Solution

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Class 11 - Chemistry
Section A
1. In his period table, Mendeleev used the periodicity in atomic weight as the basis of classification of elements. He did stick with
the idea of atomic weight, and used it to classify elements into groups and periods. He went further when based on his research he
corrected atomic weights of exisiting elements and even kept spaces of elements that he felt should exit but not found at that time
such as gallium, germanium etc.
2. The electronic configuration of Nitrogen is 1s2 2s2 2p3 and that of Oxygen is 1s2 2s2 2p4. Nitrogen has half filled p-orbitals which
is a very stable configuration. Oxygen will readily loose its extra electron to attain the nitrogen-like configuration. Hence, oxygen
will have a lower ionization enthalpy than nitrogen.
3. Exothermic reaction : The reaction accompanied by release of energy in the form of light or heat is called exothermic reaction.
ΔH is negative for exothermic reaction.
Example: C+ O2 → CO2 ; ΔH = -178.3 kJmol-1.
Endothermic reactions : The reaction accompanied by absorption of energy is called endothermic reaction. ΔH is positive
for endothermic reaction.
Example: 2NH3 → N2 +3H2. ΔH = +91.8kJmol-1.
4. The reactivity of non – metals is measured in terms of its tendency to gain electrons to form an ion. The reactivity of non – metals
increases from left to right in a period because of increase in nuclear charge due to succesive addition of electron in same shell
whereas reactivity decreases in a group as we go down the group because of increase in atomic size and decrease in nuclear
charge. Therefore, the tendency to accept electrons decreases down the group.
5. The elements of s and p-block are collectively called representative or main group elements.These include elements of group I
(alkali metals), group 2 (alkaline earth metals) and p-block elements ( 13 group to 17 group).
6. Elements in which the last electron enters the d-orbitals, are called d-block elements. These elements have general outer electronic
configuration (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2. Zn, Cd and Hg which have general electronic configuration, (n-1) d10ns2 do not show most of the
properties of transition elements. d-orbitals in these elements are completely filled in the ground state as well as in their common
oxidation states. Thus, on the basis of properties, all transition elements are d-block elements but on the basis of electronic
configuration, all d- block elements are not transition elements.
7. According to Mendeleev the physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of atomic mass. He arranged
elements in horizontal rows and vertical columns of a table in order of their increasing atomic weights in such a way that the
elements with similar properties occupied the same vertical column or group. He treated formulae of hydrides and oxides as one
of the basic criteria for categorization.
8. When n = 5 (5th period), l = 0, 1, 2, 3. The order in which the energy of the available orbitals 4d, 5s, and 5p increases are 5s < 4d
< 5p. The total number of orbitals available is 9. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated is 18; and
therefore 18 elements are there in the 5th period.
9. In the “long form” of the Periodic Table of the elements, horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns are called
groups.
10. Generally, in a group, atomic and ionic radii increases with increase in atomic number.
Ionization enthalpy is inversely proportional to atomic and ionic radii.
So, the ionization enthalpy gradually decreases in a group.
11. i. Lawrencium (Lr) with atomic number (Z) 103.
ii. Seaborgium (Sg) with atomic number (Z) 106.
12. The basic theme of organisation of elements in the periodic table is to classify the elements in periods and groups according to
their properties. This systematic arrangement makes the study of elements and their compounds, simple to understand and easy to
interpert.
13. Ca2+ has 18 electrons. Atoms or ions like Ar, K+, Cl-, S2- or P3- too have 18 electrons and are isoelectronic with Ca2+.
14. Modem periodic law states that physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers.
If the elements are arranged in the order of their increasing atomic number, after a regular interval, elements with similar
properties are repeated.

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 Section B
15. i. p block
ii. d block
iii. s block
iv. f block
16. The ionisation enthalpy is for 1 mole atoms. Therefore, ground state energy of the atoms may be expressed as
E (ground state) = (−2.18 × 10 J ) × (6.022 × 10 mol )
−18 23 −1

6 −1
= −1.312 × 10 J mo l

Ionisation enthalpy = E∞ − E ground state

6 −1
= 0 − (−1.312 × 10 J mo l )

6 −1
= 1.312 × 10 J mo l

17. a. The electronegtivity of an element is the ability of an element to attract shared electrons toward itself during chemical
combination. The increase in electronegativities across a period is accompanied by an increase in non-metallic properties (or
decrease in metallic properties) of elements and increase in nuclear charge due to addition of electron in same shell.
b. The ionization enthalpy generally decreases as we descend in a group. As we go down a group, there is successive addition of
the principal shell and there is an increase in shielding by the electrons in the inner levels. Therefore, due to greater shielding
effect and less nuclear charge, the removal of the outermost electron requires less energy down the group.
18. First period is the shortest period of the periodic table. It contains 2 elements, 1H and 2He.
Second and third periods contain 8 elements each called short periods. The second period contain elements 3Li to 10Ne and 11Na
to 18Ar.

Fourth and fifth period contains 18 elements each namely 19K to 36Kr and 37Rb to 54Xe and are long periods.
Sixth period contains 32 elements from 55Cs to 86Rn and is the longest period.
Seventh period is incomplete period. It has all other elements starting with 87Fr onwards. Elements from 93 onwards are purely
synthetic and are called trans–uranium elements and their properties have not been studied properly yet.
19. Electron gain enthalpy is the heat change (enthalpy change) when an electron is added to the outer most shell of an isolated
gaseous atom. It can be represented as X (g) + e- − > X-(g); where X (g) is the atom in gaseous state; X- (g) is the anion in the
gaseous state and e- is the electron added.
Its unit is kJ/mol. It may be positive or negative depending on the nature of the element.
20. a. When an atom gains an electron, it forms an anion. The size of an anion is larger than that of the parent atom because the
addition of one or more electrons results in increased repulsion among electrons and a decrease in effective nuclear charge.
For example the ionic radius of fluoride ion (F-) is 136 pm whereas the atomic radius of Fluorine (F) is only 64 pm.
b. When an atom loses an electron, it forms a cation. A cation is smaller than its parent atom because it has lesser electrons while
its nuclear charge remains the same. This implies that the valence electrons are more tightly held towards the nucleus thereby
reducing the size. For example, the atomic radius of sodium (Na) is 186 pm and atomic radius of sodium ion (Na+) = 95 pm.
21. Dobereiner arranged certain elements with similar properties in groups of three in such a way that the atomic weight of the middle
element was nearly the same as the average atomic weights of the first and third elements.
For example:
Triad: lithium Sodium potassium

Atomic mass: 7 23 39
39+7
Atomic mass of Na = 2
= 23
Chlorine Bromine Iodine

35.5 80 127
127+35.5
Atomic mass of Br = 2
= 81.25
22. In a multielectron atom, the electrons present in the inner shells shield the electrons in the valence shell from the attraction of the
nucleus or they act as a screen between the nucleus and these electrons. This is known as shielding effect or screening effect. As
the screening effect increases, the effective nuclear charge decreases. Consequently, the force of attraction by the nucleus for the
valence shell electrons decreases and hence the ionization enthalpy decreases.

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23. Electronic configurations of Na and Mg are
Na = 1s22s22p63s1
Mg = 1s22s22p63s2
The 1st ionization enthalpy of magnesium is higher than that of Na due to higher nuclear charge and slightly smaller atomic radius
of Mg than Na.
Electronic configurations of Na and Mg after loosing 1 electron are
Na+ = 1s22s22p6
Mg+ = 1s22s22p63s1
After the loss of the first electron, Na+ formed has the electronic configuration of neon (2,8). The higher stability of the
completely filled noble gas configuration leads to very high second ionization enthalpy for sodium. On the other hand, Mg+
formed after losing the first electron still has one more electron in its outermost orbital. Therefore, the second ionization enthalpy
of magnesium is much smaller than that of sodium.
24. Ionization Enthalpy: It is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from the outer most shell of an isolated gaseous
atom in its ground state. Its unit is kJ/mol or J/mol and is represented by ΔiH.
This process may be represented as:
M (g) + ΔiH → M+ (g) + e- (g)

where M (g) is isolated gaseous atom; M+(g) is the resultant cation (a position ion)
Variation along a period: Along a period, the ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right. This is attributed to the decrease in
atomic radius and subsequent increase in nuclear charge.
Variation within a group: Moving down a group, ionization enthalpies decreases due to a combined effect of an increase in atomic
radius and shielding effect.
25. (i) Radius of cation is less than that of the atom:
Since the cation is formed by losing of one or more electrons.
For example,
+ −
Na → Na + e

Thus the radius of Na+ will be less than the Na.

(ii) Radius of anion is more than that of the atom.
Since the anion is formed by gaining one or more electron. Therefore, the atomic radius is larger than the corresponding atom.
(iii) In iso-electronic ions, atoms have same number of electrons but different magnitude of nuclear charges. As the nuclear charge
increases ionic radius decreases.
For example.
N3-, O2-, F- have same No. of electronic = 10 but different ionic radii = 171, 140, 136 respectively.
26. Atomic size. With the increase in atomic size, the number of electron shells increase.Therefore, the force that binds the electrons
with the nucleus decreases.Therefore ionization enthalpy decreases with the increase in atomic size.
Screening or shielding effect of inner shell electron. With the addition of new shells, the number of inner electron shells which
shield the valence electrons increases. As a result, the force of attraction of the nucleus for the valence electrons further decreases
so less amount of energy is requied to remove the valence electron and hence the ionization enthalpy decreases.
27. Elements on extremes ends of a period easily combines with oxygen to form oxides. The elements present on the extreme left of a
period are metals and formed basic oxides ( e.g. Na2O, MgO, CaO, K2O etc.) with ionic nature whereas the element present on
extreme right are non- metals formed the most acidic oxides (e.g. Cl2 O7 , CO2, SO2, N2O3 etc.). The non-metallic oxides are
covalent in nature. Oxides of middle elements of a period are however amphoteric in nature (eg. Al2 O3) or neutral (eg. CO).
28. This is because of extra stability of half-filled 2p orbital of nitrogen than Oxygen as oxygen has four electrons in 2p-orbital with
two electrons in same orbital which increased electron-electron repulsion. When electrons adds to half filled 2p-orbital of nitrogen
energy is required. Therefore, nitrogen has positive electron gain enthalpy.
On the other hand, on removing one electron from the 2p-orbital makes half filled stable 2p-orbital but in case of nitrogen it
becomes less stable. Therefore, Ist ionisation enthalpy of oxygen is less than nitrogen.
29. The major difference between metals and non-metals is their ionization eneregies. Metals have low ionization energies and due to
this they have a strong tendency to lose electrons to form cations. Also, metals are strong reducing agents and form basic oxides
and ionic compounds. Non-metals prefer to accept electrons to form anions i.e. they have high electron affinity. Moreover, non-
metals are strong oxidizing agent and form acidic oxides and covalent compounds.

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30. i. K, 19
ii. Ti, 22
iii. Kr, 36
iv. C, 6
31. i. Atomic size. With the increase in the atomic size, the number of electron shells increases. Therefore, the force that binds the
electrons with the nucleus decreases. Thus the ionization enthalpy decreases with increase in atomic size.
ii. Nuclear charge. As the magnitude of the positive charge on the nucleus of an atom increases, the attraction with the electrons
also increases. Therefore, the ionization enthalpy increases with the increase in the magnitude of the nuclear charge.
iii. Screening or shielding effect. Greater the magnitude of the screening effect less will be the value of ionization enthalpy or
potential.
32. For oxygen atom:
O(g) + e- ⟶ O-(g) (Δeg H = - 141 kJ mol-1)
O-(g) + e- ⟶ O2-(g) (Δeg H = +780 kJ mol-1)
The first electron gain enthalpy of oxygen is negative because energy is released when a gaseous atom accepts an electron to form
monovalent anion (O-). The second electron gain enthalpy is positive because O- ion will repel the incoming electron hence
energy is needed by the electron to overcome such a force of repulsion.
33. The equation of conversion of Cl (g) into Cl- is: .
− −
Cl(g) + e ⟶ Cl (g)

Thee amount energy released when 1-mole(6.023 × 10 23

) chlorine are converted into Cl- ions according to the above of the
equation will be
−10
57.86×10 23
= − × 6.023 × 10
10
1×10

3 −1
= −348.49 × 10 Jmol
−1
= −348.49kJmol

Now 1 eV/atom = 96.49kJmol −1

∴ Electron gain enthalpy of chlorine

348.49
= −
96.49

= −3.61eV/atom

34. i. The second electron gain enthalpy of O- is positive due to greater repulsions between the 2p-electrons of O- and the additional
incoming electron while in case of S there are less repulsion between 3p-orbital electrons and incoming electrons.
ii. On similar grounds, the electron gain enthalpy of S- is positive while that of O is negative.
iii. Due to small size, repulsion between 2p-orbital electrons O- and the incoming electron is much more than in 3p-orbital
electron of S-. Therefore, electron gain enthalpy of O- is more positive than that of S-.
35. General electronic configuration of Transition elements:
The d-block elements are known as transition elements with general outer electronic configuration as (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2.

Characteristics of d-block elements:

(i) They show variable oxidation states.
(ii) Their compounds are generally paramagnetic in nature.
(iii) Most of the transition elements form coloured compounds
(iv) They are all metals with high melting and boiling points.
36. Factors affecting Ionization enthalpy.
(i) Atomic size. With the increase in atomic size, the number of electron shells increases and thus the force of attraction between
the electrons and the nucleus decreases. Therefore the ionization enthalpy decreases.
(ii) Nuclear charge. As the nuclear charge increases the attraction for the electron also increases that's why ionization enthalpy
increases.
(iii) Screening or shielding effect . In a multi-electron atom, the electron present in the inner shells shield the electrons in the
valence shell as a result these electrons experience less attraction from the nucleus. This leads to lesser ionization enthalpy.
Variation along a period. On moving from left to right in a period the nuclear charge increases and the atomic size decreases as a
result ionization enthalpies are expected to increase.

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 Variation within a group. On moving down the group as the atomic size of the elements increases that's why ionization enthalpy
decreases down the group.
37. i. They all are iso-electronic with ten electrons each.
ii. In iso-electronic species, greater the nuclear charge, lesser will be the atomic or ionic radius.
Al3+ < Mg2+ ,Na+ <F- < O2- <N3-
38. The Kr is the first Noble gas with atomic number 36 that contains electrons in d-orbit. The electronic configuration of Kr is: 1s2,
2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p6
Total number of d-electrons = 10
Total number of p-electrons = 18
Total number of s-electrons = 8
∴ Difference in total number of p and s electrons =18 - 8 = 10

Thus, the inert gas is krypton.

39. i. n = 3
Thus elements belong to 3 rd period, belong to p-block element.
Since the valence shell contains = 6 electrons
Group No. = 10 + 6 = 16
Configuration = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
The element name is sulphur.
ii. n = 4
Means element belongs to 4 th period and 4th group as in the valence shell (2 + 2 ) = 4 electrons.
Electronic configuration.= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
the element name is Titanium.
iii. n = 6
Means the element belongs to 6 th period.
The last electron goes to the f-orbital, the element is from f-block.
Group = 3
The element is gadolinium (z = 64)
Complete electronic configuration = [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2

40. Na2O reacts with water to form sodium oxide which turns red litmus blue.
N a2 O + H2 O → 2N aOH

Therefore, Na2O is a basic oxides.

In contrast, Cl2O7 reacts with water to form perchloric acid which turns blue litmus red.
C l2 O7 + H2 O → 2HC lO4

Therefore, Cl2O7 is an acidic oxide.

41. The decrease in Δ H value from B to Al is due to the bigger size of Al. In Ga there is 10 , 3d electrons which do not screen as is
i 1

done by S and P electrons. Therefore, there is an unexpected increase in the magnitude of effective nuclear charge resulting in
increased Δ H values. The same is with Ti. The later has fourteen Δf electrons with very poor shielding effect. This also
i 1

increases, the effective nuclear charge thus the value of Δ H increases.

i 1

42. The energy which is released by an isoated gaseous atom in gaining an electron from outside atom or ion to form negative ion (or
anion) is called electron gain enthalpy (ΔegH). Unit of electron gain enthalpy is kJ / mol.
In some cases like in noble gas atoms do not have any attraction to gain an electron in that case energy has to be supplied.
For example
− −
N e(g) + e → Ne (g)

−1
Δeg H = +116 kJ mol

43. a. Significance of term 'isolated gaseous atom'. The atoms in the gaseous state are for separated in the sense that they do not have
any mutual attractive and repulsive interactions. These are therefore regarded as isolated atoms. In this state the value of
ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy are not influenced by the presence of the other atoms. It is not possible to
express these when the atoms are in the liquid or solid state due to the presence of inter atomic forces.
b. Significance of ground state. Ground state of the atom represents the normal energy state of an atom. It means electrons in a
particular atom are in the lowest energy state and they neither lose nor gain electron. Both ionization enthalpy and electron

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 gain enthalpy are generally expressed with respect to the ground state of an atom only.
44. The cause of periodicity in properties is the repetition of similar outer electronic configuration after certain regular intervals.
For example. All the elements of group IA i.e. alkali metals have similar outer electronic configuration is ns1.
Where n refer to the number of outer-most principal shell.
In a similar manner all the halogens i.e.elements of group VIIA have similar other electronic configuration i.e. ns2 np5 and hence
possess similar properties.
45. No, it is not correct to say that the electronegativity of nitrogen in all the compounds is 3. It depends upon nitrogens's state of
hybridisation in a particular compound. In principle, greater the percentage of s-character, more will be the electronegativity of the
element. Thus, the electronegativity of nitrogen increases in moving from sp3 to sp hybridised orbitals in the following manner,
sp3 < sp2 < sp.
46. Anomalous Properties of First element of each group is due to:
i. Small size
ii. High ionisation enthalpy
iii. High electronegativity
iv. and absence of d-orbitals
For example: In case of s-block elements, due to small size Lithium form covalent compounds while other alkali metals forms
predominately ionic compounds and in case of Carbon (p-block elements), due to small size and high electronegativity it has
strong tendency to form pπ-pπ bond either itself and other elements such as nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
47. The important factors which affect ionisation enthalpy are:
a) Atomic size: greater the atomic size (atomic radius), smaller will be the ionisation enthalpy.
b) Nuclear charge: The value of ionisation enthalpy increases with increase in the effective nuclear charge for the valence
electrons.
c) Shielding effect: As the shielding effect increases, the electrons can easily be removed and so the ionisation enthalpy
decreases.
d) Stability of electronic configurations: Pesence of half filled or completely filled orbitals increases ionisation enthalpy.
e) Penetration effect of orbitals: The order of energy required to remove electron from s, p, d and f-orbitals of a shell is s>p>d>f.
This is beacuse of the distance of the electron from the nucleus increases.
48. The p-block elements consist of all three types metallic, non-metallic and metalloids. Therefore, the oxides of p-block elements
show acidic, basic and amphoteric properties. This is due to the following factors.
i. Ionisation enthalpy: As the ionisation enthalpy goes increasing as we move left to right in the period and decreases as we
move top to bottom in a group. Higher the ionisation enthalpy, stronger will be the acidic oxide and vice-versa and if
intermediate, its oxide will be amphoteric. For example,

ii. Electronegativity: Higher the electronegativity of the element, more acidic is its oxide. Example, N2O3 is more acidic than
B2O3
iii. Oxidation states: Higher the oxidation state of the elements, stronger is the acid. Example, SO3 is stronger acid than SO2

Reaction with water:

B2 O3 + 3H2 O ⇌ 2H3 B O3
Boron trioxide Orthoboric acid

P4 OH + 6H2 O ⇌ 4H3 PO4

Phosphorous pentoxide Orthophosphoric acid

C l2 O7 + H2 O ⇌ 2HClO4
Dichlorine heptoxide perchloric acid

49. Both the observation can be explained in terms of extra-stability of fully filled or half-filled orbitals.

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 i. The electronic configuration of Be is 1s2 2s2; whereas that of B is 1s2 2s2 2p1. Be has a completely filled valence orbital and
will not easily loose electrons from them to form a cation. B, on the other hand, will easily loose the lone p electron to acquire
B like stable configuration.
ii. N has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p3, where in the outermost shell s is completely and p is half filled. It is a stable
configuration as compared to oxygen whose electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p4. Oxygen will rapidly loose its extra p-
electron to acquire a N-like stable configuration.
50. The elements of Group I have only one electron in their respective valence shells and thus have a strong tendency to lose this
electron. The tendency to lose electrons in turn, depends upon the ionization enthalpy. Since the ionization enthalpy decreases
down the group therefore, the reactivity of group 1 elements increases in the same order Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs. In contrast, the
elements of group 17 have seven electrons in their respective valence shells and thus have strong tendency to accept one more
electron to make stable configuration. It is linked with electron gain enthalpy and electro-negativity.As electro-negativity and
electron gain enthalpy decreases from F - Cl , the reactivity therefore decreases.
51. Elements in the long form of the periodic table have been divided into four blocks i.e., s, p, d and f. This division is based upon
the name of the orbital which receives the last electron. General electronic configuration of
s-block elements: ns1-2 where n = 2-7
p-block elements: ns2 np1-6 where n = 2 - 6
d-block elements: (n - 1)d1-10 ns0-2 where n = 4 - 7
f - block elements: (n - 2) f0-14 (n - 1)d0-1 ns2 where n = 6 - 7
52. Atomic radius increases down the group and decreases across the period. This is due to the continuous increase in the number of
electronic shells or orbit numbers in the structure of atoms of the elements down the group.
From left to right across a period atomic radii generally decrease due to an increase in effective nuclear charge.
53. Dobereiner arranged certain elements with similar properties in groups of three in such a way that the atomic weight of the middle
element was nearly the same as the average atomic weights of the first and third elements.
For example:
Triad lithium sodium potassium

Atomic mass: 7 23 39
39+7
Atomic mass of Na = 2
= 23

Chlorine Bromine Iodine

35.5 80 127
127+35.5
Atomic mass of Br = 2
= 81.25

54. Atomic radius: The distance from the centre of nucleus to the outermost shell of electrons in the atom of any element is called its
atomic radius. It refers to both covalent or metallic radius depending on whether the element is a non-metal or a metal.
Ionic radius: The ionic radii is defined as the internuclear distance between the two ions in an ionic crystal.
55. The general outer electronic configuration are:
(i) s-Block elements : ns1-2 where n = 2 - 7
(ii) p-Block elements : ns2 np1-6 where n = 2 - 6
(iii) d-Block elements : (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2 where n = 4 - 7
(iv) f-Block elements : (n-2)f0-14 (n-1)d0-1 ns2 where n = 6 - 7
56. The atomic radius increases as we move down in a group from top to bottom. This is due to combined effect of the increase in
number of shells and subsequent shielding effect. In atoms with higher atomic number, the inner electrons partially shield the
attractive force of the nucleus. So the valence electrons do not experience the full attraction of the nucleus and this is results in
increase of atomic radii.
57. Element belonging to Group 15 with outer electronic configuration as ns2 np3 e.g., nitrogen.
58. Metallic character: The tendency of an element to lose electrons and form positive ions is called metallic character.
The elements having lower ionization energies have a higher tendency to lose electrons, thus they are electropositive or metallic in
their behaviour. Metallic character increases with increasing atomic number. In period, the metallic character decreases from left
to right.
Non-metallic character: The tendency of an element to accept electrons to form negative ions is called its non-metallic character.
The elements having higher ionisation energies have a lower tendency to lose electrons, thus they are electronegative or non-

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 metallic in their behaviour. Non - Metallic character decreases with increasing atomic number. In period, the non-metallic
character increases from left to right.
Section C
59. Ionization Enthalpy. The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom to convert it into a gaseous cation is called its ionization enthalpy or energy. It is expressed in units of kJ mol-1 and
represented by ΔiH.
Ionization process may be represented as
m (g) + ΔiH → M+ (g) + e- (g)

where M (g) is isolated gaseous atom; M+ (g) is the resultant cation

Variation along a period: Along a period, ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right due to the decrease in atomic radius and
an increase in nuclear charge. Alkali metals have the least ionization enthalpy whereas noble gases have the most. Moreover,
elements with stable electronic configuration such as fully filled or half-filled valence orbitals have higher ionization energies than
predicted.
Variation within a group: Down a group, ionization enthalpy decreases due to an increase in atomic radius and shielding effect.
For example in alkali metals, lithium has the highest ionization enthalpy and francium has the least value for ionization enthalpy.
60. The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. Periodic Law is essentially
the consequence of the periodic variation in electronic configurations, which indeed determine the physical and chemical
properties of elements and their compounds. Elements having similar outer electronic configurations in their atoms are arranged in
vertical columns, referred to as groups or families.
61. Electron gain enthalpy is the energy released when an isolated gaseous atom is converted into a negative ion by adding an extra
electron.
Electron gain enthalpy is denoted by the sign Δeg H .
The process may be represented by
− −
M (g) + e → M (g)

Neutral gaseous anion

atom ΔH = Δeg H
electron gain enthalpy is negative or positive it depends upon the nature of the element.
For example. For halogens it is highly negative, because they can acquire the noble gas configuration by accepting an extra
electron.
In contrast. For noble gases have positive electron gain enthalpy because energy has to be supplied to the element.
Factors on which electron gain enthalpy depends:
(i) Atomic size. As the size of an atom increases, the distance between its nucleus and the incoming electron also increases.
Therefore, the force of attraction between the nucleus and the incoming electron decreases and hence the electron gain enthalpy
becomes less negative.
(ii) Nuclear charge. As the nuclear charge increases force of attraction for the incoming electron increases and thus electron gain
enthalpy becomes more negative.
(iii) Symmetry of electronic configuration. Elements having symmetrical configuration (Either half filled or fully filled orbitals
in the same sub shell) having no attraction for electron because by accepting electron their configuration becomes less stable. In
that case energy has to be supplied to accept electron. Thus electron gain enthalpy will be positive.
62. S-block elements: Group-I (Alkali metals) and Group-2 elements (Alkaline earth metals) Which respectively have ns1 and ns2
outermost electronic configuration. They are all reactive metal with low ionization enthalpies. They lose the outermost electron(s)
readily to form 1+ ion or +2 ion.
Groupwise Electronic Configurations: Elements in the same vertical column or group have similar valence shell electronic
configurations, the same number of electrons in the outer orbitals, and similar properties. For example, the Group 1 elements
(alkall metals), all have ns1 valence shell electronic configuration as shown below:
Atomic number Symbol Electronic configuration

3 Li 1s2 2s1 (or) [He] 2s1

11 Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 (or) [Ne] 3s1

19 K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 4s1 (or) [Ar] 4s1

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 37 Rb 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 5s1 (or) [Kr] 5s1

55 Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p6 6s1 (or) [Xe] 4s1

87 Fr [Rn] 7s1
63. Electronic configuration of A (Z = 12)
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
period = 3 Elements name = Mg
Block = s
Group = II
Electronic configuration of B (z = 19)
Element's name = (K) potassium
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
n = 4 period = 4
Block = s Group = I
Electronic configuration of C ( z = 29)
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
n = 4 period = 4
Block - d - block,
Element name (Cu ) copper
Electronic configuration of D (z = 36)
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
Period = 4
Block = p-block
Group = 18
Element name (Kr )krypton
64. Ionisation Enthalpy: The ionisation enthalpy is the amount of energy required for the removal of an electron from a isolated
gaseous atom or ion in its ground state.
Factors affecting ionisation enthalpy are:
size of the atom
nuclear charge
half filled and fully filled orbitals
shape of orbitals
Periodicity:
i. Generally, the ionisation enthalpies follow the order (there are few exceptions):(Δ r
H1 ) < (Δr H2 ) < (Δr H3 )

ii. The ionisation enthalpy decreases on moving top to bottom in a group.

iii. The ionisation enthalpy increases on moving from left to right in a period but there are few exceptions in case of fully filled
orbitals (noble gases) and half filled orbitals (i.e. Nitrogen has greater first ionisation enthalpy than oxygen).
65. Modern Periodic Table is better than Mendeleev's periodic table because:
This table is based on more fundamental property i.e. atomic number.
The position of hydrogen has been justified.
It correlates position of the elements with their electron configurations clearly.
Complete separation of metals and nonmetals has been achieved.
The completion of each period is more logical i.e. as the atomic number increases, the energy shells gradually filled up to
an inert gas configuration is reached.
Due to separation of two subgroups, dissimilar elements are not placed together.
66. Factors Affecting Electron Gain Enthalpy:
Nuclear charge: Greater the nuclear charge greater will be electron gain enthalpy.
Size of the atom: It is inversely related to size of the atom as atomic size increases electron gain enthalpy decreases.
Electronic configuration: Elements which have stable electronic configuration of half filled and completely filled valence
subshells show less tendency to accept an additional electron. Hence, electron gain enthalpy is less negative.
Trends in variation in the periodic table:

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 i. In period: The electron gain enthalpy increases from left to right in a period as atomic size decreases.
ii. In group: The electron gain enthalpy decreases from top to bottom in a group.

67. Electronic configuration of A (Z = 12) is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. It implies Group 2 and 3rd Period. The element is Mg.
Electronic configuration of B (Z = 19) is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s6 4s1. It implies Group 1 and 4th Period. The element is K.
Electronic configuration of C ( Z = 29) is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s6 3d10 4s1. It implies Group 11 and 4th Period. The element is Cu.
Electronic configuration of D (Z = 36) is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s6 3d10 4s2 4p6. It implies Group 18 and 4th Period. The element is Kr.
68. Main features of long form of periodic table:
i. Groups. The vertical columns in the periodic table are known as groups. There are 18 groups in the long form of periodic
table. Each group having the same electronic configuration in the outermost shell.
ii. Periods. There are 7 periods in the long form of periodic table.
iii. It is denoted by n which means highest principal quantum number.
iv. Lanthanoids. Group of 14 elements in the sixth period. They are placed after Lanthanum.
v. Actinides. Group of 14 elements in the seventh period after actinium. Both Lanthanoids and actinoids are placed in separate
panel at the bottom of the periodic table.
Advantages of long form of periodic table :
i. It gives a suitable link between the position of element and its electronic configuration.
ii. The elements in the same group have similar properties due to their outer- most (valence shell) configuration. Thus it gives is
a logical classification.
iii. Justified positions are provided to transition and inner transition elements.
iv. It makes the study of elements systematic and simple.
69. Iso-electronic species are atoms or ions having the same number of electrons but different magnitudes of nuclear charge.

i. F- ion has 9+1 = 10 electrons. The isoelectronic species of Fluoride will also have 10 electrons. For example, Na+ ion [11-1 =
10 electrons], Ne [10 electrons], O2- ion [8+2 =10 electrons], and Al3+ ion [13-3 = 10 electrons].
ii. Ar has 18 electrons. The isoelectronic species of Argon will also have 18 electrons. For example, S2- ion [16+2 = 18
electrons], Cl- ion [17+1 = 18 electrons], K+ ion [19-1 = 18 electrons], and Ca+ ion [20-2 = 18 electrons].
iii. Mg2+ ion has 12 – 2 = 10 electrons. The isoelectronic species of Magnesium will also have 10 electrons. For example, F- ion
[9+1 = 10 electrons], Ne [10 electrons’, O2- ion [8+2 = 10 electrons], and Al3+ ion [13-3 = 10 electrons].
iv. Rb+ ion has 37 – 1 = 36 electrons. The isoelectronic species of Rubidium will also have 36 electrons. For example, Br- ion
[35+1 = 36 electrons], Kr [36 electrons], and Sr2+ ion [38-2 = 36 electrons].
70. a. Element (V) is likely to be the least reactive element. This is because it has the highest first ionization enthalpy (ΔH1) i.e,
2372 and a positive electron gain enthalpy (ΔegH) i.e, +48.
b. Element (II) is likely to be the most reactive metal as it has the lowest first ionization enthalpy (ΔH1) i.e, 419 and a low
negative electron gain enthalpy (ΔegH) i.e, -48.
c. Element (III) is likely to be the most reactive non–metal as it has a high first ionization enthalpy (ΔH1) i.e,1681 and the
highest negative electron gain enthalpy (ΔegH) i.e, -328.
d. Element (V) is likely to be the least reactive non–metal since it has a very high first ionization enthalpy (ΔH1) i.e, 2372 and a
positive electron gain enthalpy (ΔegH) i.e, +48.
e. Element (VI) has a low negative electron gain enthalpy (ΔegH). Thus, it is metal. Further, it has the lowest second ionization
enthalpy (ΔH2) i.e, 1451. Hence, it can form a stable binary halide of the formula MX2(X = halogen).
f. The element (I) have low first ionization energy i.e, 520 and high second ionization energy i.e, 7300. Therefore, it can form a
predominantly stable covalent halide of the formula MX (X = halogen).
71. The Demerits of Mendeleev periodic table that need improvement are discussed below:
i. It could not explain the position of hydrogen as it has resemblance with both alkali metals and halogen group elements.
ii. It failed to explain the position of isotopes as they have different atomic masses. For example, hydrogen isotopes with atomic
masses 1,2 and 3 should be placed at three places. However, isotopes have not been given separate places in the periodic table
because of their similar properties.
iii. The atomic mass of elements is not increases in regular manner which is basic property of his periodic table. For example, he
placed cobalt before nickle but atomic mass of Co is more than Ni.

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 iv. In certain pair of elements law of atomic weight is not obeyed as he tried to place elements with similar properties together.
For example Ar has atomic mass 39.9 but K has atomic mass 39 but Ar placed before K and iodine with lower atomic weight
than that of tellurium (Group VI) was placed in Group VII along with fluorine, chlorine, bromine because of similarities in
properties.
v. He failed to explain the cause of periodicity among elements.
72. a. Alkali metal lithium (with 1 valence electron) combine with group 16 element oxygen (having a valence of 2) to form Li2O
(Lithium oxide).
b. Alkaline earth metal magnesium (with 2 valence electrons) combines with group 5 element nitrogen (having valence 3) to
form Mg3N2 (Magnesium nitride).
c. Group 13 element aluminum (with 3 valence electrons) combines with group 17 element iodine (a halogen with valence 1) to
form AlI3 (Aluminium iodide).
d. Group 14 element silicon (with a valence of 4) combines with group 16 element oxygen ( having valence 2) to form SiO2
(Silicon dioxide).
e. Group 15 element phosphorous (with valence 3 or 5) combines with group 17 element fluorine (a halogen with valence 1) to
form PF5 (Phosphorous pentafluoride).

f. For Z = 71, the compound formed will be LuF3 {the element is Lutenium (Lu) with electronic configuration = [Xe] 4f14 5d1

6s2}.
73. As we move from left to right across a period, the ionization enthalpy keeps on increasing due to increased nuclear charge and a
simultaneous decrease in the atomic radius. However, there are some exceptions which are given below-
In spite of increased nuclear charge, the first ionisation enthalpy of B is lower than that of Be. This is due to the presence
of fully filled 2s-orbital of Be [1s2 2s2] which is a stable electronic arrangement. Thus, higher energy is required to knock
out the electron from fully filled 2s-orbital. While B [1s2 2s2 2p1] contains valence electrons in 2s and 2p-orbitals. It can
easily lose it one e- from 2p- orbital in order to achieve noble gas configuration. Thus, the first ionisation enthalpy of B is
lower than that of Be. since the electrons in 2s-orbital are more tightly held by the nucleus than those present in 2p-orbital,
therefore, ionisation enthalpy of B is lower than that of Be.
The first ionisation enthalpy of nitrogen N is higher than that of oxygen O through the nuclear charge of O is higher than
that of N. This is due to the reason that in case of N, the electron is to be removed from a more stable, exactly half-filled
electronic configuration (1s2 2s2 2s × 2p1y 2p1z) which is not present in O (1s2 2s2 2p2 × 2p1y 2p1z).
Therefore, the first ionization enthalpy of N is higher than that of O. The symbols of elements along with their atomic
numbers are given in the following graph.

74. Trends in ionization enthalpy can be explained on the basis of atomic size and screening effect as follow:
1) Top to bottom in the group:
As we go from top to bottom in the group, the atomic size increase gradually due to the addition of one new principal shell at each
succeeding element and therefore, the nuclear charge goes on decreasing due to an increase in distance between last valence shell
and nucleus.
Hence ionization enthalpy decreases as we move top to bottom in a group.
2) Left to right in the period:
When we move left to right in a period, the successive electrons are added to the orbital of the same principal quantum level and
the shielding of the nuclear charge by the inner core of electrons does not increase very much to compensate for the increased
attraction of the electron to the nucleus. Thus, across a period, increasing nuclear charge outweighs the shielding. Consequently,
the outermost electrons are held more and more tightly and the ionization enthalpy increases across a period.

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 Thus, as we move Li to F, the ionization enthalpy increases while moving from Li to Rb and F to At ionization enthalpy goes
decreases.
75. s-block elements:
i. They are highly reactive elements and thus occurs in combined state. On moving down the group their reactivity increases.
ii. They have good reducing characters.
iii. They generally form electropositive ion by losing 1 or 2 electrons, that's why they are electropositive in nature.
iv. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
p-block elements:
i. Most of the p-block elements show variable oxidation states.
ii. They include both metals and non-metals.
iii. They are generally covalent in nature.
iv. As move from left to right the non-metallic character of the element increases. On moving down the group metallic character
increases.
d-block elements:
i. d-block elements show variable oxidation states.
ii. They are generally paramagnetic in nature.
iii. Their compounds are generally coloured. Those which form complex compounds.
iv. Most of the elements and their compounds acts as catalyst.
f-block elements:
i. They are generally heavy metals having high melting and boiling points.
ii. Their compounds are generally coloured.
iii. Variable oxidation states are generally shown by these elements.
iv. Most of Activities are radioactive.
General electronic configuration:
s-block = ns1-2
p-block = ns2np1-6
d-block= (n - 1)d1-10ns0-2
f-block =(n - 2) f0-14 (n - 1) d0-1 ns2

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