The CSS exams subject philosophy syllabus is as follows:

I. Introduction:
 Definition, Nature, and Scope of Philosophy

 Branches of Philosophy

II. Philosophical Methods:

 Socratic Method

 Inductive Method

 Deductive Method

 Dialectical Method

 Fallibilistic Method

III. Epistemology:
 Rationalism

 Empiricism

 Transcendentalism

 Intuitionism

IV. Ontology:
 Idealism

 Realism

 Materialism

 Existentialism

V. Muslim Thinkers:
 Al-Farabi

 Ibn Sina

 Al-Ghazali

 Ibn Rushd

 Ibn Khaldun
  Shah Waliullah

 Muhammad Iqbal

VI. Ethics:
 What is morality?

 Different ethical theories

 Major ethical issues in contemporary society

VII. Contemporary Philosophical Movements:

 Existentialism

 Phenomenology

 Structuralism

 Postmodernism

Recommended Readings:
 History of Western Philosophy by Bertrand Russell

 Philosophy: The Power of Ideas by Brooke Noel Moore & Kenneth Bruder

 Elements of Moral Philosophy by James Rachels

 Existentialism & Human Emotions by Jean Paul Sartre

 The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge by Jean-Francois Lyotard

 Descartes to Derrida: An Introduction to European Philosophy by Peter Sedgwick

 Continental Philosophy in the 20th Century by Richard Kearney

 A Short History of Modern Philosophy by Roger Scruton

 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (plato.stanford.edu)

 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (www.iep.utm.edu)

It is important to note that the CSS exams subject philosophy syllabus is quite broad, so
it is important to carefully select the topics that you will focus on. You should also make
sure to practice answering essay questions on a variety of philosophical topics.
Chapter 1 of the CSS exams subject philosophy syllabus is an introduction to
philosophy. It covers the following topics:

 Definition, Nature, and Scope of Philosophy: Philosophy is the study of the

fundamental nature of reality, knowledge, existence, reason, morality, and
values. It is an attempt to understand the world and our place in it.
 Branches of Philosophy: There are many different branches of philosophy,
including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and political philosophy.
 Methods of Philosophy: Philosophers use a variety of methods to investigate
philosophical problems, including conceptual analysis, thought experiments, and
dialectical argumentation.
Notes on Chapter 1:
 Philosophy is a broad and complex subject, but it is also a very rewarding one.
By studying philosophy, we can develop our critical thinking skills and gain a
deeper understanding of the world and our place in it.

 There are many different branches of philosophy, each with its own focus.
Students should choose to study the branches of philosophy that are most
interesting and relevant to them.

 Philosophers use a variety of methods to investigate philosophical problems.

Students should learn about these methods so that they can apply them to their
own philosophical studies.

Here are some additional notes on the importance of philosophy:

 Philosophy helps us to think critically about our beliefs and assumptions.

 Philosophy helps us to understand different perspectives on important issues.

 Philosophy helps us to develop our own values and beliefs.

 Philosophy helps us to live a more meaningful and fulfilling life.

Philosophy is an important subject for everyone to study, regardless of their major or

career goals. By studying philosophy, we can become more thoughtful and engaged
citizens.

Here are some examples of how philosophy can be applied to real-world issues:
  When we think about the ethics of war, we are engaging in a philosophical
discussion.

 When we think about the nature of reality and the relationship between mind and
body, we are engaging in a philosophical discussion.

 When we think about the best form of government, we are engaging in a

philosophical discussion.

Philosophy is not just an academic exercise. It is a way of thinking about the world and
our place in it. By studying philosophy, we can become better citizens and better
people.
Chapter 2: Philosophical Methods
Philosophical methods are the ways in which philosophers investigate philosophical
problems. There are a number of different philosophical methods, but some of the most
common include:

 The Socratic method: The Socratic method is a form of inquiry in which the
philosopher asks a series of questions to help the other person arrive at the truth.
The goal of the Socratic method is to expose false beliefs and to help people to
develop their own critical thinking skills.
 The inductive method: The inductive method is a form of reasoning that goes
from specific observations to general conclusions. For example, if we observe
that a number of different objects fall to the ground when we drop them, we can
inductively conclude that all objects fall to the ground.
 The deductive method: The deductive method is a form of reasoning that goes
from general conclusions to specific observations. For example, if we know that
all objects fall to the ground and we drop an object, we can deductively conclude
that the object will fall to the ground.
 The dialectical method: The dialectical method is a form of inquiry that involves
the critical examination of two opposing viewpoints. The goal of the dialectical
method is to arrive at a synthesis of the two viewpoints that is superior to either
one individually.
 The fallibilistic method: The fallibilistic method is a form of inquiry that is based
on the idea that all knowledge is provisional and subject to revision. The goal of
the fallibilistic method is to identify and correct false beliefs.

In addition to these five main methods, there are a number of other philosophical
methods, such as thought experiments, case studies, and hermeneutics.

Notes on Chapter 2:
 Philosophical methods are the ways in which philosophers investigate
philosophical problems.

 Some of the most common philosophical methods include the Socratic method,
the inductive method, the deductive method, the dialectical method, and the
fallibilistic method.
  Philosophers use different methods depending on the specific problem they are
investigating.

 No single philosophical method is perfect, and philosophers often use a

combination of methods in their work.

Here are some examples of how philosophers use different methods:

 The Socratic method: A philosopher might use the Socratic method to help a
student understand the concept of justice. The philosopher would start by asking
the students what they think justice is. The student might give a definition of
justice, such as "treating everyone equally." The philosopher would then ask the
student a series of follow-up questions to help them to think more critically about
their definition. For example, the philosopher might ask the student if there are
any cases in which it would be just to treat someone unequally. The philosopher
would continue to ask questions until the student arrives at a more refined
understanding of justice.
 The inductive method: A philosopher might use the inductive method to argue
that there is life on other planets. The philosopher would start by observing that
there are billions of planets in the universe and that many of these planets are
similar to Earth. The philosopher would then argue that it is likely that at least
some of these planets have life on them. This is an inductive argument because
it goes from specific observations (there are billions of planets in the universe
and many of them are similar to Earth) to a general conclusion (there is life on
other planets).
 The deductive method: A philosopher might use the deductive method to argue
that God does not exist. The philosopher would start by defining God as a being
who is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good. The philosopher would then argue
that it is impossible for such a being to exist. This is a deductive argument
because it goes from general premises (God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-
good; it is impossible for such a being to exist) to a specific conclusion (God does
not exist).
 The dialectical method: A philosopher might use the dialectical method to
investigate the nature of knowledge. The philosopher would start by examining
two opposing viewpoints on knowledge: rationalism and empiricism. Rationalists
believe that knowledge comes from reason, while empiricists believe that
knowledge comes from experience. The philosopher would then try to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of each viewpoint. The philosopher might then try to
 develop a synthesis of the two viewpoints that is superior to either one
individually.
 The fallibilistic method: A philosopher might use the fallibilistic method to test
their belief that the Earth is round. The philosopher might start by collecting
evidence that supports the claim that the Earth is round, such as the fact that
ships disappear over the horizon and the fact that lunar eclipses are caused by
the Earth casting a shadow on the moon. The philosopher might then try to
identify any evidence that contradicts the claim that the Earth is round.
 The fallibilistic method is a form of inquiry that is based on the idea that all knowledge is
provisional and subject to revision. The goal of the fallibilistic method is to identify and
correct false beliefs.
Chapter 3: Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, origin, and scope of
knowledge. It asks questions such as: What is knowledge? How do we know what we
know? What are the limits of our knowledge?

There are three main schools of thought in epistemology: rationalism, empiricism, and
transcendentalism.

Rationalism is the view that knowledge comes from reason or intuition. Rationalists
believe that we can know things without having to experience them directly. For
example, rationalists believe that we can know that 2+2=4 without having to count two
objects and another two objects.
Empiricism is the view that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricists believe that
we can only know things that we have experienced directly. For example, empiricists
believe that we cannot know that 2+2=4 until we have counted two objects and another
two objects.
Transcendentalism is a view that combines elements of rationalism and empiricism.
Transcendentalists believe that knowledge is both a product of reason and experience.
For example, transcendentalists believe that we can know that 2+2=4 because it is a
necessary truth of logic. However, we can only understand this truth through
experience.

In addition to these three main schools of thought, there are a number of other
important epistemological topics, such as skepticism, relativism, and the problem of
induction.

Skepticism is the view that we cannot know anything for certain. Skeptics argue that our
senses can deceive us and that our reasoning can be flawed.
Relativism is the view that there is no such thing as objective knowledge. Relativists
believe that all knowledge is relative to individual or cultural perspectives.
The problem of induction is the problem of justifying our belief that the future will be like
the past. We can observe that the sun has risen every day in the past, but we cannot be
sure that it will rise tomorrow.
Notes on Chapter 3:
  Epistemology is the study of the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge.

 There are three main schools of thought in epistemology: rationalism, empiricism,

and transcendentalism.

 Rationalists believe that knowledge comes from reason or intuition.

 Empiricists believe that knowledge comes from experience.

 Transcendentalists believe that knowledge is both a product of reason and

experience.

 Other important epistemological topics include skepticism, relativism, and the

problem of induction.

Here are some additional notes on each of the three main schools of thought in
epistemology:
Rationalism:
 Rationalists believe that reason is the primary source of knowledge.

 They argue that some truths can be known without the need for experience.

 For example, rationalists believe that the laws of logic, such as the law of non-
contradiction, are known through reason alone.

 Some famous rationalists include René Descartes, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,

and Baruch Spinoza.

Empiricism:
 Empiricists believe that experience is the primary source of knowledge.

 They argue that all knowledge is derived from our senses.

 For example, empiricists believe that we cannot know that the sun is hot without
experiencing the heat of the sun ourselves.

 Some famous empiricists include John Locke, George Berkeley, and David
Hume.

Transcendentalism:
 Transcendentalists believe that knowledge is a product of both reason and
experience.
  They argue that reason provides us with the categories and concepts that we use
to make sense of our experience.

 For example, transcendentalists believe that the concept of causality is a

necessary condition for experiencing the world in a meaningful way.

 Some famous transcendentalists include Immanuel Kant and Johann Gottlieb

Fichte.

Epistemology is a complex and challenging field of study, but it is also a very important
one. By understanding the different epistemological theories, we can better understand
the nature of knowledge and the limits of our own understanding.

Chapter 4: Ontology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of reality. It
asks questions such as: What is real? What is the relationship between mind and
matter? What is the nature of time and space?

There are a number of different ontological theories, but some of the most common
include:

 Idealism: Idealism is the view that reality is ultimately mental or spiritual in nature.
Idealists believe that the physical world is either a product of our minds or an
illusion.
 Realism: Realism is the view that reality is independent of our minds. Realists
believe that the physical world exists even when we are not perceiving it.
 Materialism: Materialism is the view that reality is made up of matter alone.
Materialists believe that there is no such thing as mind or spirit.
 Existentialism: Existentialism is the view that reality is meaningless and that we
are free to create our own meaning.
In addition to these four main theories, there are a number of other ontological theories,
such as dualism, pluralism, and panpsychism.

Notes on Chapter 4:
 Ontology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of reality.

 There are a number of different ontological theories, but some of the most
common include idealism, realism, materialism, and existentialism.

 Ontological theories have implications for other areas of philosophy, such as

epistemology, ethics, and political philosophy.

Here are some examples of how ontological theories can be applied to other areas of
philosophy:
 Epistemology: If you are an idealist, you might believe that knowledge is
ultimately subjective and that there is no such thing as objective truth. If you are
a realist, you might believe that knowledge is objective and that there is such a
thing as truth.
 Ethics: If you are a materialist, you might believe that there is no such thing as
free will and that our actions are determined by physical causes. If you are an
existentialist, you might believe that we are free to create our own meaning and
that we are responsible for our own choices.
 Political philosophy: If you are an idealist, you might believe that the best form of
government is one that is based on reason and justice. If you are a realist, you
might believe that the best form of government is one that is based on power and
self-interest.

Ontology is a complex and challenging field of study, but it is also a very important one.
By understanding the different ontological theories, we can better understand the nature
of reality and our place in it.
Chapter 5: Muslim Thinkers

Chapter 5 of the CSS exams subject philosophy syllabus covers the work of six Muslim
thinkers: Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Khaldun, and Shah Waliullah.

Al-Farabi (870-950) was a philosopher, scientist, and musician. He is considered to be

the father of Islamic philosophy. Al-Farabi's work was influenced by both Greek and
Islamic thought. He wrote on a wide range of topics, including metaphysics,
epistemology, ethics, and politics.
Ibn Sina (980-1037), also known as Avicenna, was a philosopher, physician, and
scientist. He is considered to be one of the greatest philosophers of the Islamic world.
Ibn Sina's work was also influenced by both Greek and Islamic thought. He wrote on a
wide range of topics, including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and medicine.
Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) was a philosopher and theologian. He is considered to be one
of the most important thinkers in Islamic history. Al-Ghazali's work was focused on the
relationship between reason and faith. He challenged the rationalist tradition of Islamic
philosophy and argued for a more mystical approach to religion.
Ibn Rushd (1126-1198), also known as Averroes, was a philosopher and physician. He
is considered to be the greatest commentator on Aristotle in the Islamic world. Ibn
Rushd's work was focused on the reconciliation of reason and faith. He argued that
reason and faith are not in conflict, but rather complementary.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) was a philosopher, historian, and sociologist. He is considered
to be the father of sociology. Ibn Khaldun's work focused on the rise and fall of
civilizations. He argued that civilizations go through a cycle of birth, growth, decline, and
death.
Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) was a philosopher, theologian, and reformer. He is
considered to be one of the most important thinkers in the Islamic world. Shah
Waliullah's work was focused on the revival of Islam. He argued that Muslims needed to
return to the original teachings of Islam in order to overcome their decline.
Notes on Chapter 5:
  The six Muslim thinkers covered in Chapter 5 of the CSS exams subject
philosophy syllabus are Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Khaldun,
and Shah Waliullah.

 These thinkers made significant contributions to Islamic philosophy, theology,

and science.

 Their work has had a lasting impact on the Islamic world and beyond.

Here are some specific examples of the contributions of each thinker:

 Al-Farabi: Al-Farabi is credited with introducing the Aristotelian tradition into
Islamic philosophy. He also wrote on a wide range of other topics, including
metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and politics.
 Ibn Sina: Ibn Sina is perhaps best known for his work on metaphysics, in which
he developed a complex theory of being. He also wrote on a wide range of other
topics, including epistemology, ethics, and medicine.
 Al-Ghazali: Al-Ghazali is credited with reviving the study of theology in the
Islamic world. He also wrote on a variety of other topics, including philosophy,
ethics, and mysticism.
 Ibn Rushd: Ibn Rushd is perhaps best known for his commentaries on Aristotle.
He also wrote on a wide range of other topics, including philosophy, law, and
theology.
 Ibn Khaldun: Ibn Khaldun is considered to be the father of sociology. He wrote on
a variety of topics, including history, economics, and politics.
 Shah Waliullah: Shah Waliullah is considered to be one of the most important
thinkers in the Islamic world. He wrote on a variety of topics, including theology,
philosophy, and law.

The work of the six Muslim thinkers covered in Chapter 5 of the CSS exams subject
philosophy syllabus is essential for understanding the development of Islamic thought
and its impact on the world.
Chapter 6: Ethics

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with morality. It asks questions such as:
What is right and wrong? What is the good life? What are our moral obligations to
others?

There are a number of different ethical theories, but some of the most common include:

 Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is the view that the right action is the one that
produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
 Deontology: Deontology is the view that the right action is the one that conforms
to a set of moral rules or duties.
 Virtue ethics: Virtue ethics is the view that the right action is the one that is
performed by a virtuous person.

In addition to these three main theories, there are a number of other ethical theories,
such as contractarianism, feminist ethics, and environmental ethics.

Notes on Chapter 6:
 Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with morality.

 There are a number of different ethical theories, but some of the most common
include utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics.

 Ethical theories have implications for our everyday lives, such as the decisions
we make about how to live our lives and how to interact with others.

Here are some examples of how ethical theories can be applied to everyday life:
 Utilitarianism: A utilitarian might argue that it is morally right to lie to someone if it
is necessary to prevent them from being harmed.
 Deontology: A deontologist might argue that it is morally wrong to lie, even if it is
necessary to prevent someone from being harmed.
  Virtue ethics: A virtue ethicist might argue that it is morally right to lie if it is
necessary to protect someone from being harmed, but that it is important to do
so in a way that is consistent with the virtues of honesty and compassion.

Ethics is a complex and challenging field of study, but it is also a very important one. By
understanding the different ethical theories, we can better understand our moral
obligations to others and make more informed decisions about our own lives.

Here are some additional notes on the three main ethical theories:
 Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory, meaning that it judges
the morality of an action based on its consequences. Utilitarians believe that the
right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of
people. This is known as the utility principle.
 Deontology: Deontology is a non-consequentialist theory, meaning that it judges
the morality of an action based on its intentions or conformity to moral rules or
duties. Deontologists believe that there are certain moral rules or duties that we
must always follow, regardless of the consequences.
 Virtue ethics: Virtue ethics is a character-based theory, meaning that it judges the
morality of an action based on the character of the person performing the action.
Virtue ethicists believe that we should strive to be virtuous people, and that the
right action is the one that is performed by a virtuous person.

Ethical theories are often used to address complex moral issues, such as the ethics of
abortion, euthanasia, and war. By understanding the different ethical theories, we can
better understand the different perspectives on these issues and make more informed
decisions about our own views.
Chapter 7: Contemporary Philosophical Movements

Chapter 7 of the CSS exams subject philosophy syllabus covers three contemporary
philosophical movements: existentialism, phenomenology, and postmodernism.

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes the importance of individual

freedom and responsibility. Existentialists argue that we are all "condemned to be free"
and that we must create our own meaning in life. Some of the most famous existentialist
philosophers include Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Jean-Paul Sartre.
Phenomenology is a philosophical movement that emphasizes the importance of
studying experience as it is immediately given to us. Phenomenologists argue that we
can understand the nature of reality by carefully examining our own experiences. Some
of the most famous phenomenological philosophers include Edmund Husserl, Martin
Heidegger, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty.
Postmodernism is a philosophical movement that challenges traditional notions of truth,
knowledge, and reality. Postmodernists argue that there is no such thing as objective
truth and that knowledge is always perspectival. Some of the most famous
postmodernist philosophers include Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Jean-
François Lyotard.
Notes on Chapter 7:
 The three contemporary philosophical movements covered in Chapter 7 of the
CSS exams subject philosophy syllabus are existentialism, phenomenology, and
postmodernism.

 These movements have had a significant impact on contemporary thought and

culture.

 They offer new ways of thinking about the world and our place in it.

Here are some examples of the contributions of each movement:

 Existentialism: Existentialism has influenced a wide range of fields, including
literature, art, and film. Existentialist philosophers have challenged us to think
about the meaning of life, the nature of freedom, and the responsibility of the
individual.
  Phenomenology: Phenomenology has influenced a wide range of fields, including
psychology, philosophy of mind, and artificial intelligence. Phenomenological
philosophers have helped us to understand the nature of experience and the
relationship between mind and body.
 Postmodernism: Postmodernism has influenced a wide range of fields, including
literary criticism, philosophy of science, and cultural studies. Postmodernist
philosophers have challenged us to think about the nature of truth, knowledge,
and reality.

Contemporary philosophical movements are essential for understanding the

contemporary world. By understanding the different perspectives offered by these
movements, we can better understand ourselves and the world around us.

Here are some additional notes on each of the three contemporary philosophical
movements:
 Existentialism: Existentialists believe that we are all responsible for creating our
own meaning in life. They argue that we should live our lives authentically and
that we should not be afraid to make our own choices.
 Phenomenology: Phenomenologists believe that we can understand the nature
of reality by carefully examining our own experiences. They argue that we should
focus on the immediate experience of things and that we should avoid making
assumptions about the nature of reality.
 Postmodernism: Postmodernists believe that there is no such thing as objective
truth and that knowledge is always perspectival. They argue that we should be
skeptical of traditional claims to knowledge and that we should be open to
different perspectives.

Contemporary philosophical movements can be challenging, but they are also very
rewarding. By studying these movements, we can gain a deeper understanding of the
world and our place in it.