iran
Fujiyama are active Aconcagu Argenti
volcanoes while a na
Aconcagua is a non- Kilimanja Tanzani
volcanic mountain. ro a
Cotopaxi is situated in
Ecuador, Etna in Italy
and Fujiyama in Japan. 5.The Earthquake
 Kilimanjaro is the
highest mountain in
Africa. It is situated in
the North-Eastern part of
Tanzania. Previously it
was known as Kaiser-
Wilhelm-Spitze. It is an
igneous mountain which

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to measure seismic
activity.
 Rings of fire” is a
region in the Pacific
Ocean influenced by
volcanic activities and
Earthquake.
 Approximately 68% of
the world’s earthquakes
 The seismic waves are
occur along the “Ring
generated in 3 Forms:
of Fire”.
 1. P – Primary Waves -
 The region of “Rings of
These waves travel
fire” includes the vast
fastest.
seismic zone of Chilli,
 2. S – Secondary Waves
California, Alaska,
– These waves cause
Japan, Philippines, New
particles to oscillate.
Zealand, and part of
Bothe P and S waves
Central Ocean.
are called “Body
 There are three main
waves” because they
regions in the Ring of
can travel through the
fire –
interior of the Earth
1. Inter section point of
 3. L – Love or surface
Ocean and Land
Waves – These waves
2. New twisted
arrive after P and S
mountainous terrain
waves, are confined to
3. Volcanic field
surface and cause
 The intensity of
horizontal shifting of
earthquake is measured
the Earth during an
on Richter scale and
earthquake.
Mercalli Scale.
 Earthquakes are
 In 1935, seismologist
vibrations of the earth
Charles Francis Richter
caused by the rupture
developed the Ritcher
and sudden movement
magnitude scale. It is
of rocks that have been
based on logarithmic
strained beyond their
scale which is
elastic limit.
mentioned as 1-10 on
 Focus- the point of
scale.
origin off an
 Each number of
earthquake.
Seismograph represents
 Epicentre- The point of
10 times amplitude, 32
Earth’s surface which is
times energy.
directly above the focus
 Seismic wave of
of an earthquake. It is
intensity 1 releases
where seismic waves
energy of 6 ounces of
are recorded first.
TNT.
 Seismosite is a
 Seismometer is an
scientific instrument
instrument to record
which was earlier used

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magnitude and intensity North America -

of an earthquake. 24,256,000 sq. km
 Crescograph is used to South America -
measure the height of 17,819,000 sq. km
trees and cardiogram is Antarctica - 13,209,000
an instrument to sq. km
measure heartbeat. Europe - 9,938,000 sq.
 Tsunami means harbour km
wave arising as a result Australia - 7,687,000
of earthquake. These sq. km
ruptured high waves  According to Phillip’s
may cause substantial Atlas the percentage of
damage to coastal areas. land area of continent in
 Fukushima in Japan has respect of their total
faced major Tsunami land area of earth is as
and Nuclear Radiation follows –
in 2011.  Asia - 29.8%
 Northern-Western  Africa - 20.3%
region of Indian  North America - 16.2%
Subcontinent is  South America - 11.9%
susceptible to  Antarctica - 9.4%
earthquake activities  Europe - 6.7%
because it is situated at  Australia - 5.7%
the border of plates.  Australia has maximum
This area is per capita land among
convergence region of the continents.
Indian Plate and  Antarctica is the
Eurasian Plate. Coral continent with highest
formation activities and mean elevation in the
volcanic activities do world. It is situated
not occur here. around South Pole.
 The number of  Average Elevation of
countries in the continents is as follows:
continents – Antarctica - 1846 m
Africa - 54 North America - 720 m
Europe-51 South America - 554 m
Asia - 48 Asia - 923 m
North America – 23 Europe - 302 m
Australia- 14 Australia - 308 m
South America- 12  Mountain Atlas is
 Asia is the largest situated in north-west of
continent having as area African continent.
of 44,579000 sq. km.  Below is the correct
 The area of other location of other
continents are as geographical areas –
follows – Abyssinian Plateau -
 Africa - 30,065,000 sq. East Africa
km Guiana Highlands -
North western Africa

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Okavango Basin -
South-Western Africa
 Plains largely constitute
Europe and South
America however in
terms of percentage
Europe has largest
percentage of plains
compared to its total
area.
 Gibbon is located on the
West Coast of central
Africa. It is located on
the equator.
 Guinea is a West
coastal country in West
Africa formerly known
as French Guinea.
 Guinea Bissau is
country in West Africa.
 Guyana is a country in
South America.
6.The World
Mountain
Ranges
 Sea of mountains is an
account of Lord
Dufferin’s tour through
British Columbia in
1876.
 World’s 10 highest
peaks including the
highest peak Mount
Everest are situated in
the Himalayas.
 Himalaya is a young
folded mountain. Thus,
it is clear that world’s
highest peaks are
situated in the young
folded mountains.
 The Andes is the
longest mountain range
in the world, located
along the entire western
coast of South America.
 The Andes Mountain
range is 7200 km long.
 Rocky Mountain is the
major mountain system
of North America
extending over 4800
km.
 Himalayas is a
prominent mountain
range in South Asia
situated at the northern
end of India having the
length of approximately

2400 km.
The Alps is the Longest
Mountain range in
Europe. It is 1200 km
long.
 Southern Alps
Mountain Range is
situated in South Island,
New Zealand along its
western coast. It rises to
3754 meters at
Aoraki/Mount Cook,
the highest peak of New
Zealand.
 Great Dividing Range
in Australia is 3100 km
long.
 The Alps is a mountain
range located in South-
Central Europe
immediately North of
the Mediterranean Sea.
This range is extended
in France, Austria,
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Germany, and  The Black Mountains

Switzerland. located in Carolina state
 Highest peak of Alps of United State of
Mountain Range is Mon America. These
Blanc (4810 m high). Mountains are part of
 Alps mountain is an Appalachian
example of young Mountains.
folded mountain in the  Appalachian Mountain
world. is old mountain range
 White Mountains are belonging to the
situated in California Caledonian period.
State of USA.  The Alps, the Andes
 Burmese Arakan Yoma and the Himalayas are
Mountain Range is in the mountains of
western Myanmar. Its tertiary or Alpine
main hills are Nga, Folded Mountains.
Chin, Lushai and  Pennines (Europe), the
Patkoi. It’s highest peak Appalachians and the
is Mt. Victoria. Aravalli are examples
 Black mountains are of old mountain.
formed when faults or  Drakensberg is a
cracks in the earth’s mountain range
crust force some extended through South
material up and others Africa and Lesotho. Its
down. Black Forest is highest peak is Thabane
located in Germany. Ntlenyana (3482 m)
 Vosges Mountain is in located in Lesotho.
France.  Atlas mountain is
 The highest peak of extended across
Black Forest Mountain Morocco, Algeria and
is Feldberg. Tunisia of Africa
 Rhine river emerges continent.
from Alps Mountain in  Mountain and their
Switzerland and falls countries –
into the North Sea Allegheny - U.S.A
passing through Cantabrian – Spain
Germany and Elburz – Iran
Netherlands. Mackenzie – Canada
 The cities of Bonn and  Mountain peaks and
Cologne are located at their continents:
the banks of the river Kosciuszko – Australia
Rhine. McKinley - North
 The eastern side of the America
Rhine, there is a Black Kilimanjaro – Africa
Forest and on the  Mt. Cook – New
western side of the Zealand
river, the Vosges  Elbruz – Russia
Mountain is stretched.  Mount Titlis –
Switzerland

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 Alps- Folded Mountain ash, cinders of lava. It is

 Vosges - Block formed by fragments
Mountain (called eject) thrown up
 Vindhya - Residual (ejected) from a
Mountain volcanic vent, piling up
 Fujiyama – Volcano around the vent in the
Mountain shape of a cone with a
 Mount Titlis is formed central crater.
by the cooling of the  Residual mountain is
lava from a volcano. originally a mountain
 Apennine Mountain but due to erosion work
Range is in Italy. Its they become residual
total length is mountain. In the same
approximately 1350 way erosional waterfall
km. and Monadnock are
 Mount Corno (2914 m) also formed after
is the highest peak of erosional work.
Apennine Mountain
range.
 Pyrenees decides the 7. The Plateaus
boundary of France and
Spain.  Tibetan Plateau or
 Dinaric Alps is Chang Tang is also
expanded through known as Qinghai-
Albania, Bosnia, Tibetan Plateau. Its
Croatia and Jura total area is about 2.5
Mountain is expanded million square km and
in the area of France average elevation is
and Switzerland. more than 4500 m.
 Golan Heights is  Patagonia Plateau is
located in Middle East. called as the store
It is a rock plateau in house of minerals, in
south west Syria. South America.
 Israel occupied Golan  Madrid the capital of
Height from Syria in the Spain is situated on
war of 1967. Israel fully Mesta Plateau in
captured it in 1981. Iberian Peninsula. The
 The Pyrenees is a chain elevation of plateau is
of mountains that forms between 610-760 m.
a natural boundary  The elevation of other
between France and cities are:
Spain. They extended Bucharest (At the
from the Bay of Biscay Bank of Dambovita
to the Mediterranean River) - 55.8 m (about
Sea. sea level)
 Volcanic cone is a basic Jamnagar (Gujarat) -
landform. It is conical 20 m (about sea level)
hill produced by
volcanic eruption of

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Singapore (South East National Park of the

India) - 15 m (about Mojave Desert of
sea level). United States of
 The Pamir Plateau or America. This Park is
the “Pamir” is called situated in eastern
the roof of the world California.
because of its high  Death Valley is the
altitude. lowest place of North
 Southern border of America (-86 meter
Central Asia is below the sea level)
determined by Pamir and second lowest to
Plateau. It is Laguna Del Carbon (-
convergence of many 150 meter) of
mountains. Argentina in Western
 hemisphere. During
Plateau Area summer maximum
Coconino 5812 temperature reaches up
sq. km to 1300 F (540 C) in
Aquarius 900 this region. This is the
sq.km hottest and most arid
Colorado 13000 valley of the USA.
0 sq.  Panjshir Valley
km located in North
Columbi 10000 Central Afghanistan
a 0 sq. about 150 km north of
km Kabul, near the Hindu
Kush Mountain
Range. This Valley
8. The Valleys was one of the main
battle grounds at the
 A rift valley is formed time of Soviet War.
on a divergent plate,  Silicon Valley located
deepened by the forces in the southern portion
of erosion. of the Sun Francisco
 A rift valley is a linear Bay in California,
shaped low land USA. It is famous for
between several large scale
highlands or mountain manufacturing of
ranges created by the computer chips.
action of a geological  The Taylor valley of
rift or fault. Antarctica was
 Death Valley in discovered by Robert
California, USA is an Falcon Scot in the year
example of such a rift 1903. He designated
valley. this valley as the valley
 The Death Valley of Dead.
popularly known as  Great Basin is located
“Devil’s Golf Course” in North America
is in Death Valley (USA). It is bordered

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by the Sierra Nevada
Range, the Colombia
Plateau on the North
and Mojave Desert and
Sonoran Desert on the
South.
 The Great Artesian
Basin is one of the
largest underground
water reserves in the
world. It occupies an
area over 1.7 million
square km beneath the
arid and semi-arid
region between Great
Dividing Range
Mountain and central
elevated land.
 Valley of the King or
Wadi-El Muluk is
located in Egypt.
 A steephead Valley, or
Blind valley is a deep,
narrow, flat-bottomed
valley with an abrupt
ending. Such valleys
arise in limestone of
Karst landscape.
9. The Arid
Regions/
Deserts
 Gerhard Knies, a
German Particle
Physicist, arrived at
the remarkable
conclusion that in just
six hours, the world’s
deserts receive more
energy from the sun
than human consume
in a year. In this way,
deserts can be a source
of perennial energy.
 Desert is a region
where annual
precipitation is less
than 25cm.
 Major Deserts of the
world:
 The biggest (non-
polar) desert of the
world is the Sahara
Desert. It’s situated in
North Africa and has
an area measured at
roughly 3.5 million
square miles.
 The Thar Desert is the
most densely
populated desert in the
world with a
population density of
83 people per square
km whereas other
deserts have
population density of
7 people per square
km.
 Gobi Desert stretches
into northern China
and southern
Mongolia. This desert
is surrounded by Altai
Mountain.
 Tekla Makan Desert is
situated in Xinjiang
province of China.
 Great Victorian desert
is located in South-
west Australia. It is
the largest desert of
Australia. It is spread
over 424,400 sq. km
of area.
 Gibson Desert, an
interim Australian
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bioregion is a large
desert that covers a
large dry area in the
State of Western
Australia.
 Dasht-e-Lut is a large
salt desert in Kerman
province of Iran.
NASA’s tests have
revealed that it is
world’s warmest
desert. Its temperature
was measured 70.70 C
by NASA’s Agua
satellite in 2005.
 Thar Desert which is
also known as “Great
Indian Desert”. It is
the largest desert of
South Asia. It
stretches across
western India to
South-East Pakistan.
 Location of deserts is
as follows –
Atacama Desert -
Chile
Colorado Desert -
California (USA)
Kalahari Desert -
Botswana, Namibia,
and South Africa
 Atacama Desert is the
driest place on earth.
There are huge
deposits of sodium
nitrate, copper and
other minerals.
 Temperate desert is
found between 300 to
600 latitudes.
 Deserts which come
10. The Grasslands
under the category of
temperate deserts are
Gobi Desert, Ladakh
Desert and Patagonia
Desert.
 Tropical hot deserts
are often found in the
region of trade wind
band between 150 to
300 South or north of
equator in the western
side of the continents.
 In India, eastern
Himalayan region
receives more rain
from the southwest
winds coming from
the Bay of Bengal.
 Kalahari is large
desert spreading over
900000 sq. km in the
interior of Southern
Africa. It occupies
Botswana, parts of
Namibia and South
Africa.
 Most desert regions
are the result of large
climatic patterns.
 The sub-tropical high-
pressure belts are
adiabatic in nature
hence they bring little
rainfall to the African
and Eurasian desert
region.
 Warm Ocean currents
are not a necessary
condition for the
desert belt. For
instance, the Gobi
cold desert does not
come under the
influence of any warm
current.
Grassla Contine
nds nts /
Countri
es
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Prairies North These grass fields

Americ spread from Atlantic
a Ocean to Andes
Pampas South Mountains up to
Americ Argentina and
a / Uruguay.
Argenti  Pampas are mid
na latitude or temperate
Steppes Europe belt grasslands of
Veld South South America.
Africa  Pampas has a
Llanos South temperate type of
Africa climate with
Downs Austral precipitation of 600
ia to 1200 mm.
Pustaz Hungar  Llanos grasslands are
y found in Venezuela
while Campos and
 Grass fields their Selvas grass field are
Respective countries: found in South East
Campos - Brazilian, Brazil, Argentina,
Highland and Amazon Basin,
Pampas - Argentina respectively.
and Uruguay  The temperature
Savanna - Eastern grassland in Eurasia
Africa (Kenya, region is Steppes.
Tanzania)
Steppes - Western
Russia and Central
11.Countries and
Asia Their Borders
 Savanna is a rolling
Grassland scattered
 China is the largest
with shrubs and
country of the world
isolated trees which
in terms of
can be found between
population. India is
a tropical rainforest
at second place.
and desert biome.
 Russia is the largest
 The savannas are
country in the world
mainly spread over
in terms of area.
East Africa. Savannas

are also found in
Country Total
Brazil, Colombia and
Area
Venezuela and
in sq.
southern parts of
km
India.
Argenti 27804
 Pampas are the grass
na 00
lands of South
America. These India 32872
63
plains are very fertile.

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Australi 76920
a 24
Brazil 85157
67  Middle east
Maldive 300 countries:
s
Bhutan 38394
Nepal 14079
7
Pakistan 79609
5
Sri 65610
Lanka
Banglad 14757
esh 0

 India is the7th largest
country of the world
in terms of area. In
this context, the six
larger countries than
India are- Russia,
Canada, China,
America, Brazil, and
Australia.
 The largest coastline
in the world is of
Canada followed by
Indonesia,
Greenland, Russia
and Philippines.
 Bangladesh shares
the longest territorial
border with India
followed by China,
Pakistan, Nepal,
Myanmar and
Afghanistan.
 Countries sharing
border with Caspian
Sea:

 Horn Of Africa is a
horn shaped
triangular part in
East Arica. It
consists of Djibouti,

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Ethiopia, Eritrea,
Somalia.
 Zambia is
landlocked country 
located in the
African continent.
 Democratic
Republic of Congo is
located to its north,
Tanzania in north-
east, Mail in east,
Mozambique,
Zimbabwe,
Botswana and
Namibia in south  There are 14
and Angola in the countries located in
west. the geographical
 Countries sharing group of countries
border with Adriatic designated the name
Sea: Oceania, which are
divided into three
sub–groups
Melanesia,
Micronesia, and
Polynesia. Australia
is the biggest
country of this

region.
 Geographically the
 Balkan region map:
Scandinavian
peninsula comprises
of Norway, Sweden
and Northern
Finland.
 Linguistically
Scandinavia
comprises of
Sweden, Norway
 Countries bordering and Denmark.
Lithuania:  The bordering
countries of
Afghanistan are
Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan and
Tajikistan in north,
China and India in
 northeast, Pakistan
in east and Iran in the
West.

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 Erik Thorvaldsen
known as Eric the
Red discovered
Greenland. Denmark
captured this
territory in 1380,
since then it is
politically a part of
Europe.
12.  Greenland is
geographically
Dependent considered a part of
North American
territories continent. It is
world’s largest
Island (not
 Martinique Island continent). Almost
having an area of 85% of its area is
1128 sq. km is covered with snow.
located in East of  Aleutian Island-
Caribbean Sea under U.S.A.
the possession of  Bear Island- Norway
France. It is one of  Greenland-Denmark
the 26 administrative  Franz Josef Island –
regions of France. Russia
 Santa Cruz de
Tenerife is a port
city in Spain’s
Canary Islands. 13.The Land
 Greenland is the
world’s largest
Locked
Island. It is an
autonomous region
Countries
of Denmark.
Geographically
 Land-Locked
despite being close
Countries are those
to North America,
which do not have a
ethnically it is quite
coastline.
closer to the
 There is total 45
countries of Arctic
land-locked
Island.
countries in the
 Christians Island is a
world which are:
territory of Australia
1. Afghanistan
located in the Indian
2. Austria
Ocean 2360 km
3. Bhutan
North West of Perth
4. Burkina Faso
in Western
5. Andorra
Australia.
6. Azerbaijan
7. Bolivia

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8. Burundi  Radcliffe line is

9. Armenia boundary between
10. Belarus India and Pakistan.
11. Botswana  Hindenburg line is
12. Central-African between Belgium
13. Chad and Germany.
14. Check Republic  There is no
15. Ethiopia landlocked country
16. Hungry in North American
17. Laos continent.
18. Luxembourg  Hungary bordering
19. Mali countries:
20. Nepal
21. Rwanda
22. Serbia
23. Kazakhstan
24. Lesotho
25. Macedonia
26. Moldova
27. Niger
28. San Marino  Switzerland
29. Slovakia bordering countries:
30. Kirgizstan
31. Lichtenstein
32. Malawi
33. Mongolia
34. Paraguay
35. South Sudan  South Sudan is a
36. Swaziland landlocked country
37. Serbia surrounded by
38. Switzerland Sudan, Ethiopia,
39. Tajikistan Central African
40. Turkmenistan Republic, Kenya,
41. Uganda Democratic
42. Uzbekistan Republic of Congo,
43. Vatican City and Uganda.
44. Zambia  The main river in
45. Zimbabwe South Sudan is
46. Kosovo White Nile and its
47. Rwanda present capital is
 Laos is the only Juba. Its main
landlocked country religion is
in South East Asia Christianity.
bordered by
Myanmar, China
Vietnam, Cambodia,
and Thailand.

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 Rhine river forms

14.Old Name the border of France
Of 
and Germany.
Victoria Lake is also
Countries known as Victoria
Nyanza. It is world’s
second largest
freshwater lake by
New Old name surface area.
nam Tanzania, Uganda,
e and Kenya have
Tai Formosa administrative
wan authority over this
Mya Burma or lake.
nma (Union of  Victoria lake forms
r Burma) an international
Thai Siam border between
land Uganda- Tanzania,
Iraq Mesopota Uganda- Kenya and
mia Kenya – Tanzania.
Gha Gold Coast  The 38th parallel
na north forms the
border between
Zim Southern
Rhodesia North and South
bab
Korea.
we
Hara Salisbury  The 49th parallel
re north forms the
United States –
Ethi Abyssinia
Canada Border.
opia
Kins Leopoldvil
hasa le 16.Famous Cities
15.International Of the world
Border Lines  Slovenia is a coastal
alpine country
located in south-
 Rio Grande River central Europe.
separates southern Officially it is
border of United known as Republic
States of America of Slovenia. The
from Mexico. It was capital if Slovenia is
identified in 1845. Ljubljana.
The basin of this  Slovenia is bordered
river is spread in
with Italy in the
United States of west, Adriatic Sea in
America and south-west, Croatia
Mexico.

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in south and east,
Hungary in north-
east and Austria in
the north.
 The former capital of
Australia was
Melbourne.
Presently Canberra
is the capital of
Australia.
 The former capital of
Pakistan was
Karachi. Presently
Islamabad is the
capital of Pakistan.
 The former capital of
New Zealand was
Auckland. Presently
Wellington is the
capital of New
Zealand.
 The former capital of
Japan was Kyoto.
Presently Tokyo is
the capital of Japan.
 In 2005, the
administrative
capital of Myanmar
was moved to a
green field near
Pyinmana. Its former
capital was Yangon.
It was officially
named “Nay Pyi
Taw” on March 27,
2006.
17.World Towns
 Most of the mega
cities in the world
for located in the
coastal area. This is
due to that they are
gateways to
international ocean
routes.
 Eri Lake-Detroit
 Michigan Lake-
Gary
 Ontario- Hamilton
 Superior-Duluth
 Alaska is in USA
situated in the North
West extremity.
 USA purchased
Alaska from the
Russian Empire in
1867.
 Santa Rose is a city
in California, USA.
 The House of
parliament of South
Africa is situated in
Cape Town.
 Pretoria is known as
the administrative
capital of South
Africa.
 The upper and lower
House of parliament
of South Africa is
known as National
Council of provinces
and National
Assembly
respectively.
 Kandahar is a city in
South Central
Afghanistan. It is
located on a plain
next to Tarnak river.
 Auroville
(Puducherry)
situated at the border
of Tamil Nadu.
 Baikonur
Cosmodrome is
located about 200
kilometres to the east
of the Aral Sea in the
desert steppe of
Kazakhstan.
 Bandung- capital of
West Java province
of Indonesia.
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 Batticaloa- it is the
capital of the eastern
18.Geographical
province of Sri
Lanka.
Sobriquets
 Tasmania is an
island in Australia. It
 The midnight sun is
is separated by Bass
the natural
Strait.
phenomenon that
 Iceland is in the occurs in the places
south of Arctic of Arctic Circle or
Circle. South of the
 The Arctic circle Antarctica circle.
passes through  South American
Finland, Norway, continent is known
Sweden. as continent of
 Sun City in in Birds.
northwest province  Niagara Falls is
of South Africa. located in North
 Toronto is the largest America on the
city of Canada. border of the USA
 Athens is the largest and Canada.
city of Greece.  Finland is often
 Lagos is the largest called the land of
city of Nigeria. thousand lakes.
 Damascus is the  Pamir plateau is
largest city of Syria. known as roof of the
 Davos- Switzerland world.
 Barcelona- Spain  Dark Continent –
 Kandy- Sri Lanka Africa
 The Democratic  Pearls Island –
Republic of Congo is Bahrain.
located in Africa. It  Blue Grass State-
is the second largest Kentucky
country of Africa.  Istanbul is located in
 The small island in the peninsular
country of Malta is area of Turkey
located in southern whose three sides are
Europe. It is situated surrounded by
in the Mediterranean Marmara Sea,
Sea. Bosporus Strait and
Golden Horn. It is
also known as
Gateway to west.
 Thailand is known as
the land of white
elephants.
 Japanese also called
their country as

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Nippon which
means the land of
19. The Hydro-
rising sun. Japan is
also known as the
Sphere
land of rising sun.
 Venice is known as
 South China Sea is
the city of cities. It is
part of Pacific
one of the most
Ocean,
beautiful cities of the
encompassing an
world. It is also
area from Karimata
known as city of
and Malacca strait to
dreams.
the strait of Taiwan.
 Golden Gate Bridge
It is 5016 m deep
is located in San
 Bering Sea is 4773
Francisco city and
m deep.
connects both ends
 Mediterranean Sea is
of San Francisco
4632 m deep.
Bay. San Francisco
 Japan Sea is 3742 m
is known as the city
deep.
of Golden Gate.
 Around 70% of the
 Osaka (Japan) is
Earth’s surface is
called “Manchester
covered with water.
of the East”.
Historically the trade  Nearest point to the
city Osaka is also centre of the Earth
famous by the name lies near Artic
of “Nation’s Ocean.
Kitchen”.  Datum line is a
 Lake Baikal is the horizontal line from
world’s oldest and where all the
deepest freshwater elevations and
lake. Lake Baikal is depths are measured.
called “Pearl of  The largest part of
Siberia”. our hydrosphere is
 South Korea is Pacific Ocean.
called “Land of  Pacific Ocean -
Morning calm” 165.2 million square
because of its spell km.
binding natural  Atlantic Ocean -
beauty, high 106.4 million square
mountains, clear km.
waters, and its  Indian Ocean - 73.6
splendid tranquillity, million square km
particularly in the  Antarctica Ocean
morning. 2.6-18.8 million
square km.
 Mid oceanic Ridge
encircles the globe in
the length of

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approximately
40,000 miles or
64,000 km, covering
Arctic, Atlantic,
Indian and Pacific
Ocean. This is the
single largest
geological
phenomena upon the
surface of earth.
 Ninety East Ridge
(900 E Ridge) is the
name of a ridge
located in the Indian
Ocean. Located near
900 east longitudes
(meridian), this ridge
is 5000 km long
parallel to it and
stretched across 330
south latitudes to 170
northern latitudes
with an average
width of 200 km.
 Gravitational water
occupies the larger
soil pores (macro
pores) and moves
down readily under
the force of gravity.
Gravitational water
under the surface of
soil remains in state
of zero or less than
1/3 of the
atmosphere.
 97% of the total
water available on
Earth is salt water
found in Ocean.
 Out of remaining 3%
non-salty water,
2.4% is in the form
of glaciers and polar
ice, which is
unusable for us. So,
in this way total
available non-salty
water to use is less
than 1% of the total
water available on
earth.
 Out of total amount
of non-salty water
(3%), 68.7% is
found in the form of
glaciers and polar
ice, 30.1% in the
form of underground
water, 0.3% in the
form of surface
water and remaining
0.9% is found in
other forms.
 Most extensive part
of the oceanic floor
is “Deep Sea plain”.
 Characteristic by flat
and rolling
submarine plain it is
the most extensive
relief zone of the
ocean basins. These
deep-Sea plains
having the depth of
3000 m to 6000 m
cover more than
76% of the total area
of the Ocean basins.
These plains have an
extension of up to
9000,000 square km
in the Atlantic
Ocean.
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20. Important
Seas of
World

 Major Oceans and  The Tyrrhenian Sea

Seas: is a part of the
Mediterranean Sea
off the western coast
of Italy. The sea is
bounded by Corsica,
Sardinia, Italy, and
Sicily.
 Turkey Bordering  The Tyrrhenian Sea
Countries: is linked to other
seas of the region
through the Strait of
Messina, Strait of
Boniface, and
Corsica channel.
 Aral Sea:  Red Sea:

 Caspian Sea:  Red Sea is an

example of axial
through which is
located between
Africa and Arab.
This region is
associated with
 magnetic anomalies.
 Sargasso Sea is a It plays a pivotal role
region of the North in trade between
Atlantic Ocean North Africa,
bounded by four Europe, and Asian
currents which form Nations after the
an ocean gyre. It has opening of Suez
been named after Canal.
sargassum seaweed  Jordan is an Arabian
abundantly found in country of South
this region. West Asia which
does not open out to
the Mediterranean

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Sea. It is bordered by from Pacific and

Saudi Arabia to East Atlantic Ocean.
and South, Iraq to  Land and monsoon
north-east, Syria to winds have a major
north, Israel, impact on the Indian
Palestine, and Dead Oceanic current. The
Sea to the west, and direction of current
Red Sea to south flow changes twice
west. The capital of in the Northern
Jordan is Amman. Indian Ocean due to
 Mediterranean Sea: the North-East and
South-West
monsoon winds
whereas Southern
Indian Ocean
currents have
definite pattern.
 Agulhas current is
the warm water
21.Ocean Currents current which flows
in South Indian
Ocean.
 Agulhas current
generates in such a
way that branch of
South Equatorial
Indian Oceanic
current flows
towards south
 Ocean Current is a through the
continuous, directed southeast coast of
movement of sea Mozambique and is
water generated by known as
forces such as Mozambique current
rotation of earth, which flows 300
wind, temperature South and meets
and salinity with the branch of
difference air South Equatorial
pressure, sea water current flowing
density difference along the East of
etc. Madagascar. So, the
 Revolution of the combined current of
earth does not these two branches
influence the ocean of currents is known
currents. as Agulhas current.
 The ocean currents It flows up to
of Indian Ocean are southern most end of
slightly different Africa and alter it
mixes with west

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wind drift by turning Cape Hatteras and

to East. then flows along the
 Northern Atlantic east coast of United
currents generate State of America.
near 450 north  West Wind Drift - A
latitude and 450 slow eastward
West Meridian. movement of water
 North Atlantic over the zone of
current takes away westerly wind.
the water of warm  Peru Current -
Gulf Stream Pacific Ocean
towards, Europe,  West Australian
where Norway, Current - Indian
situated in sub-polar Ocean
region is benefited  North Atlantic
most by this current. current prevents
 In the South Atlantic extreme cold in the
Ocean, there exists a region and also
fixed order of keeps the harbours
complete circular ice-free. As a result,
currents. This order the North Atlantic
emerges from South Warm Current is
Equatorial current. also known as the
After Brazil coast, it 'Blanket of Europe'.
moves towards south  There are two
where it is called Equatorial currents
Brazil current. The flowing from east to
disturbance is West - the north
developed due to the Equatorial current
rotation of the Earth. and the South
equatorial current
 South Atlantic  Earth’s rotation on
Ocean currents: its axis is responsible
for the eastward flow
of Equatorial
counter current.

22. Salinity
 Gulf Stream is a
powerful warm
Of the
current in the North
Atlantic Ocean. It
Ocean
originates at Gulf of
Mexico as the
 Halocline is a zone
Florida current
in the oceanic water
which merges in
in which salinity
Antilles current and
changes rapidly with
flows through the
depth. So, Halocline

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denotes water  Red Sea has the

salinity gradient. highest salinity (37
 Main source of the to 41%).
salinity of sea water  The salinity of Dead
is the land. When Sea is more than that
rivers bring various of Red Sea and
types of salt contents Mediterranean Sea
towards the sea, but it is considered
other factors which as a lake.
regulate the salinity  Caspian Sea is also a
of the sea are lake.
vaporisation, wind,  The Great Salt Lake
river water, rain, located in Utah
oceanic currents, and province of the
the volcanos etc. United States of
Average salinity of America. Salinity of
the sea is about 35%. this lake is 220%.
 Salt with their  Between 00-100
salinity and latitudes in the
percentage in sea Indian Ocean, the
water respectively: salinity is 35.14%
1)Sodium Chloride but in the Bay of
27.213%, 77.8% Bengal, it decreases
2)Magnesium to 30%. At the same
Chloride 3.807%, time salinity of
10.9% Arabian Sea is found
3)Magnesium to be 36% because of
Sulphate 1.658%, comparatively dry
4.7% weather, more
4)Calcium Sulphate vaporization takes
1.260%, 3.6% place and water
5)Potassium brought by rivers is
Sulphate 0.863%, also less.
2.5%
6)Calcium
Carbonate 0.123%, 23. High Tide and
0.3%
7)Magnesium Low Tide
Bromide 0.076%,
0.2%
 Salinity in Van lake -
330%
 Salinity in Dead Sea
- 238%
 Salinity in Red Sea -
36-41%
 Salinity in Great Salt
Lake - 220%
 High Tide/low tide
occur as a result of

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force of gravitational or the New Moon

pull between the neap-tide occurs.
Earth and the Moon  Since the Moon is
and the two forces nearer to the Earth in
viz centripetal force comparison to other
and centrifugal force stars, so its
produced upon the gravitational force
Earth. has greater effect
 Ocean water is kept upon the Earth. Due
at equal levels to this effect, high
around the planet by sea waves are
the Earth’s gravity produced in oceans.
pulling inward, but Tide producing
Moon’s power of the moon is
gravitational force is 2.17 times more than
strong enough to the Sun.
disrupt this balance
by accelerating the
water in
hemisphere which
that
24. The Oceanic
faces the Moon. Trenches
 When the Moon’s
force of attraction is
stronger than the  Trenches and Deeps
centrifugal force of found in the Oceans
the Earth, high tides are as follows:
occur.  Indian Ocean -
 When the centrifugal Sunda Deep and
force is stronger than Dementia Trench
the Moon’s force  North Pacific Ocean
attraction tides - Marina Trench,
(Indirect high tide) Kuril trench,
occur. Aleutian trench and
 Earth experience Japan trench.
high and low tides  South Pacific Ocean
twice in 24 hours. -Tonga trench,
 During the neap tide, Kermadec trench,
high tide remains to Atacama trench.
be 20% less than the  North Atlantic
normal and low tide Ocean - Puerto-Rico
at this time remains trench
to be higher than the
 South Atlantic
normal.
Ocean - South
 Spring-tide occurs Sandwich trench.
in the ocean on the
 Major ocean
day of Full Moon.
trenches:
 At 7th and 8th day
after the Full Moon

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covers distance
about of 4700 km
and it crosses
equator twice during
its flow.
 Mariana Trench is  Mississippi-
the deepest trench in Missouri River
the world. It is system is located in
located in the Pacific North America and it
Ocean east of is the largest River
Mariana Islands. system of North
 Diamantina Trench America. Its length
is the deepest trench is 6275 km.
in the Indian Ocean.  Congo River also
It is located about known as “Zaire
1125 km south west River” is the second
from the Perth longest River after
Basin. Its maximum Nile in African
depth is about 8047 continent. It crosses
meters. the equator twice.
Amazon and Congo
are two river that
25. Rivers of flow out of
The world 
equatorial zone.
Length of Yangtze
river- 6300 km
 Major rivers of the  Length of Yenisei-
world: Angora- Selenge
River- 6300 km
 Length of Indus
river- 2880
kilometres.
  Length of
 South America’s Brahmaputra river-
Amazon River is the 2900 kilometres.
largest River in  Length of Hwang Ho
terms of its volume river- 5464 km.
of flow in the world. 
Its length is  Amazon is the
approximately 6400 longest river of
km. South America.
 In terms of length,  Countries like
largest river of the Burundi, Rwanda
world is Nile which DR Congo, Ethiopia,
flows in East Africa Sudan, South Sudan,
up to the distance of Uganda and Egypt
6650 km. are the part of the
 Congo River flows drainage basin of
in Central Africa and Nile River.

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 The Blue Nile River
originates from lake
Tana in Ethiopia.
The upper course of
the river is called
Abbey in Ethiopia.
 Egypt is called the
gift of the Nile
River.
 Nile is an Oasis of
the Sahara Desert.
 Amur, Lena and Ob
rivers flow towards
the north from their
origin while the
Salween River flows
towards the South
from its origin.
 Yangtze river is the
longest Asian river.
It flows in China and
falls into the Pacific
Ocean.
 Yukon River - It is
major North
American River that
flows through the
central Yukon
Territory of north
western Canada and
the central region of
Alaska State of the
USA.
 Mackenzie River -
Rising out of Great
Slave Lake, the
Mackenzie River
flows generally
northeast of Canada.
It finally empties
into the Beaufort
Sea, part of the
Arctic Ocean,
through the vast
Mackenzie Delta.
1738 km long
Mackenzie River is
the longest River of
Canada. Saint.
 Lawrence River-
This River connects
Great lakes to
Atlantic Ocean. It
forms international
boundary between
United States of
America and
Canada.
 Orinoco River -
Approximately 76.3
percent of this river
flows in Venezuela
and remaining in
Columbia. It’s is
2410 km long.
 Lake Michigan is
one of the five Great
Lakes of North
America and the
only one located
entirely within the
USA.
 Amu Darya and Syr
Darya are prominent
rivers of Central
Asia which fall into
the Aral Sea.
 Dnieper River - This
River rises in the
west of Moscow and
flows to the Black
Sea.
 Danube River - It is
the second longest
River of Europe after
the Volga. It rises in
Germany and flows
for 1770 mile to its
mouth on the Black
Sea.
 Volga River - This is
the longest River of
Europe. It rises in the
Valdai Hills north
west of Moscow and
merges into the
Caspian Sea.
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 Ural River - It rises  Sri Lanka is the best

in the Ural example of radial
Mountains near drainage.
Mount Kruglaya and  Mahaweli is the
flows into the largest river of Sri
Caspian Sea. Lanka. It merges
 Lena river empties into Bay of Bengal.
into Arctic Ocean  Mekong is a
 Amur river empties transboundary river
into Pacific Ocean in Southeast Asia. It
 Tigris river empties flows through
into Persian Gulf China, Myanmar,
 Mahi river empties Laos, Thailand,
into Arabian Ocean. Cambodia and
 The Rhine River Vietnam and falls
emerges at the Rhein into South China
Vorderrhien glacier Sea.
and flowing through  Lake Itasca is the
rift valley empties main source of river
into the North Sea. Mississippi. Ohio
 Lop Nor - Lop Nor is Arkansas and Red
saline lake in China. Rive are tributaries
 Amur River - The of Mississippi.
length of the Amur Mississippi flows
River is 2900 km. into the Gulf of
The Amur forms a Mexico.
border between  At the mouth of river
Russia and China. Mississippi, “birds’
 Niger River - The foot” delta is
Niger rises in the formed.
Fouta Djallon
Plateau of Western
Africa and empties
26. Towns and
into the Gulf of Cities along
Guinea. It is related
to Africa. The river
 Tigris River - It rises
in Taurus Mountains Banks
of eastern Turkey. It
meets Euphrates
River in Iraq and  Khartoum (Sudan)-
merges into the Nile River.
Persian Gulf.  New York – Hudson
 Limpopo river of River.
Africa crosses  Berlin – Spree River.
Tropic of Capricorn  Paris (France) –
twice. Seine River.

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 Brazzaville (Congo)  Manzanares River -

– Zaire (Congo The Manzanares in
River). one of the main
 Rotterdam rivers in Central
(Netherlands) – Spain which passes
Rhine River. through Madrid.
 Lahore (Pakistan) -  River Huangpu is
Ravi River 113 km long. It
 Rome (Italy) – Tiber flows through
River. Shanghai.
 London (Britain)-  Bangkok - Bangkok
Thames River. is the capital of
 Vienna (Austria)- Thailand which is
Danube River. situated on the west
 Bonn (Germany)- bank of the Chao
Rhine River. Phraya River.
 Cairo (Egypt)- Nile  Phnom Penh -
River. Phnom Penh is the
 Perth (Australia)- capital of Cambodia.
Swan River. It is located on the
 Hamburg- Elbe banks of Mekong
River. River.
 Belgrade- Danube  Hanoi - Hanoi is the
River. capital of Vietnam
 Kiev- Dnieper River. and the city lies on
the right bank of the
 Spree River - It is a
Red River.
tributary of the
 Yangon - Yangon
Havel River and its
was formerly the
length is 403 km.
capital of Myanmar
The Spree flows
through Saxony, (Burma) and lies on
the banks of
Brandenburg, and
Berlin cities of Irrawaddy River the
Germany. longest river of
Myanmar.
 Potomac River -
 Iraq- Tigris River.
This River flows
through south west  Antwerp-Scheldt
Maryland and River.
Washington DC and  Rotterdam- Rhine
falls into River.
Chesapeake Bay.  Budapest- Danube
 Seine River - Seine  River.
is the second largest  Washington-
River of France after Potomac River.
Lori River. If flows
in northern France
through Paris.

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27. Landforms
28. The Islands
By Rivers
 Conditions which
are favourable for
the formation of the
delta:
 1. The river must
carry a large number
of sediments.
 2. The slope and
speed of the river
must not be strong
enough to remove
the sediments
deposited by the
river.
 3. The slope of the
sea floor or lake at
the river mouth must
be gentle or flat.
 4. The lost size and
volume of the river.
 5. Presence of
shallow adjoining
see or continental
shelf.
 The greatest delta in
the world is the
Ganges delta.
 The Ganga delta is a
river delta in
Bangladesh and
West Bengal, India.
It is known as Ganga
Brahmaputra delta.
 The Grand Canyon
is a gorge carved by
the Colorado River
in the states of
Arizona United
States.
 Chispani gorge is
located in Nepal and
found by the Karnali
river.
 New Zealand South
Island 151215 sq.
km, is the largest in
area.
 Java has an area of
138794 sq. km.
 New Zealand North
Island 113729 sq.
km and Newfound
land has an area of
108860 sq. km.
 The largest Island of
the world is
Greenland.
 The ten largest
islands of the world
are Greenland, New
Guinea, Borneo,
Madagascar, Baffin
Islands, Sumatra,
Honshu, Victoria
islands, Great
Britain, Elesmene
Islands.
 Nuuk is the capital
and largest city of
Greenland.
 Kalimantan is the
Indonesia portion of
the Island of Borneo.
It comprises of 73%
of the island area.
 Madagascar is an
island located in the
south west of Indian
Ocean. Mauritius is
located to its east
and Mozambique to
its west.
 Borneo is the third
largest island in the
world and the largest
Island in Asia. The
Island is divided
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among three
countries - Malaysia
(26%), Brunei (1%),
Indonesia (73%).
 which the two major
 Melanesia is a sub
region of Oceania
extending from the
western end of the
Pacific Ocean to the
Arafura Sea and
eastward to Fiji. The
following islands
and groups of Island
are traditionally
considered as part of
Melanesia:
1.Bismarck
Archipelago
2.Fiji
3.New Caledonia
4.Solomon Islands
5. Vanuatu
6. Santacruz
7. New Guinea
 Diego Garcia
located in the Indian
Ocean.
 The Falkland
archipelago is in
South Atlantic. The
main island is
around 483 km east
of South American
continent.
 Fiji is an island
country in the South
Pacific Ocean. Its
closest neighbours
are Vanuatu to the
west, Tonga to the
east and Tuvalu to
the north.
 Fiji is an archipelago
of 322 islands, of
islands, Viti Lavu
and Vanua Lavu, are
inhabited by 87% of
the total population.
 Japan is a group of 4
main Islands:
Hokkaido, Shikoku,
Kyushu, Honshu.
 Honshu is the largest
island where capital
Tokyo is situated.
 Macau lies to the
west of Hong Kong,
which is 60 km
away. The transfer
of sovereignty of
Macau from the
Portuguese Republic
to the People’s
Republic of China.
 The Balearic Islands
are an archipelago of
Spain in Western
Mediterranean Sea.
 Majuli is river island
in the Brahmaputra
River (Assam). It is
the largest river
island in the world.
 Majuli became first
riverine island to be
made a district in
India.
 Australian Continent
is an island
continent. It is the
smallest continent of
the world.
 Grenada is also
known as the “Island
of Spice” because of
the excess
production of spices.
It is located approx.
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100 km North from  Lake Victoria is

Venezuela. located between
Tanzania, Uganda &
Kenya. It has a
29. The Lakes and maximum depth of
Waterfalls 84 m and an average
depth of 40 m.
 The Dead Sea is a
lake lying on the
 Lake Tanganyika is
border Israel,
the world's second
Palestine, and
deepest lake. It is
Jordan. Its average
also the world's
depth is 120 m.
longest freshwater
 On the basis of area
lake (660 km).
and volume, the
 The Great Lakes is a
largest lake is
series of
Caspian Sea. It is a
interconnected
salt water lake.
freshwater lakes
 Lake Malawi, also
located in North in
known as Lake
North Eastern
America. It consists Nyasa in
Superior, Michigan, Mozambique is an
African great lake
Huron, Erie and
located between
Ontario.
Malawi,
 The correct
Mozambique and
sequence of the
Tanzania.
Great Lakes on the
 Finger Lakes are
Canada- US border
small series of Lakes
from east to west is
in north west of New
Ontario-Erie-Huron-
Michigan-Superior. York, USA.
 Finland is a Nordic
 The lake according
country.
to their area in
descending order are  Boiling Lake –
Superior > Victoria Dominica
> Baikal > Great  Five Flower Lake -
Bear. Sichuan, China.
 The largest  Red Lagoon –
freshwater lake in Bolivia
the world is Superior  Great Slave Lake –
Lake. Canada
 The deepest and  Duluth is a seaport
oldest lake in the city on the Lake
world is Lake Baikal Superior.
in Siberia, Russia.  Buffalo city in New
 Lake Titicaca is York is in the shore
located in Peru. of Lake Erie.
 Titicaca Lake-
Bolivia (Peru)

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 Lake Urmia – Iran granted UNESCO

 Lake Reindeer - World Heritage
Canada status in 1979. The
 Lake Athabasca - beauty of the
Canada National Park lies in
 The highest its sixteen lakes,
waterfall of the interconnected by a
world is Salto Angel series of waterfalls,
also known as and set in deep
“Angel Fall” which woodland populated
is 979 meters high. It by rare bird species.
is located at Rio  Angel falls located
Caroni River in in Guyana highlands
Canaima National is the highest
Park of Venezuela. waterfall in the
 Tugela Falls is world. Its height is
located at Tugela 979 m.
River in South
Africa. It is 948
meter high.
 Ribbon Falls is 30. The Straits
located in Yosemite
National Park in
California at Ribbon  Strait of Malacca
River. It is 491 meter runs between
high. Indonesia and
 Niagara Falls is Malaysia. The Strait
located at the of Malacca connects
international border Indian Ocean to
between Canada and Pacific Ocean.
the United States on  Between India and
the banks of Niagara East Asia, the
River. It has vertical navigation time and
drop of 55-57 meter. distance could be
 The waterfall greatly reduced by
“Victoria” is opening a new canal
associated with the between the Gulf of
river Zambezi Siam and Andaman
located at the border Sea.
of Zambia and  The Strait of
Zimbabwe in Gibraltar separates
Southern-central Europe from Africa.
Africa. The waterfall It connects the
“Victoria” was Atlantic Ocean to the
declared a UNESCO Mediterranean Sea.
World Heritage site  The Strait of
in 1989. Hormuz is located
 Plitvice Lake between the Persian
National Lake was

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Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman.
 Bering Strait
separates Asia from
North America. It is
located at eastern
most point of Russia
at 1690 43’ east
latitude and western
end (Alaska) of USA
at 168005’ west
latitude. 92 km wide
strait connects the
Chukchi Sea (part of
the Arctic Ocean) in
the north with the
Bering Sea (part of
the Pacific Ocean) in
the south.
 The Ten Degree
Channel separates
the Andaman, and
Nicobar Islands in
the Bay of Bengal.
The two sets of
islands together
form the Indian
Union Territory of
Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
This channel is 150
km wide. It is so
named as it lies on
the 100 northern
latitudes.
 Dover Strait marks
the boundary
between English
Channel and North
Sea. There are three
marine tunnels
through Dove Strait
on the eastern part of
England channel
which connect
England and France.
These tunnels
connect Falke Stone
of England with
Calois of France.
 Lombok Strait is a
strait connecting the
Java Sea to the
Indian Ocean and is
located between the
Islands of Bali and
Lombok in
Indonesia.
 The Palk Strait lies
between Sri Lanka
and Tami Nadu in
India. It connects the
Bay of Bengal to the
Gulf of Mannar. The
Strait is 64 to 137 km
wide. The Strait is
named after Robert
Palk, who was a
Governor of Madras
Presidency (1755-
1763) during British
rule.

 The Gulf of Bothnia
is situated between
Finland and Sweden
and Baffin Bay is
located between
Canada and
Greenland.
 The Gulf of
Carpentaria is a
large, shallow sea
enclosed on three
sides by Northern
Australia while the
Gulf of Tonkin is
located between
Vietnam and China.
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 Bab El-Mandeb
Strait connects the
Red Sea to the
Indian Ocean. The
Strait of Hormuz
links the Persian
Gulf with the Gulf of
Oman. The Strait of
Malacca connects
Indian Ocean to
South China Sea.
The Bosporus Strait
(or Bosporus)
connects the Black
Sea to the Sea of
Marmara.
31. The Canals
 The Suez Canal is an
artificial sea-level
waterway located in
Sinai Peninsula of
Egypt. It connects
Mediterranean Sea
and Red Sea.
 Tewfik port (Suez
port) is located to the
south of Suez Canal
and port Said is
located to its north. It
is the largest
artificial canal of the
world.
 Suez Canal reduced
the maritime
distance between
Europe and India by
7000 km.
 Kiel Canal – Elbe
Estuary and Baltic
Sea.
 Soo Canal – Lake
Superior and Lake
Huron.
 Panama Canal –
Atlantic Ocean and
Pacific Ocean.
 The Panama Canal is
major ship canal of
Central America. It
was constructed by
cutting across the
Isthmus of Panama.
It connects the
Atlantic Ocean to the
Pacific Ocean. This
canal has
significantly
reduced the distance
between San
Francisco (on the
western coast) and
New York (on the
eastern coast).
 Soo Canal connects
two of the five great
lakes of North
America-superior
and Huron.
 Ludwings Canal is
used as an inland
waterway in
Southern Germany.
 The sault-Sainte
Marie Canal which
was a part of the
shipping route from
the Atlantic Ocean to
Lake Superior until
1987 is located in
Canada.
 Volga-Don Canal
connects two
important rivers of
Russia i.e., Volga
River and Don
River.
 White Sea Canal is
located in Russia. It
connects White Sea
with Lake Onega.
 A lock is a device
used for raising and
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lowering boats,
ships, and other
watercrafts between
stretches of water of
different levels on
river and canal
waterways. Locks
are used to make a
river more easily
navigable, or to
allow a canal to lake
a reasonably direct
line across land that
is not level.
32. Dams of the
World
 Itaipu Dam is a joint
venture between
Brazil and Paraguay
(both South
American counties)
at Itaipu of Brazil on
the Parana River.
The dam is 196-
meter-high and 7919
meter long.
 The world’s longest
cross sea bridge is
built over Tiaozhan
Bay. The bridge
spans 42.4 km and
connects the eastern
coastal city of
Qingdao to the
suburb of Huangdi.
 Colorado – Hoover
Dam
 Damodar - Panchet
Hill Dam
 Nile – Aswan Dam
 Zambezi - Kariba
Dam
 Kariba dam one of
the largest dams of
the world, is located
on Zambezi River on
Zambia - Zimbabwe
border.
 The Aswan dam is
located in Egypt of
African continent. It
is built on the river
Nile. Its water is
used for irrigation of
crops, and to
generate
hydroelectric power.
 The Zangmu Dam is
gravity dam on the
Yarlung/Zangbo/Bra
hmaputra River in
Tibet. The dam is
apprehended to
reduce the flow of
Brahmaputra River.
 Hoover Dam also
known as Boulder
dam is a concrete
arch gravity dam in
the black canyon of
Colorado River on
the border of U.S.
states of Nevada and
Arizona.
33. The Coral
Reefs
 Most of the world’s
coral reefs are found
at eastern and
western coastal areas
between the tropic of
cancer and tropic of
Capricorn.
 Australia’s Great
Barrier Reef is
world’s largest coral
reef. Coral reefs
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cover less than 0.1% 100 km, Hydrogen

of our Oceans but up to 125 km.
they contain 25% of  Ozone and other
the world’s marine gases are found at
species. much higher
 The Great Barrier elevation.
Reef is the world’s 
largest coral reef.
The reef is located in
the Pacific Ocean,
off the coast of
Queensland in North
East Australia. There
are over 1500
species of fish, about
400 species of
corals, and  Almost all the
approximate 4000 weather phenomena
species of molluscs. like rainfall, fog and
hailstorm etc. occur
in troposphere. The
34. The Atmos- temperature in this
layer decreases at the
Phere rate of 6.50 C for
every 1000 meters (1
km) height. This is
 The atmosphere is a the most important
mixture of different layer for all
gases, of which 99% biological activity.
are mainly Nitrogen
 The Stratosphere is
(78.08%) and
very dry and air of
Oxygen (20.95%).
this layer contains
Remaining
little water vapour.
approximately 1%
 Stratosphere is
are Argon, carbon
almost free of clouds
dioxide, Neon,
and associated
Helium, Methane,
weather
Hydrogen, Nitrous
phenomenon. These
Oxide, Ozone,
conditions are ideal
Krypton, Xenon etc.
in order to avoid
 Heavy gases are
disturbances. Jet
found at the bottom
aircraft use to fly in
of atmosphere and
this layer.
light gases are found
 The ozone layer is
at the top.
mainly found in the
 Carbon dioxide is
lower portion of the
found to 20 km
Stratosphere from
above Earth, Oxygen
15-35 km above
and nitrogen up to
Earth.

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 Ozone is a molecule enable us to have

composed of three wireless
oxygen atoms and its communities.
colour is blue.  Geostationary
 Ozone layer absorbs satellites are
UV radiation and positioned at
shields life on the approximately
Earth from an 36000 km height
intense and harmful above the Earth.
form of energy. Exosphere is outer
 UV rays may cause limit of atmosphere
skin cancer. above 640 km from
 Radio waves are the Earth.
reflected by the  The communication
Ionosphere. Other satellite located in
major events that outer most layer of
occur in this region atmosphere is in
are as follows: Exosphere.
Identification of
cosmic rays and
35. The Insolation
observation of
Aurora Borealis and
Aurora Australia  The principal source
of atmospheric and
 Aurora is an
Earth’s surface
incredible light
energy is the Sun.
caused by collisions
between electrically  Insolation is the
charged particles incoming solar
released from the Energy intercepted
Sun that enter the by the Earth.
Earth atmosphere.  The energy radiated
 Aurora occurs in the from Sun is known
Northern as short-wave solar
Hemisphere is called radiation whereas
‘Aurora Borealis’ the energy radiated
and in Southern from Earth is known
Hemisphere is called as long wave
‘Aurora Australis’. radiation.
 Ionosphere is  The long wave
responsible for radiation is absorbed
Aurora Borealis. by the atmospheric
gases particularly by
 Ionosphere is
carbon dioxide and
composed of
the other greenhouse
electrically charged
gases. Thus, the
particles that are
atmosphere is
called “ions”. These
indirectly heated by
particles reflect
the Earth’s radiation.
radio waves back to
the Earth surface and

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 Increasing albedo 3-15% and

concentration of Prairie land has
greenhouse gases albedo 10-20%.
such as carbon  More the size of the
dioxide and methane ocean, less the
increases the variation in the
temperature of the annual temperature.
lower atmosphere by More temperature
restricting the variation is found at
outward passage of Atlantic Ocean as
emitted radiation, compared to Pacific
resulting in global Ocean.
warming.  The average,
 Globally Insolation temperature
is the main factor decreases from the
behind the Equator towards the
distribution of higher degree
temperature. By latitude.
absorbing Sun rays,  Cloudy night
the surface of Earth contains more water
gets warmer. This is vapour than clear
the reason why night. The heat
temperature emitted from the
decreases as height Earth’s surface is
increases. At high trapped by the
altitude air density is clouds and emitted
less with little back towards the
humidity. earth. As a result,
 Albedo is the cloudy night seems
fraction of solar warmer than clear
energy (short wave night. If sky is clear,
radiation) reflected heat emitted from
from the Earth back the Earth’s surface
into space. It is a freely escape into
measure of the space, resulting in
reflectivity of the colder temperature.
Earth’s surface.
 Land covered with
fresh snow has a
36. The Cyclones
high albedo (75-
95%), most sunlight
hitting the surface  A cyclone is a large
bounces back air mass that rotates
towards space. around a strong
 The average albedo centre of low
of Earth is 30-35%. atmospheric
Sand desert has pressure. They are
albedo 20-30%. usually
Paddy crop land has characterized by

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inward spiralling of China Sea

0
winds upon the between 100 and
centre of cyclone. A 1800 E longitude.
cyclone centre is the  A tropical cyclone is
area of lowest known by different
atmospheric names in different
pressure. Air parts of the world. It
descends at the is called a
centre of cyclone. “Hurricane” in the
 Tornadoes are USA, “typhoon” in
tropical cyclones. A China. In North and
tornado is a dark North-West
funnel shaped cloud Australia, it is called
that reaches from the Willy-Willy, in
sky to the ground. Philippines, it is
Tornado comes in all called “Baguio” and
tropical and in India it is called
subtropical regions Cyclones.
but the Caribbean  The Saffir Simpson
Sea and American Scale measure the
region are most intensity of
prone to it. hurricane.
 Tornado Alley is an  Wind speed is
area in mid USA that measured on a scale
has a very high of 1-5 to give an
number of estimate of potential
destructive property damage and
tornadoes. Tornado flooding along the
Alley mainly coast.
includes states of  According to IPCC
Mississippi and global warming will
Missouri valley that result in melting of
is Texas, Oklahoma, glaciers, increasing
Kansas and the level of seawater,
Nebraska. floods and droughts
 The Fujita-Pearson will become more
Scale or more severe, the intensity
popularly known as of storms will
the F-scale, is used increase etc.
to measure the  A sudden fall of the
intensity of a Barometer indicates
tornado. The scale westerly winds
was named after Ted followed by a violent
Fujita. storm.
 A typhoon is a  The tropical
mature tropical cyclones Aila, Thane
cyclone that and Neelam affected
develops in the mid India
northern hemisphere

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 Nargis cyclones  In summer, humidity

mainly affected the is very high
region of Myanmar. therefore weather is
 The most proximate muggy.
reason for absence of  Absolute humidity is
cyclone in South the weight of water
Atlantic and South vapour per unit
Eastern Pacific volume, usually
region in tropical expressed in grains
latitude is the low per cubic foot.
temperature of sea
surface.
38. The Atmosp-
heric Pressure

 The sub-polar low-

pressure belt lies
between 600-650
37. The Humidity latitude in both the
hemisphere
throughout the year
 Water vapour as there is low
present in the air is temperature and low
known as humidity. atmospheric
 Moisture content pressure. Although
decreases with this belt has nothing
increase in latitude. to do with
 Atmosphere temperature.
contains 90%  Low atmospheric
moisture up to 5 km pressure generally
height from the built upon land
ground. whereas high
 Humidity is directly atmospheric
proportional to pressure mostly over
temperature, that is oceans.
at higher  The horse latitudes
temperature air can are located at about
hold more water 300 to 350 north and
vapour than the same south the Equator. In
amount of air at the northern
lower temperatures. hemisphere it is
 The energy in form called as the north
of heat required to sub-tropical high-
convert water into pressure belt and in
vapour or gas, is the southern
known as humid hemisphere it is
heat. known as the south-

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tropical high- Earth. They are dark

pressure belt. grey with a ragged
 Air pressure is base. Nimbostratus
defined as the clouds are associated
pressure exerted by with continuous
the weight of air on rain.
the earth’s surface.  Cirrostratus is
 The distribution of highest altitude
air pressure is clouds. These are
influenced by mainly formed at an
temperature of air at altitude of over
a given place. 18000 feet.
 Temperature is  Thunder cloud is a
reversely related process of
with pressure. thunderstorm.
 Due to highest  Thunderstorms are
temperature in local lightning storm
summer, pressure is that develop in hot,
lowest on earth. humid tropical areas
 As altitude increases like India very
the temperature and frequently.
air pressure  The rising
decreases. temperature
 Distribution of air produces strong
pressure is upward rising winds.
influenced by These winds carry
temperature and water droplets
other kinetic factor upwards, where they
(i.e., earth rotation, freeze (condense),
water vapour, and fall down again.
altitude) etc. The swift movement
of the falling water
droplets along with
the rising air creates
39. Clouds lightning and sound.
 During
thunderstorm,
 Clouds are formed as thunder is the sound
a result of the caused by a lighting
process of discharge.
condensation.  Lightning heats the
 Conversion of water air in its path and
in gaseous state to causes a large over-
liquid of solid state pressure of the air
is called within its channel.
condensation. The channel expands
 Nimbostratus clouds supersonically into
are found very near the surrounding air
to the surface or the as a shockwave and

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creates an acoustic active in winter. As

signal that is heard these passes over the
as thunder. sea, these carry
moisture and cause
rain.
40. The Winds  Due to lesser
expansion of land is
the southern
 The horizontal hemisphere,
winds near the earth Westerlies become
surface respond to extremely powerful
the combined effect and turn into storm.
of three forces – The  Due to its intensity
pressure gradient in southern
force, Frictional hemisphere, it is
Force, and the called “Roaring
Coriolis force. Forties” at 400
 The rotation of the latitude, “Furious
Earth on its axis fifties” at 500
affects the direction latitude and
of the wind. This “Shrieking sixties”
force is called the at 600 latitudes.
Coriolis force.  Roaring Forties are
 Coriolis force stormy in nature.
deflects the wind to The strong north-
the right (clockwise) west to east air
direction in the currents are caused
Northern by the combination
Hemisphere and to of air being
the left (anti-clock) displaced from the
in the Southern Equator towards the
Hemisphere. South Pole and the
 The westerlies are Earth’s rotation.
prevailing wind  The Roaring Forties
from the west bring overcast skies,
towards the east rains, and cold
between sub-tropical temperature.
high-pressure zone  Chinook means
(300-350) and sub “snow-eater”.
polar low pressure
 Chinook winds are
(600-650).
most common
 Westerlies are more during winter and
complicated in the early spring along
northern hemisphere the eastern slopes of
due to larger the Rocky
expansion of land. Mountains from
 Westerlies are less Colorado (USA) into
active during British Columbia
summer and more (Canada) in north.

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 Chinook is a hot of the Alps. It most

wind that blows in influences the
winter and therefore weather of
raises the Switzerland.
temperature within a  Simoom – Strong,
short time. dry wind that blows
 Mediterranean Sea in the desert of
is located between Arabian, Kurdistan
300-400 latitude.  Santa Ana – The
This area is under local wind of
subtropical high- southern California.
pressure dynamic  Zonda – The local
belt. wind blows on the
 Summer trade wind eastern slope of the
and westerly (anti Andes in Argentina.
trade) winter wind  Bora is a dry, cold,
blows from 300-400 and fast blowing
latitudes. It means wind on the eastern
Westerly, blows coast of Adriatic
from these latitudes Sea. The northern
toward the north- part of Italy is
east and trade Wind particularly
flows from these influenced by this
latitudes toward wind.
north-west.  Chinook – It is local
 Monsoon are those wind that blows in
seasonal winds the east of Rockies
whose direction Mountain, USA.
reserves as per the  Sirocco - wind blows
season. For six from the Sahara
months during Desert toward north
summer, these winds east direction of
flow from ocean to Mediterranean Sea
land and during and enters Sicily
winter season, these (Italy), Spain and
winds flow from other European
land to sea. Their countries. When the
direction reserves as red sand falls on
per the changes in earth with the rain
season. drops, it’s called
Blood rain.
 Blizzard – A
41. The Local blizzard is a long-
Winds lasting snowstorm
with very strong
winds and intense
snowfall. It flows
 Foehn- A warm dry
through South Pole,
wind blowing down
the northern slopes

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Siberia, Canada, and
USA.
 Norwester – It is a
local wind of Indian
also called
“Kalbaisakhi”.
 Sirocco carries dust
from Libya to the
Mediterranean,
Malta, Italy, Croatia,
Montenegro,
Albania, and Greece.
42. The Forests
 Temperate
coniferous forests
cover the highest
percentage of forest
area in the world.
 Bhutan has made
constitutional
provision for
maintaining forest
over 60% of its total
geographical area.
 Tropical evergreen
forests grow in the
regions near the
Equator (10°N-
10°S) and close to
the tropics. These
regions are hot and
receive heavy
rainfall throughout
the year.
 Tropical evergreen
forests do not shed
their leaves
altogether. This is
the reason they are
called evergreen.
 Three major regions
of evergreen forest
in the world are:
1. Amazon River
Basin- Brazil,
Bolivia, Peru,
Ecuador, Colombia,
Venezuela, Guyana,
and Suriname.
2. Congo basin-
Democratic
Republic of Congo,
Cameroon, Central
African Republic,
Gabon, Equatorial
Ginny, Congo
Republic.
3. Southeast Asia-
Indonesia and Papua
New Guinea.
 Taiga forests are
characteristic of
temperate region.
Taiga Biome is also
known for
coniferous forest is
boreal forest.
 Taiga forest is
expanded over North
America and Eurasia
to the sub polar
climate regions.
 The Amazon River
Basin is the largest
rainforest on Earth.
The basin covers 40
percent of the South
American continent.
 Coniferous forest is
found in 50° N to
60°N latitudes that
lies between the
Tundra to the north
and the deciduous
forest to the south.
These forests are
found in Canada,
Europe, Asia, and
the United States.
 Coniferous forests
mainly found in the
temperate regions of
the world.
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 Ivory Coast is medium-size trees,

situated in Gulf of these trees are
Guinea. Hot, Humid mainly found in
and dense forests are North and South
found in this region. America, Africa,
 Temperate forests Madagascar, and
are cleared, they can Tropical region of
yield productive South Asia.
farmland.  Some important
 Primary productivity species of Dalbergia
of tropical rainforest are Sesame
is greater than all (Rosewood),
other types of Kingwood,
forests. It is greater tulipwood, money
than temperate bush etc.
forests also.  The smell of sesame
 If tropical rain forest of Rose wood is like
is removed, it does rose, so it is called
not regenerate Rosewood.
quickly as compared
to a tropical
deciduous forest.
The main reason is
43. The World
the deficiency of
nutrients in the soil
Climate
of rain forest.
 Cedar Timber –  Earth is tilted on its
Canada.
axis. Due to which
 Douglas Fir Timber days and nights are
– Mexico. not equal
 Mahogany Timber – everywhere.
Honduras.  Duty revolution of
 Teak Timber – the earth on its axis
Myanmar. variation in the
 Monsoon Forest - length of day and
Teak and Sal night time from
 Equatorial Forest - season to season is
Mahogany and seen.
Rosewood  On equatorial line,
 Mediterranean days and nights are
Forest - Plum and always equal.
Olive  The land gets heated
 Coniferous Forest - rapidly through the
Pine and Spruce. insolation of the sun
 Dalbergia species is whereas water gets
a large group which heated very slowly.
has 600 species. Due to this the
 Dalbergia is a large weather of the
genus of small to coastal areas

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remains cold as  Asia is expanded

compared to the from the Equator to
terrestrial regions. the North Pole;
 Latitude is the main hence it is home to
factor which all types of climatic
determines the zones.
climate of any area. 
The major belts of
the climate have
been divided
according to the
different latitudes.
 About one third area
on Earth is covered  Characteristics of
by arid region which warm and dry
is greater than all climate, mild and
other geographical wet winter and
regions. evergreen Oak trees
 The climatic region are related to
of equatorial line Mediterranean
spreads between 5° - region.
10°latitudes in both  Tropical Savannah
the hemispheres. region’s climatic
There are two features are – clear
important features of dry and wet season,
this climatic region: high temperature
(1) Constant high throughout the year
temperature and high insolation.
throughout the year. Average annual rain
(2) Constant high in this region is
rainfall throughout between 500 mm to
the year. 2000 mm and no
 Due to high month of the year
temperature has temperature less
throughout the year, than 20°C.
there is high  In equatorial region,
humidity which constant high
results in temperature and
conventional rains heavy rainfall occurs
mostly in noon. throughout the year.
 Earth is divided into The climate of this
three types of region is not
climatic zones – conducive for
Tropical, temperate, humans, but it is
and cold. These conductive for
spread from the vegetation.
equatorial line to the  Evergreen forests
poles. are found in
equatorial region.

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Humidity persists all the major rainfall is

the day and hence received by
the area becomes Monsoon winds. In
prone to disease. Desert regions,
 Mediterranean rainfall is either
climate extends 30° - negligible or
40° latitudes around indefinite.
the Mediterranean  Norway comes
Sea and is under the western
experienced in the European type of
western parts of climate (40° - 65°
continents. These latitudes). In this
areas are: South climatic region
California, Los rainfall occurs in
Angeles in North sufficient and equal
America, Central quantity throughout
Chile in South the year.
America, Cape  China comes under
Town in South China type climate.
Africa & South Here rains occur
Australia. throughout the year,
 In Central Asian but winter season is
Steppes, the climate relatively dry.
is extreme, rainfall is  Most of Italy has
scanty, and the Mediterranean type
people used to be of climate.
nomadic herder.  Sudan has a tropical
 The Mediterranean climate. Summer
Sea climatic region temperature often
receive rainfall in exceeds 43°C in the
winters. Hot, dry desert zones, and
summer, mild and rainfall is negligible.
moist winter and  Savannah type of
seasonal reversal of climate is found in
winds describe the Sudan.
geographical  Iran has a hot, dry
characteristics of climate
Mediterranean characterized by
climate. long, hot, dry
 During winters, summers and short
Mediterranean winters.
region lie in the belt  Chile, situated in
of westerlies. desert zone, is very
 In Equatorial region, hot and humid
convectional rain during summer and
occurs with thunder very cold and dry
in noon almost during winters.
throughout the year.
In Monsoon regions,

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 California (U.S.A.) - There is an

Mediterranean
Climate
 West Australia - Hot
Desert Climate.
 Bangladesh - pressure belts.
Tropical Monsoon
Climate.
 Siberia (Russia) -
Cold Temperate
Climate.
 Oceanic streams and
prevalent winds
have considerable
impact over the
temperature of
western European
climatic regions.
 The expansion of
Europe is in the belt
of westerly winds.
 In Europe, none of
the mountain is
spread from north to
south Because of no
hurdle in the path
these winds make
the temperature
mild.
 The ports are open
throughout the year.
 Mediterranean
climate and
monsoon climate are
associated with the
transfer of pressure
belts.
 Sub- tropical high-
pressure belts are
found in the middle
of 30° - 35°
latitudes.
 Trade winds blow
during summers in
these latitudes
whereas in winters
these high-pressure
belts shift towards
the equatorial line.
emergence of
monsoon winds due
to the shifting of
atmospheric
 Zaire is a central
African country and
Netherland is a
Western European
country.
The sequence of
climatic regions
while going from
Zaire to Netherland
are as follows:
1. Zaire falls in the
equatorial region so
firstly equatorial
type of climate.
2. Hot desert climate
in Sahara Western
region.
3. Mediterranean
type of climate in the
Mediterranean Sea
region.
4. Finally enters
Netherland where
there is Western
European type of
climate.
 According to
NASA’s satellite
data (2003 – 09) Lut
desert in Iran
(highest temperature
70.7°C recorded in
2005) is the hottest
place.
 Originally the term
El Nino applied to an
annual weak warm
ocean current that
ran southwards
along the coast of
Peru. It affects the
Indian monsoon
rains and causes

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drought like  Hekistotherms are

situation. plants which grow in
 La Nina is cooling of very low
water in the temperature areas
equatorial Pacific like mountains and
Ocean, which is Alpine forests.
opposite to the El
Nino.
 El-Nino is related to
44. The Soil
eastern part of the
Pacific Ocean which
increases the  Smaller the pore of
temperature of the the soil, more
surface water. effective is the cell
 La Nine is related to activity
the large pool of  The effectiveness of
warm water in the cell activity in
western Pacific these four soils are
Ocean. as follows: Clayey >
 El Nino has an silt soil > loamy soil
adverse effect on > sandy soil.
south-west Indian  Patpara – Middle
monsoon. Palaeolithic period.
 La Nina, on the  Khetaurhi – Early
western side of Stone Age.
Pacific Ocean,  Baghor – Late
rainfall heavier Palaeolithic period.
which activates the  Sihawal- Early
Indian summer Palaeolithic period.
monsoon also.  Improvement in land
 St. Lawrence type – use is called soil
Rainfall throughout conservation.
the year. But more  The meaning of soil
in summers as conservation is not
compared to winters. only controlling
 Normally rainfall erosion, rather it
occurs throughout aims at maintaining
the year in China high level of
type of climate fertility.
region, but it occurs  Terrarrossa is a type
more during the of red clay soil
summer season. produced by the
 The average weathering of lime
temperature of stone rocks.
China type climatic  Tropical rain forest
region during the regions of the world
summer season is are facing the soil
between 24° - leaching problem
26.6°C.

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due to heavy rainfall  Spodosols Soil -

throughout the year. Humid cold
 Halophytes grow temperate
well in saline soil.  Laterite Soil - Hot
 Cryophytes grow and humid.
well in cold soil.  Earthworms give
 Plants growing in special contribution
strong rocks are in the formation of
called Lithophyte soil and increase its
and xerophytes grow productivity. They
in tropical desert are called the
areas. ‘ecosystem
 Hydrophytes grow engineer’.
well in water logged  Earthworms
areas. construct pores in
 Edaphic means an the soil through
abiotic factor which water and
relating to the oxygen enters and
physical or chemical carbon dioxide come
composition of the out.
soil, in particular  The wastes of the
area. earthworms are
 Excretion of urea by important for the
animals and dead productivity of the
vegetation are soil. They convert
decomposed by the soil into fine
decomposers. particles and make it
 Contour bunding soft. They act as
method of soil decomposers.
conservation is used
in mountain regions.
Slowing the flow of
45. Major Tribes
water during rain it
checks soil erosion.
Of the World
 Farming on
mountain slopes is  Nomadic herding is
done by contour
a practice of moving
bunding.
from one place to
 Contours facilitate another with cattle in
easy flow of water search of pasture.
thus reducing soil  Nomadic
erosion.
pastoralism is
 Podzol Soil - Cold commonly practiced
temperate in regions with arid
 Chernozem Soil - land over the world,
Temperate cold especially in the
steppe steppe lands of the

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agricultural zone of index is obtained

Eurasia. more than 80.
 Nomadic herding  Howell & Smith
still exists in the classified the race in
world in the areas of three classes:
Central Asia, Africa, Nordic, Alpine and
and South America. Mediterranean.
 Transhumance is  Original home of the
the seasonal Gypsies was India.
movement of people They are believed to
with their livestock have originated from
from one grazing ‘Dom Caste’.
ground to another, as  Pygmy tribes live in
from lowlands to equatorial rain
highlands, with the forests of Congo
change of seasons. River basin in
Pastoral Africa. It is hunter-
communities gatherer tribe.
 In the Himalayas,  The Pygmy tribe
such as the Bhotiya, traditionally live in
Bakarwal, Gaddi, etc single-family huts
have traditionally called mongulus.
been practicing  Keystone species are
livestock herding by pioneer or basic
migrating to more species. Since
suitable pastures on community life is
seasonal basis in their way of living,
India. they decide the
 Archaeopteryx is ability of other
considered to be the species to persist in
first bird to have the community.
appeared on the  The Eskimos have
earth. It is estimated traditionally
to have developed inhabited in the
150 million years Northern Russia,
ago. Alaska, Canada, and
 Africa continent is Greenland. There are
known as ‘the Cradle 2 groups of Eskimos
of Mankind’. which are: (1) Inuit:
 The Caucasoids are These are
considered as the inhabitants of
largest racial group Canada, Eastern
in the world. Alaska, and
 The colour of eyes, Greenland. (2)
among the Yupik: These are
Caucasoids, is light inhabitants of
blue to dark brown Eastern Russia and
and hair straight to Western Alaska.
wavy. The skull

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 There are 2 groups Peninsula

of Eskimos which (Malaysia). They
are: belong to the Negrito
(1) Inuit: These are species.
inhabitants of  Berber Tribe –
Canada, Eastern Morocco.
Alaska, and  Veddas Tribe – Sri
Greenland. Lanka.
(2) Yupik: These are  The Zulu is a tribe of
inhabitants of South Africa.
Eastern Russia and  The Zulus are known
Western Alaska. for their culture and
 Oraon – Oraon is traditions. The
one of the tribal famous war of
communities found Isandlwana was
in Chhotanagpur fought between the
region and Andaman British and the Zulus
Nicobar Island in in 1879.
India.  Central/Eastern
 Lapps – These are Europe &
inhabitants of Western/Central
European Tundra Asia - Alpine Tribal
region. community.
 Bushmen people of  Southeast Asia -
South Africa live in Negrito Tribal
Kalahari Desert. community.
They are found in  Armenia became a
Botswana, Namibia, new country after
Zimbabwe, dissolution of the
Swaziland also Soviet Union in
 Masai Tribe lives in 1991, where Kurdish
Kenya, Northern population is spread.
Tanzania, and  Fulani Tribes - West
Eastern Uganda. Africa
 Bedouin tribe lives  Bantu Tribes - East,
in Saudi Arabia. Central and
 Khirghiz Tribe - Southern Africa
Central Asia.  Nuba Tribes –
 Ainu Tribe – Japan. Sudan.
 Kayak - Narrow  The Sami (Lapps)
hunting boat tribe of Arctic
 Inuit - Snow house Europe lives
 Umiak - Boat for Norway, Sweden,
Transport Finland, and the
 Sledge - Dog pulled Russian Kola
vehicle Peninsula.
 The Semang tribes  The native of North
are inhabitants of the America are related
forests of the Malay to Mongoloid Race.

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46. The Languages
 Esperanto is an
International
auxiliary language
devised by Dr.
Ludwig Lazarus
Zamenhof. It is not
official language of
any country.
 Spanish is an official
language of Chile,
Colombia & Cuba
while it is not in the
Republic of Congo.
 Myanmar - Burmese
Dialect.
 Indonesia - it worldwide.
Indonesian (official
language), English,
Dutch, Javanese etc
 Mauritius - English,
French (official
languages), Hindi
Urdu, Hakka,
Bhojpuri and Creole
 Singapore - Malay
(National language),
English, Mandarin
and Tamil (all
official language).
47. Economic
Geography
 The leading
producer of both
wheat and rice in the
world is China
according to (FAO
report 2016).
 India is the largest
area under rice
cultivation.
 The descending
order of beat
producing countries
are China, India,
Russia, USA
(According to FAO
2016).
 The cultivation of
hybrid rice is most
popular in China.
 The Rice Gene Bank
is situated in the
International Rice
Research Institute in
Los Banes,
Philippines.
 India is the second
largest producer of
sugar cane and the
largest consumer of
 Brazil is the largest
producer half sugar
cane.
 Ukraine produces
almost whole of its
sugar production
from beets only.
 According to recent
data of FAO, China
is the largest cotton
seed producer.
 India is the top
producer of cotton
lint.
 Top five countries
according to cotton
yield: Australia>
Turkey>China>Isra
el>Mexico.
 According to FAO
2016, India is the
largest producer and
exporter of Castor
oil seeds.
 According to FAO
2016 India is the
largest producer of
banana.
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 According to FAO  Yangzi Jian Basin is

2016 the five leading known for rice
producers of coconut production and
in the world are Huang He is known
Indonesia, for Winter wheat
Philippines, India, production
Brazil and Sri  Coffee is cultivated
Lanka. in Sao Paulo region.
 According to FAO  Cocoa – Ghana
data India ranks  Coffee – Ivory
second in the Coast, Colombia
production of fruits  Tea – Kenya
and vegetables.  Sugarcane – South
 According to FAO Africa, Mauritius
2016, largest  Rubber – Malaysia
producer of Jowar is  Olive – Italy
USA followed by  Iron ore – China
Nigeria and Sudan.  Milk – India
 USA is the largest
 Petroleum – Saudi
producer of Arabia.
Soyabean.
 Natural Rubber –
 According to 2015 Thailand.
data, Mexico exports
 According to
maximum
International
percentage of sugar
Committee for
production. India is
animal recording,
second place in this
the maximum
regard.
production of milk
 Largest rubber
cow was in Denmark
cultivation is done in
in 2017.
Indonesia.
 Coffee is grown in
 Country with
the state of Hawaii,
principal primary United States.
export,
 Apple is
 Fazenda is a type of
commercially
plantation found in cultivated in
Brazil where coffee temperate and
is produced in South subtropical regions.
eastern regions of
 Flowers do not grow
Brazil.
in apple trees in
 Top producing tropical regions
countries of coffee because this process
are Brazil, Vietnam,
requires cold
Columbia, climatic conditions.
Indonesia, Ethiopia,
 Alley Cropping is
Honduras, India,
planting rows of
Uganda, Mexico,
trees with wide
Guatemala.
spacing.

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 Monoculture is a acid, magnesium and

distinct potassium.
characteristic of  Podzol soil is found
commercial grain near 600 N latitudes
farming. in Eurasia and North
 Nitrogen is an America.
essential element for  Mocha coffee disco
for the development in Yemen.
of plant cell and  Tea was first used as
tissue. a medicinal drink in
 Due to deficiency of China.
Nitrogen in plants  According to the
the leaves turn International
yellowish in colour Agreement on
and dry up. Agriculture, a green
 Rhizobium, box is an instrument
Azotobacter, through which
Azospirillum and economic assistance
blue-green Algae are is provided in the
used as Bio- fields of – research
fertilizers for crops. related to control of
 Blue-Green algae is insects and disease,
used in paddy fields, training, general
whereas azotobacter awareness,
is used as a bio- marketing, and
fertilizer for wheat, promotion activities.
maize, mustard,  Heroin Production is
potato, and cotton. obtained from
 Azospirillum is used Opium resin.
for Sorghum, Millet,  Golden Crescent is
Sugarcane, Maize the name given to
etc. one of Asia’s two
 Azolla – Anabaena principal areas of
biofertilizer is used illicit opium
for rice crop production located at
production. central and South
 Alfa-Alfa is a plant Asia.
native to Asia, and is
considered to be one
of the first known
herbs to mankind. It
is naturally high in
many essential
vitamins and  Maize is staple food
minerals including for the people in
A, D, E, K and middle Africa.
family of the  Maize is rich in
vitamin, biotin, folic vitamin A, C & E,

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carbohydrates,
minerals and protein.
 Sacramento-San
Joaquin Valley is
located in California
(USA).
 Sacramento is a
flat/internal valley,
where River San
Joaquin creates
inland delta. The
valley is world
famous for grapes
and citrus fruit.
 Commercial
viticulture is specific
to Mediterranean
region of Europe.
 The major cause of
viticulture at large
scale is the use of
85% of grapes
production in wine.
 Catechu is obtained
from woos of Khair
tree.
 Peanuts is the main
crop of Gambia.
 China is the largest
producer of
groundnuts. Ghana
is also one of the 48. The Minerals
leading producers.
 Brazil is considered
the native place of
groundnuts.
 Shahtoosh is a kind
of shawl which is
woven with hair of
Tibetan antelope
(Chiru). They are
found almost
entirely in China.
 Apiculture is the
maintenance of bee
also called beeking.
 Viticulture is the
science of
production and study
of grapes.
 Vegetable
cultivation is called
olericulture.
 Flower cultivation –
Floriculture.
 Crops cultivation –
Agronomy.
 Fruits Cultivation –
Pomology.
 The largest producer
of silk in the world is
China followed by
India, Vietnam,
Turkmenistan,
Romania, Thailand
and Uzbekistan.
 Mad cow disease
first broke out in
1980 in Britain. It
badly affected the
British beef
industry.
 Cuba is known as the
Sugar Bowl of the
world because sugar
cane is the major
produce of Cuba.
 Based on the
percentage of carbon
present coal is
categorised in four
types:
 1. Anthracite - It is
the best quality of
coal having a carbon
content of 90%-
95%.
 2. Bituminous - It is
next to Anthracite in
terms of quality
having a carbon
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content of 70% to  According to the

90%. data provided by
 3. Lignite - Indian Bureau of
Famously known as mines 2017, more
brown coal having a than half of the
carbon content of world’s production
40% – 45%. It is of coal comes from
mostly used in China and USA.
thermal power  Ruhr is a river in
plants. Germany.
 4. Peat -It is low-  The second most
grade coal having a abundant metal
carbon content of found in Earth's core
40% or less. is iron.
 Rock coal is also  Largest producer of
known as Iran over our China,
Anthracite. It is the Australia and Brazil,
highest quality of India.
coal.  Lake Superior
 At present China has region in North
the highest reserves America is famous
of Anthracite. for iron ore reserves.
 Coal, crude oil and  Loraine Iron ore
natural gas are fossil region – France.
fuels.  Midland Iron ore
 Donbass region region – UK.
situated in Ukraine is  Kiruna Iron ore
a major coal region – Sweden.
producing region.  Kokshetau Iron ore
 The North region – Kazakhstan.
Appalachian coal  The top five leading
area is the largest countries in terms of
coal area of USA. copper production
The region produces are Chile, China,
the best quality of Peru, USA.
coal.  Huge deposits of
 Saar region is a Porphyry copper are
forest in found in the
southwestern mountainous region
German state of Andes.
bordered by France.  The Chuquicamata
A large deposit of copper mine of
coal is found here. It Northern Chile is
is situated in this are located in this
Saar River Valley. region. These copper
 Kuznetsk Coalfield deposits are believed
– Russia. to be of North
 Lancashire – U.K Eocene Oligocene
epoch.

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 There is a long comprised of 60% of

copper (reserve) belt copper, 20% zinc
from Zambia to and 20% Nickel.
Katanga (Zaire).  Aluminium is a
 Japan is self- whitish coloured
sufficient in copper metal. Bauxite is the
production. The ore of Aluminium.
production of copper  According to Indian
in Japan is more than Mineral yearbook
its consumption. 2015, the largest
 The largest aluminium primary
producers of gold producers of the
are- China, world are China,
Australia, Russia, Russia, Canada,
America. UAE, India.
 World’s maximum  80% of the world's
gold reserves is tin is found in the
found in Australia. placer deposits.
70% of its gold is  Maximum placer
derived from deposits are spread
Western Australia. across South-East
Two of the important Asia.
gold mines  According to Indian
Kalgoorlie and mineral year book
Coolgardie are 2017 the largest tin
situated in Western producers of the
Australia. world are China,
 Jonesburg is famous Indonesia,
for gold mining. Myanmar, Brazil.
 Switzerland is the  Leading petroleum
largest gold producers are USA,
exporting country to Saudi Arabia,
India. Russia, China.
 Asia’s biggest gold  USA the biggest
market is in China producer of crude
followed by India. oil.
 According to Indian  Saudi Arabia is the
mineral year book largest oil producing
2017 largest country in the West
producers of silver in Asia.
the world are  The largest oil-
Mexico, Peru, producing country in
China, Russia, South-East Asia is
Chile. Indonesia. Sumatra,
 German silver is also Java, Kalimantan are
known as nickel the important oil
silver, Mailechort, producing regions.
New silver, Alpaca  Venezuela in South
etc. It is an alloy America is an

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important oil-
producing country in
the world. Petroleum
constitutes 80% of
the export of
Venezuela.
 According to Indian
Mineral Year Book-
2017, the top five
leading countries in
terms of crude oil
reserves are
Venezuela, Saudi
Arab, Canada, Iran
Iraq.
 Ras Tanura is the
oldest refinery on the
Persian Gulf, located
near industrial port
city Jubail in Saudi
Arabia.
 Gasohol is 90%
Gasoline (Unleaded)
and 10% ethyl
alcohol (ethanol).
 Gasoline is a by-
product mixture of
petrol. 49. Mineral:
 USA is the top
producer and
Miscellaneous
consumer of
gasohol.
 Bent crude oil is a
major classification
of crude oil. It is
sourced from North
Sea.
 Iran- Pakistan gas
pipeline is also
known as the peace
pipeline or IP gas
pipeline.
 The first commercial
oil well was
commercially drilled
in Romania in 1857.
 Sugar cane, corn,
soybean, rapeseed,
jatropha are used for
biofuel production.
 Kazakhstan is the
largest producer of
uranium.
 Russia possesses
rich reserves of iron
ore, manganese,
chromium, nickel,
platinum, titanium,
copper, tin, lead,
tungsten, diamonds,
phosphates and gold.
 The largest uranium
reserves are found in
South Australia.
 Uranium city
Saskatchewan is a
planned community
located in Canada.
 Radium is a
radioactive element.
It is extracted from
uranium ore
pitchblende.

 Non-ferrous metals
are those metals or
alloys, which does
not have any amount
of iron in them. The
important non-
ferrous metals are -
Aluminium, Copper,
Lead, Nickle, Tin,
Titanium, Zinc,
Silver, Gold,
Platinum, Cobalt,
Mercury, Tungsten,
Beryllium, Cerium,
Cadmium, Gallium,
Germanium etc.
 Coal – Karaganda
basin.
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 Gold – Highveld  Nitrate in its natural

 Mineral Oil – San form is found in
Joaquin Valley. Chile and Peru.
 Iron Ore – Krivoi  Atacama Desert
Rog. located in north
 Port Radium is Chile has the largest
located in Canada source of nitrate.
and world-famous  Copper – Cuprite
uranium reserves.  Zinc – Calamine
 In USA copper is  Iron – Haematite
produced in Arizona  Cinnabar is the most
Bingham. common source ore
 Baku is located in for refining
Azerbaijan, on the elemental mercury.
Northern slopes of 
Caucasus Miner Country
Mountains. als
 Baku is world Silver Mexico
famous for Mica India
petroleum. Iron Russian
 Ore Federati
Region Mine on
ral Coppe Chile
Kimberl Diam r
ey ond
Witwate Gold  The leading
rsrand producer of Iodine in
Katanga Copp the world is Chile.
er  Iodine is extracted
Saar Coal from Caliche Ore or
Buttle Silve brines.
r  Commercial sources
of energy consist of
 The discovery of power, coal, oil, gas,
Lithium mineral in hydroelectricity and
Afghanistan mineral uranium.
was compared with  According to the
the discovery of the Indian Bureau of
oil field in Iran. mines, DR Congo is
 China is the leading the biggest producer
producer of in Africa.
Titanium.
 According to IMYB
2017, Australia is
50. The Industries
the leading producer
of Bauxite followed
by China, Brazil,  Centre for Iron-steel:
India. Hamilton – Canada
Birmingham - U.K

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Essen – Germany Cotto

Anshan – China n
Yokoha Ship
 Center and ma Buildi
concerned industry ng
are as follows: Housto Oil
1. Pittsburgh - Iron n and
and steel Natur
2. Shanghai - Cotton al Gas
Textile
3. Dundee - Jute  Concerned industry
Textile and respective cities:
4. Leningrad - Ship 1. Anshan (China) -
building Iron and steel
 5. Salem - Iron and industry.
steel 2. Havana (Cuba) -
 6. Los-Angeles - Cigar Industry.
Aircraft  3. Detroit (U.S.A.) -
 7. Abadan - Oil Automobile
Refinery  4. Nagoya (Japan) -
 8. Nagoya - Cotton Cotton Textile
Textile.  5. Chelyabinsk
 Aberdeen is often (Russia)- Metallurgy
called as the ‘Oil and Military
Capital of Europe’. Machinery.
The petroleum 6. Milan (Italy) - Silk
industry in Aberdeen textile industry
began with the 7. Moscow (Russia)
discovery of - Metal, Chemical
significant oil and Machinery
deposits in North industry
Sea during the mid- 8. Osaka (Japan) -
20th century. Cotton textile
 Biomass is a 9. Sheffield
renewable source of (England) - Cutlery
energy. industry
 Birmingham is 10. Venice City
located in United (Italy) - Glass
Kingdom. It is industry
famous for its Iron 11. Glasgow
and steel industry (Scotland) - Ship
not for ship building. building industry
 12. Ottawa (Canada)
City Indust - Paper making
ry industry
Osaka Textil  Industrial region and
e respective countries:
Indust 1. Kinki – Japan
ry, 2. Canton – China

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3. Lorraine – France located at any

4. Belo Horizonte – location without
Brazil effect from factors
5. Lancashire such as resources or
Region - United transport.
Kingdom  The availability of
6. Ruhr Region - raw material is not
Germany the primary
7. Keihin Region - consideration in
Japan electronics industry.
8. Southern  Bagasse can be used
Appalachian Region as a biomass fuel for
- United States of generating energy
Americas and Molasses of
9. Po Valley – Italy sugarcane may be
10. Kanto Plain - used for the
Japan. production of
ethanol.
 According to data  Poplar is the woody
for year 2011 given raw material used for
by United Nations making paper pulp.
Food and  Osaka (Japan) is
Agricultural known as
Organisation, China ‘Manchester of East’
is at 1st rank in the for production of
production of Wool cotton textile.
Australia, New  Most of the Iron and
Zealand, and United steel production
Kingdom are at centre are located at
second third and southern coastal
fourth place, region.
respectively. At  In eastern Asia,
present (2013) China Japan is at prominent
is member one wool position in ship
(greasy) producer. building, while in
Australia and New Kyushuregion-
Zealand are at fukuoka,
second and third Kitakyushu,
place, respectively. Nagasaki are
 Wuppertal is a City important region for
in North Rhine - automobiles,
Westphalia, chemicals,
Germany. It is a semiconductor
centre of wool industry.
production.  South Korea is a
 Footloose industry is leading country in
a general term for ship building
any industry that can industry.
be placed and

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 London is the largest  Trans-Andean

metal trading centre. railway is most
 There are industries important rail route
related to Tyres, of South America. It
Electric Wires, travels from
Battery, Paint, Car Valparaiso to
Machinery, Buenos Aires of
Chemicals, Argentina. The
Computers etc. Trans-Siberian
Ontario situated in railway is the longest
Canada is famous for (9232 kms.) railway
paper industry, in the world.
Texas is famous for  Descending order of
chemical industry the countries in
and Nagoya in Japan terms of railway
is known for motor length in the world
car. are USA, Russia,
China, India,
Canada, Germany.
51. Transport  The Canadian
Pacific Railway
connects Montreal to
 North Atlantic Sea Vancouver.
route connects two  The Delaware
major industrial Aqueduct is the
zones of Europe and newest of aqueducts
North America. It is in the New York
the busiest Sea route City. It takes water
in the World. from the Rondout
 North Atlantic Reservoir through
Ocean Route is the the Chelsea Pump
busiest ocean route. Station, the West
 Major ports of Branch Reservoir,
western Europe i.e., and the Kentico
London, Liverpool, Reservoir, ending at
Hamburg, the Hill view
Amsterdam etc. and Reservoir in
major ports of North Yonkers, New York.
America like The Delaware
Quebec, New York, Aqueduct is the
Boston, Philadelphia world's longest
etc. come under the tunnel.
North Atlantic  The longest rail
Ocean Route. route tunnel of the
 European trans- world, Seikan is
continental railway located in Japan. Its
travel from Paris to length is 53.85 Km.
Warsaw.  2000 km of high-
speed rail network

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were in service till  The port of Santos is

September, 2016. located in Brazil.
With this China has  Port Nolloth, a town
the largest high- of South Africa, is
speed rail network in known as Port
the world. Diamond.
 China has started its  The periplus of the
longest Bullet train. Erythraean Sea or
Periplus of Red Sea
is a Greco – Roman
52. The Ports & periplus written in
Harbours koine Greek that
describes navigation
and trading
opportunities from
 The busiest port of
Roman Egyptian
Japan is Yokohama.
ports.
It is operated by Port
 Alexandria is the
and Harbour Bureau
second largest city
of the city of
and major economic
Yokohama in Japan.
centre in Egypt,
 Igarka Port - Russia.
extending about 32
 Rotterdam port –
km along the coast
Netherland.
of the Mediterranean
 Montevideo Port –
Sea.
Uruguay.
 Jakarta Port –
Indonesia. 53. Mapping
 The largest
shipbuilder country  An Isopleth map
of the world is South generalizes and
Korea. simplifies data with
 Gwadar is a port in continuous
Pakistan located the distribution. It
Arabian Sea. The shows the data as
port has tactical third dimension on
importance in the map.
region. An  Isopleth maps are
agreement was more common for
signed between mapping surface
Pakistan and China elevation, amounts
for the development of precipitation,
of Gwadar Port. atmospheric
China is also pressure and
building a rail numerous other
network up to the measurement that
Gwadar Port for the can be viewed
smooth transit of statistically as a third
trade activities. dimension. It is an

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example of daily continents, the cold

weather map. currents flowing
 An imaginary line or from the polar seas
a line on a map and the warm
joining points on the currents from the
Earth’s surface at low latitudes
which the magnetic converge. Because
declination is the of convergence,
same called, there is strong
isogonal. mixing of ocean
 An imaginary line waters. In such
representing points areas, the nutrients
of depth under water essential for marine
is called Isobath in organisms are in
mapping. abundance. So, the
 Contours are an marine life is rich in
effective device for such areas.
representing relief  Grand Banks portion
on topographic of the North
maps. They can be American
defined as an continental shelf in
imaginary line the Atlantic Ocean
connecting points of lies in Southeast of
equal elevation on Newfoundland
the ground surface. Island, Canada
 When contours are  The cold Labrador
close together, they Current and the
represent a steep relatively warm Gulf
slope, whereas when Stream meet in the
contours are far from vicinity of the Grand
each other, they Banks.
represent a gradual  The mingling of the
slope. cold and warm water
produces favourable
conditions for the
54. Miscellaneous growth of plankton,
on which fish
depend directly or
 At about 40° N and indirectly for their
60°S latitudes on the food supply. It
western margins of consists of a number
the continents, the of separate banks,
cold and warm which are St. Pierre,
Ocean currents Georges Bank, etc.
diverge.  The concept of Neo-
 On the contrary, at Determinism in
the same latitude, geography was
along the eastern advanced by Griffith
coast of the Taylor. This concept

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is known as ‘stop- rainfall is known as

and-go determinism’ Isohyet.
or Scientific  Isobar is a line on
determinism. map connecting
 J.E. Spencer and points having the
W.L. Thomas have same atmospheric
divided the world pressure at a given
into 11 cultural time.
worlds in their book  Isotherm is a line on
“Introducing map connecting
Cultural point having same
Geography.” temperature at a
 The Kurd or Kurdish given time.
people are an ethnic  Isohalines are lines
group in the Middle (or contour) that join
East mostly point of equal
inhabiting a salinity in an aquatic
contiguous area of system.
Eastern and South-  A nautical mile is a
eastern Turkey, non-SI unit of
West Iran, Northern distance, set by
Iraq and Northern international
Syria. agreement as being
 Madhesi are exactly 1,852 metres
indigenous ethnic (about 6,076 feet). It
group of Nepal and is generally used by
Rohingya are navigators in the sea,
Muslim of the air and in polar
Rakhine State, exploration.
Myanmar.  The terrestrial mile
 Australia is a federal is a unit of length
State consists New equal to 1,760 yards
South Wales, and standardised as
Victoria, exactly 1,609.344
Queensland, South metres by
Australia, Western international
Australia, and agreement.
Tasmania.  The length of
terrestrial mile is less
than a nautical mile.
 The Harmattan is a
dry and dusty North
Easterly trade wind
which blows from
 the Sahara Desert
 A line on a map or over the West
chart connecting African
areas of equal subcontinent into the
Gulf of Guinea

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between the end of  Great Victoria

November and Desert – Australia
middle of March. In  Grand Canyon -
West Africa, it is U.S.A.
known as ‘The  Lake Winnipeg -
doctor’ because of Canada
its invigorating  Southern Alps - New
dryness compared Zealand
with humid tropical  Seikan Tunnel –
air. Japan
 Located on the  Petronas Towers –
Southwestern tip of Malaysia.
the European  Rogun Dam –
Continent, the Tajikistan
Iberian Peninsula,  Peneplains are
includes the formed by rivers.
countries of
Peneplain are almost
Andorra, Portugal featureless gentle
and Spain, and the
undulating plain
British Crown produced by fluvial
Colony of Gibraltar erosion and in course
while Greece & of time reduce the
Albania are not part
land almost to base
of Iberian Peninsula.
level, leaving so
 A pole star is a little gradient that
visible star aligned essentially no more
with Earth’s axis of erosion could occur.
rotation i.e., a star  The Bermuda
whose apparent Triangle is an
position is close to
Oceanic area
one of the celestial
bounded by points in
poles. It lies directly Bermuda, Florida,
overhead North Pole and Puerto Rico in
or South Pole.
the Western part
 Gravitation is a (Miami) of the North
natural phenomenon Atlantic Ocean
by which all things  The Bermuda
with the mass are Triangle is also
brought towards one
known as the
another and Earth ‘Devil’s Triangle
has gravitational
 Golden Triangle -
force.
Opium producing
 Greenland- is
Area of South East
located between Asia
Arctic and Atlantic
 Rice Bowl of Far
Ocean, Sound is
East - Myanmar
generated by
 Red Basin – China.
Explosion.
 RADARSAT-1, the
satellite of Canada

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which helped in the communes, to meet

preparation of a China’s industrial
detailed and and agricultural
complete map of needs.
Antarctica for the  The Chernobyl
first time in 1997. nuclear disaster
 Cape Canaveral, happened in April
located at Florida 1986 in the Soviet
USA, is prime Union and current
Centre of space craft Ukraine.
and satellite launch.  India has the largest
 A geostationary number of Post
satellite is at an Offices in the world
altitude of which is more than 1
approximately lakh.
35,786 km above  Ostrich is the tallest
mean sea level. It is bird but cannot fly.
directly over the Crane is tallest
equator and travels among flyer birds.
in the same direction 
the earth rotates.
 Venice city of Italy,
is known as ‘La
Dominate’ ‘Queen
of the Adriatic Sea’,
“City of Canals”,
“city of Bridges” etc.
 Catalonia – Spain
 Mindanao–
Philippines.
 Oromia – Ethiopia
 The word ‘Kyrgyz’
is derived from Kyrk
which means forty.
Thus, Kyrgyz stan
 Kailash Mansarovar
means country of 40
is located in Chinese
tribes.
Tibet.
 ‘The Great Leap
 Mount Kailash is a
Forward Policy’ in
peak in the kalash
Chinese history, is
range which forms
the campaign
the part of the trans
undertaken by the
Himalayas and Tibet
Chinese communist
China. It lies near the
party between 1958
source of some of
and early 1960 to
the longest rivers
organize its vast
like Indus, Sutlej,
population,
Brahmaputra,
especially in large-
Karnali.
scale rural

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 India’s look East  The SAARC

policy was secretariat is in
developed and Kathmandu, Nepal
enacted during the 
government of PV
Narsimha Rao.
 India’s look East
policy represents its
effort to cultivate
extensive economic
and strategic
relations with the  Headquarters of
nations of Southeast European Union is in
Asia. Brussels in Belgium.
 Duty Geo strategic  University of Tokyo
location of Southeast Atacama,
Asia between Pacific observatory is the
Ocean and Indian world's highest
Ocean it has astronomical
captured the observatory.
attention of global  The age of the tree
community. can be determined
 The headquarters of by counting the
food and agricultural number of rings on
organization is its stem.
located in Rome  Dendrochronology
Italy. is the scientific
 International Red method of dating
Cross society- based on the analysis
Geneva. of patterns of tree
 International Court rings.
of Justice- Hague.  World population
 European Economic th
day- 11 July
Community-  Copacabana beach
Brussels. located in the South
 International zone of the city of
Maritime Rio de Janeiro.
organization is a
specialized agency
of United Nations.
Its headquarters is in
London.


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55. Countries & Cameroon Yaoundé

Canada Ottawa
Capitals Cape Verde Praia
Central
COUNTRY CAPITAL African Bangui
Afghanistan Kabul Republic

Albania Tirana (Tirane) Chad N'Djamena

Algeria Algiers Chile Santiago

Andorra Andorra la Vella China Beijing

Angola Luanda Colombia Bogota

Antigua and Comoros Moroni

Saint John's
Barbuda Congo,
Argentina Buenos Aires Democratic
Kinshasa
Republic of
Armenia Yerevan
the
Australia Canberra
Congo,
Austria Vienna
Republic of Brazzaville
Azerbaijan Baku the
Bahamas Nassau Costa Rica San Jose
Bahrain Manama Côte d'Ivoire
Yamoussoukro
Bangladesh Dhaka (Ivory Coast)
Barbados Bridgetown Croatia Zagreb
Belarus Minsk Cuba Havana
Belgium Brussels Cyprus Nicosia
Belize Belmopan Czech
Benin Porto Novo Republic Prague
(Czechia)
Bhutan Thimphu
Denmark Copenhagen
La Paz
Bolivia (administrative), Djibouti Djibouti
Sucre (official) Dominica Roseau
Bosnia and Dominican
Sarajevo Santo Domingo
Herzegovina Republic
Botswana Gaborone East Timor Dili
Brazil Brasilia Ecuador Quito
Bandar Seri Egypt Cairo
Brunei
Begawan El Salvador San Salvador
Bulgaria Sofia England London
Burkina Faso Ouagadougou Equatorial
Malabo
Burundi Giteau Guinea
Cambodia Phnom Penh Eritrea Asmara

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Estonia Tallinn Kazakhstan Nur-Sultan

Eswatini Kenya Nairobi
Mbabane
(Swaziland) Kiribati Tarawa Atoll
Ethiopia Addis Ababa Kosovo Pristina
Federated Kuwait Kuwait City
States of Palikir
Kyrgyzstan Bishkek
Micronesia
Laos Vientiane
Fiji Suva
Latvia Riga
Finland Helsinki
Lebanon Beirut
France Paris
Lesotho Maseru
Gabon Libreville
Liberia Monrovia
Gambia Banjul
Libya Tripoli
Georgia Tbilisi
Liechtenstein Vaduz
Germany Berlin
Lithuania Vilnius
Ghana Accra
Luxembourg Luxembourg
Greece Athens
Madagascar Antananarivo
Grenada Saint George's
Malawi Lilongwe
Guatemala Guatemala City
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur
Guinea Conakry
Maldives Male
Guinea-
Bissau Mali Bamako
Bissau
Malta Valletta
Guyana Georgetown
Marshall
Haiti Port au Prince Majuro
Islands
Honduras Tegucigalpa
Mauritania Nouakchott
Hungary Budapest
Mauritius Port Louis
Iceland Reykjavik
Mexico Mexico City
India New Delhi
Moldova Chisinau
Indonesia Jakarta
Monaco Monaco
Iran Tehran
Mongolia Ulaanbaatar
Iraq Baghdad
Montenegro Podgorica
Ireland Dublin
Morocco Rabat
Jerusalem (very
Mozambique Maputo
limited
Israel
international Myanmar
Nay Pyi Taw
recognition) (Burma)

Italy Rome Namibia Windhoek

Jamaica Kingston Nauru No official capital

Japan Tokyo Nepal Kathmandu

Jordan Amman Netherlands Amsterdam

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New Zealand Wellington Serbia Belgrade

Nicaragua Managua Seychelles Victoria
Niger Niamey Sierra Leone Freetown
Nigeria Abuja Singapore Singapore
North Korea Pyongyang Slovakia Bratislava
North Slovenia Ljubljana
Macedonia Skopje Solomon
(Macedonia) Honiara
Islands
Northern Somalia Mogadishu
Belfast
Ireland
Pretoria,
Norway Oslo South Africa Bloemfontein,
Oman Muscat Cape Town
Pakistan Islamabad South Korea Seoul
Palau Melekeok South Sudan Juba
Panama Panama City Spain Madrid
Papua New Sri
Port Moresby
Guinea Sri Lanka Jayewardenepura
Paraguay Asuncion Kotte

Peru Lima Sudan Khartoum

Philippines Manila Suriname Paramaribo

Poland Warsaw Sweden Stockholm

Portugal Lisbon Switzerland Bern

Qatar Doha Syria Damascus

Romania Bucharest Taiwan Taipei

Russia Moscow Tajikistan Dushanbe

Rwanda Kigali Tanzania Dodoma

Saint Kitts Thailand Bangkok

Basseterre
and Nevis Togo Lomé
Saint Lucia Castries Tonga Nuku'alofa
Saint Vincent Trinidad and
Port of Spain
and the Kingstown Tobago
Grenadines Tunisia Tunis
Samoa Apia Turkey Ankara
San Marino San Marino Turkmenistan Ashgabat
Sao Tome Tuvalu Funafuti
Sao Tome
and Principe
Uganda Kampala
Saudi Arabia Riyadh
Ukraine Kyiv or Kiev
Scotland Edinburgh
United Arab
Senegal Dakar Abu Dhabi
Emirates

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United
London
Kingdom
United States Washington D.C.
Uruguay Montevideo
Uzbekistan Tashkent
Vanuatu Port Vila
Vatican City Vatican City
Venezuela Caracas
Vietnam Hanoi
Wales Cardiff
Yemen Sana'a
Zambia Lusaka
Zimbabwe Harare

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UPPSC 2019

1. CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF INDIAN LANGUAGES IS LOCATED IN MYSURU.

2. CENTRAL HIGH TIBETAN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE IS IN VARANASI.
3. ISA SECRETARIAT LOCATED AT GURUGRAM.
4. SUEZ CANAL LAKE -

5.

6. Telegraph plateau is a part of North Atlantic Ridge.

7.
 CLICK HERE FOR FREE TESTS

8.

9.
10. Talcher coal field – Angul District Of ODISHA in Mahanadi Valley.
11. Karanpura coalfield – Jharkhand, Damodar Valley
12. Singrauli Coalfield – spread across sonbhadra and singrauli district of UP & MP, Son Valley
13. Singareni Coalfield – Telangana, Godavari valley
14. Gurla Mandhata peak – Tibetan plateau
15. Kamet is the second highest mountain in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand
 CLICK HERE FOR FREE TESTS

16.
17. The winter rains caused by Western Disturbance in North-Western Plain of India gradually
decreases from West to East.
18. In LUNI River, the upper course contains fresh water but saline water flowing at the lower part.
19. Moribund Delta' is a subdivision of Bengal Delta.
20. Sugarcane and sugar production in the U.P. is more than in Maharashtra but productivity is
less.
21. Known as the “Khajuraho of Vidarbha”, the temple of Markandadeo is situated on the bank of
River Wainganga in district Gadchiroli of Maharashtra.
22. Maquis Vegetation - Mediterranean region
23. Fynbos Vegetation – South Africa
24. Matorral Vegetation – Chile
25. Chaparral Vegetation – California
26. Epiphyte Vegetation – Equitorial Region
27. Acacia Tree – Savanna
28. Baobab Tree – Sahara Region
29. Cedar Tree – Mediterranean
30. Pygmy tribe – congo basin
31. Angamis tribe – Nagaland
32. Ainu tribe – Japan
33. Kyrgyz tribe - Kyrgyzstan
34. The correct order of the Central India hills from west to east is Satpura, Mahadeo, Maikal and
Chhotanagpur.
35. The highest concentration of Seismic zones lies in Himalayan region in India. There are many
longitudinal thrust zones in Himalayas.
36. Imphal Basin surrounded by Manipur hills is a fine example of Lacustrine plain.
37. The Damodar is famous for its fault valley drainage. The Damodar river rises in the Palamu hills
of the Chota Nagpur plateau in the state of Jharkhand.
38. Savanna or Tropical Grassland regions is known as 'the big game country' or 'a land of safari'.
39. The sedimentary rocks of the greater Himalayas were fossil less. Marine living fossils are
found in the sedimentary rocks of lesser Himalayas. Remains of human civilization are found
in Outer or Shivalik Himalayas.

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1. The tribes of the Islands belong to two different races. The Andamanese, Jarawas, Onges and
the Sentinelese living in the Andaman group of islands belong to the Negrito group while the
Nicobarese and Shompens, living in Nicobar Islands belong to the Mongoloid group.
2. Trans-Himalayan Rivers are those rivers that originate beyond the Greater Himalayas. Three of
the major trans-Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the Brahmaputra, and the Sutlej.
3. KHAS Tribe – Uttarakhand, HP, J&K, Assam, Sikkim
4. Birhor Tribe – Jharkhand
5. Todas – TN
6. Sala Lake - Manipur
7. Badkhal Lake - Haryana
8. Loktak Lake - Manipur
9. Kaliveli Lake - Tamil Nadu
10. The Himalayan Mountain is the youngest range of India.
11. Manganese ore, Chitradurga, Karnataka. 2. Iron ore, Ballari, Karnataka.
12. Valley of Kashmir: Between the Pir Panjal and the western end of the Great Himalayan ranges
lies a deep asymmetrical basin called the Vale of Kashmir.
13. The tributaries of Yamuna river from west to east direction - Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken.
14. Darling Range a plateau located in South Western Australia Coast.
15. Currents in the Indian Ocean include the following:

The North-East Monsoon Drift.

The South West Monsoon Drift.

North Equatorial Current (Warm)

South Equatorial Current (Warm)

Somali Current (Cold)

Mozambique Current (Warm)

Madagascar Current (Warm)

Agulhas Current (Warm)

16. Beja people are an ethnic Cushitic people inhabiting Sudan, Egypt, and Eritrea.
17. Jews majorly living in Israel.
18. Teda, also called Toda, Todaga, Todga, Tuda, or Tudaga are people of the eastern and central
Sahara Chad, Niger, and Libya.
19. Lurs or Lurish people are an Iranian people living mainly in western and south-western Iran.
20. Postmasburg and its adjacent areas of South Africa is a major producer of Manganese.
21. Mount Kilimanjaro is a dormant volcano in Tanzania.
22. Chimborazo is the highest mountain in Ecuador.
23. Pyrenees is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain
24. Atlas Mountains are a mountain range in the Maghreb in North Africa
25. Kinta Valley in Perak, Malaysia, has historically been the most productive tin-producing district
in the world.