SOFT SKILLS-I

SYLLABUS
30/1/ Jan, 2021

UNIT I- Basics of Applied Grammar and usage Tenses: Part of Speech, Active & Passive Voice, Articles,
Subject-verb agreement, Antonyms, Synonyms, Prefix and Suffix, Narration, Conditional sentences, Concord,
Tag questions, punctuation marks.
PARTS OF SPEECH

Q. With reference to English grammar define parts of speech.

Ans: In English grammar, words are divided into different categories depending on their
use and function. These categories are known as parts of speech. There are eight parts of
speech in the English language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives,
conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections.

Q. What is a sentence?
Ans: A sentence is a group of words arranged together that expresses a
complete thought. A sentence always has a subject – verb – object order
arrangement.

Q. What are the kinds of sentences?

Ans:
1. A declarative / assertive sentence makes a statement. (ends with a full stop.) It is raining.
2. An interrogative sentence asks a question. (ends with a question mark (?) Where are my keys?
3. An exclamatory sentence makes a very strong statement called an exclamation. It shows
a strong feeling such as surprise or anger. An exclamatory sentence ends with an
exclamation point (!) How beautiful she is!
4. An imperative sentence gives an order. An imperative sentence can end with a full stop.
5. A group of words that expresses a prayer, keen wish, curse etc. is called an optative
sentence. This kind of sentence generally starts with ‘may’ and ‘wish’. Sometimes, ‘may’ remains
hidden.

Q. What is a noun?
Ans: A noun is the word that refers to a person, thing or abstract idea.
A noun can tell you who or what.
There are several different types of noun:-
 Common nouns such as dog, car, chair etc.
 Countable Nouns Nouns - which can be counted (can be singular or plural)
 Uncountable Nouns – that cannot be counted .
 Collective nouns- refer to a group of people or things
 Proper nouns- Special names of people, places, things (always written in
capital letters)
  Compound nouns - made up of two or more words
 Gerunds- nouns formed from a verb by adding -ing
 Abstract Nouns- feelings, state, or things that can only be felt
 Material Noun – names of materials
 Nouns as Gender
 Nouns as Voice
 Nouns as Diminutives / Sounds / Homes / Movements /

Q. What are pronouns?

Ans: A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun • They are substitutes
for nouns and function as nouns.
o Personal pronouns – refers to specific people, places, or things I, you, be, she,
it we, they
o Indefinite pronouns – do not substitute for specifics - everybody, some
o Relative pronouns – relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns - who,
whoever, which, that
o Interrogative pronouns – introduce questions - who, which, what
o Demonstrative pronouns – identify or point to nouns this, that, such
o Intensive / Emphatic pronouns – a personal pronoun + self/selves himself,
ourselves
o Reflexive pronouns – subject and object are the same people / thing (doer &
reciver are the same)

Q. What is a verb?
Ans: A verb is a word that tells what someone or something does – an action word or word
of being . A asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events,
or states of being. The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence.

Q. What is an adverb?
Ans: An adverb is a word which adds more meaning to the verb and may
appear in different positions in a sentence. Adverbs modify or describe a verb,
adjective or another adverb in a sentence. They tells how, when, or where about
the word they modify.
There are many kinds of adverbs:
i. Adverb of time – answers when - yesterday, today, tomorrow, now,
then, soon
ii. Adverb of manner- answers how – quickly, neatly, carefully, well
iii. Adverb of place- answers where – here, there, outside, inside, upstairs,
downstairs,
iv. Adverb of degree- answers how much- enough, too, completely
 v. Adverb of frequency- answers how often- often, never, usually, always,
sometimes
vi. Interrogative adverb- answers WH family & how

Q. What are adjectives?

Ans: An adjective is a word used to describe a noun or pronoun. An adjective
usually answers one of three questions about the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Note* If there are several adjectives being used in a sentence to describe a
single noun or pronoun the usual order is: size, quality, color, origin, substance
There are many kinds of adjectives:
i. Adjective of quality / descriptive adj. – answers what kind of= good,
funny, valuable, beautiful
ii. Adjective of quantity – shows number or quantity of noun = one, few,
all, both, much,enough,some
iii. Demonstrative Adjective – used to point out distance / number =
this,that,these,those
iv. Possessive Adjective – shows ownership or belongingness = my, her,
your, our, his, her, its, their
v. Interrogative Adjective – asks question= whose, what, which,

Q. What is a preposition?
Ans: A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its
location, direction and relation between two nouns or a noun and pronoun. It
may also show a noun or pronoun’s relationship to some other word in the
sentence.
1. A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a
sentence.
2. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of
its object to the rest of the sentence.

Q. What are interjections?

Ans: An interjection is a word that expresses strong or sudden emotions or
feelings. It is used with an exclamation
(!) by itself or with a comma following it.

Q. What are conjunctions?

Ans: A conjunction is a word used to connect other words, phrases, and clauses.
Conjunctions are of two kinds Co-ordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.
Q. What are articles?
Ans: Articles are used before nouns or noun equivalents. Articles are of two
types definite and indefinite. The definite article (the) is used before a noun to
indicate that the identity of the noun is known to the reader. The
indefinite article (a, an) is used before a noun that is general or when its identity
is not known.

Q. What is a phrase?
Ans: A phrase is a group of words in a sentence that does not contain a subject
and a verb. A sentence, The part of a sentence with subject and verb is a clause
while the rest of it without those two parts of speeches is a phrase. It does not
give complete meaning.

Q. What is a gerund?
Ans: A gerund is a verb that ends with -ing and functions as a noun.(such as
dancing, flying, etc.) A gerund can function as a subject, a subject complement,
a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition.

Q. What are infinitives?

Ans: An infinitive is a verb that is preceded by the word “to” (such as to run, to
fly, to play, etc.).
They can sometimes function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

Q. What are participles?

Ans: Participles are words created from verbs and are then used as adjectives to
modify nouns in a sentence. They can also be used as introductions to adverbial
phrases. A participle also ends in -ing like a gerund, but it does not function as a
noun. Instead, they form the progressive tense of a verb.
There are present and past participles. Present participles always end in -ing and
correlate to events taking place in the current tense. The past participle can be
either regular or irregular and refers to events that have already happened.

Q. What are modals?

Ans: A modal is a type of auxiliary verb that is used to express: ability,
possibility, permission or obligation.
They give additional information about the function of the main verb that
follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions.

Q. Reference to sentence formation, what is a simple sentence? Define.

Ans: A sentence that consists of one clause is called a simple sentence.
A clause is a group of words that contains one subject and one verb.

Q. What are clauses?

Ans: A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a verb. A clause functions as
an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. Clauses are of two kinds Independent clause and
Dependent clause. A clause contrasts with a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a
verb.

Q. Reference to sentence formation, what is a compound sentence? Define.

Ans: A compound sentence contains two clauses joined by a conjunction such as
and, or, but or so. Notice that there are two verbs, one on each side of the
conjunction.

Q. Reference to sentence formation, what is a complex sentence? Define.

Ans: A complex sentence is a sentence that contains an independent clause and
a dependent clause. The dependent clause begins with a subordinating
conjunction (words like since, because, while) and that the clauses are separated
by a comma:

Q. Reference to sentence formation, what is simple complex and compound

sentences?
Ans: A simple sentence consists of only one clause.
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.
A complex sentence has at least one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause.
Sita drank her morning coffee. (simple)
Sita drank her morning coffee, and then she showered and dressed.(compound)
Because she woke up late when her alarm malfunctioned , Sita missed her
morning train. (complex) or
As Sita watched the train pull out of the station, she realized she would be late
for work yet again. (complex)
Q. What is a conditional sentence? Define.
Ans: A sentence with if is called a conditional sentence. In order to talk about
things that are possible, you often use if in a sentence.

Q. What are Positive and Negative Sentences? Explain.

Ans: A positive sentence tells you about something that exists or something that
is happening.
A negative sentence contains the word not or another negative word.
Negative sentences tell you that something does not exist or is not happening.
Q. What are transitive and intransitive verbs?
Ans: The subject of a sentence often does something to another person or thing.
The person or thing that receives the action of the subject is called the object of
the verb. Verbs that have objects are called transitive verbs.
Some verbs don’t have an object. A verb that does not have an object is called
an intransitive verb.

Q. What are compound verbs?

Ans: If a subject of a sentence has a verb that is made up of more than one word,
that verb is called a compound verb. There are several forms of compound verbs
including: It takes multiple words to form a single verb. Let's study each of
these types in closer detail.
A prepositional verb - believe in, ask for
A phrasal verb - take away, tear up
A verb with auxiliaries - was walking , will meet, are running
A compound single-word verb - water-proof, babysit

Q. What are transitive and intransitive verbs?

Ans: Transitive verbs are those which has a receiver, they pass the action on
to the receiver(person,place, thing or object)
Intransitive verbs are those verbs which don’t have a receiver and don’t pass
the action on to the receiver.

Q. What is a prepositional phrase?

Ans: A prepositional phrase is made up of preposition and associated with
an adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb.

Q. What do you understand by co-ordinationg and subordinating

conjunctions?
Ans: Co-ordinating conjunctions are words that join sentences, words, clause
of the same rank and order.
Coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to
join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses.
Q. What do you understand by co-ordinating and subordinating
conjunctions?
As: Subordinating conjunctions are words that join sentences, words, clause of
the different rank and order. A subordinating conjunction introduces a
dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the
independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"
"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till,"
"until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."

Q. What are Correlative Conjunctions?

Ans: Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link
equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are
"both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and
"whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a
coordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
.
Q. What is the role of clauses in writing?
Ans: By using clauses correctly one can quickly improve the quality of writing
as well as ability to communicate with an audience. Clauses can help you direct
the attention of the reader so that your sentence is understood. Proper usage will
also help you avoid dreaded sentence fragments. the opposite of a sentence
fragment is a run-on sentence.

Q. What is a run-on-sentence?
Ans: This is a sentence that's missing appropriate punctuation and, perhaps, has
too many clauses.

Q. What is an independent clause?

Ans: An independent clause can stand as a sentence by itself or it can be
combined with other clauses. These clauses will always contain a subject and a
predicate. They can join with a dependent clause or other independent clauses to
make a complex sentence. One of the best ways to work with a conjunction is
to include a comma. This indicates a pause, and then the conjunction can help
continue your thought. Independent clauses express a complete thought.

Q. What are dangling modifiers?

Ans: A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word but it is not
clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more
detail about a concept.
Example: Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV. "Having
finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action.

Q. What is a dangling participle?

Ans: . In grammar, a dangling participle is an adjective that is unintentionally
modifying the wrong noun in a sentence. An example is: "Walking through the
kitchen, the smoke alarm was going off." This sentence literally means that the
smoke alarm was taking a stroll.

Q. What are clichés? Give a few examples of cliches.

Ans: . Clichés are phrases or expressions that has been used over and over again
so much that they are no longer original or interesting. Clichés are often just
mindless repetition.
All is fair in love and war.
All that glitters isn't gold.

ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE

Active Voice: the subject performs the action expressed by the verb. Usage: when more clarity and
straightforward relation is required between verb and subject.
Passive Voice: the subject receives the Passive Voice
action expressed by the verb. Usage: when
the action is the focus, not the subject or
when the doer is unknown. Active Voice
Formula: Subject + to be (is, am, are) + Formula: S + to be (is, am, are) + being + past
present participle + object participle + by object
SYNONYMS & ANTONYMS
 PREFIX AND SUFFIX
Q. What do you understand by word formation?
Ans: Word formation is the creation of a new word. The change can be in terms of its
meaning or spelling. New words may be formed when the current vocabulary does not have
a suitable terminology to explain a particular thought or action. There are a number of
methods of word formation.
1. Root words (base words from foreign languages)
2. Derivatives (Suffix & Prefix)
3. Synonyms & Antonyms
4. Homophones
5. Abbreviations
6. Acronyms

Q. Discuss the concept of word formation and their use in English?

Ans: Human beings are social beings and use language to communicate with
each other. Any language is developed with the help of several sound patterns
and words. The words are formed by a combination of letters which areknown
as alphabets of the language. The alphabets are represented through the phonetic
sound & intonation. The English language is an impure language. It has
borrowed many elements from different languages and is capable of
transformation. New words may be formed where change can be in terms of its
meaning or spelling.

There are a number of methods of word formation:

i.Root Words (Borrowing) - A root word is a basic word with no prefix or suffix added
to it. By adding prefixes and suffixes to a root word we can change its meaning.A root
word carries meaning and can form the basis ofnew words through the addition. In English
most roots are taken from foreign languages like Latin, Greek ,Germanan, French
languages.Prefixes, bases, and suffixes are types of roots.

ii. Prefix and Suffix (Derivations)-A prefix is a string of letters that go at the start of a
word; It is the process of forming a new word from an existing word by addinga prefix to
the base word. e.g: such as un- added to root word happy to form unhappy .

Suffix – A suffix is a string of letters that go at the end of a word. such as –ness added
from the root word happy to form happiness.

iii.Joining words (Compounding) - The process of word formation when two or more
words or signs are joined tomake one longer word. Example: footpath, composed of the two
nouns foot and path.
iv.Joining parts of words (Blending)- A blend is a word formed by joining parts of two
words after clipping. Examplesmog, which comes from smoke and fog, or brunch, which
comes from 'breakfast' and 'lunch'.flu (influenza) and bot(robot).
v.Acquired Name (Acronym) - An acronym is a word or name formed from the initials of
a longer name or phraseand the shortened form of the word is used as a replacement of the
word or terminology. The terms pronounced asthe individual letters is used. (such as TNT ,
AIDS, UNICEF)

vi.Abbreviations- An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase, such as Jan. for

January.
The abbreviated form of the word doctor = Dr. ; Professor = Prof.)

vii.Exact Words (Calque)- A calque is a word or phrase borrowed from another language
by literal, word-for-word orroot-for-root translation. For example Hindi: charpoy = wooden
cot, guru=expert, mantra = key

viii.Neologism-A neologism is a process of forming a new word by coining a proper noun

that becomes commonlyused for an idea it is associated with. Xerox is a company = photo
copy, Surf = detergent

ix.Homophones(same sound or group of sounds) - They are words having the same
pronunciation but differentmeanings, origins, or spelling.

Q3. Suggest a few tips for vocabulary building.

Ans: Vocabulary (Latin for "name,") also called lexicon refers to all the words in a
language that are understood by a particular person or group of people. It is one of most
important skills necessary for learning a language. It is the basis for the development of
comprehension skills in reading, writing, listening, speaking spelling and pronunciation.
Regular practice by learning helps in building a strong vocabulary.
A sound knowledge of the following will help:
1. Root words
2. Prefix & Suffix
3. Synonyms & Antonyms
4. Homophones
5. Abbreviations
6. Acronyms
7. One word substitution
8. Words of foreign origin

Q. What are the requisites of sentence construction?

A good sentence must be correct and communicative. It must convey the idea without
confusion. It must be in proper order and structure. Sentences must not be too short or
too long. It must be of an appropriate length. Sentence must not be crowded with
information and must be coherent. One should avoid redundancy that is round about ways
of saying things and unnecessary repetition of words and ideas.

Q. What are synonyms?

Ans: A synonym is a word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word or
a phrase.

Q. What are antonyms?

Ans: Antonyms are words that have contrasting, or opposite, meanings. It must be
in the same part of speech as synonym.

Q. What are the 7 C’s of communication? OR What are the rules for effective
communication?
Ans:
1. Candid- to come to point directly without beating around the bush. Khara
2. Clear(simple) –clarity of thought and expression. Spasht
3. Concise (brevity) - to say maximum in minimum possible words. Sanchipt
4. Complete – having all the details and compete information. Poora
5. Concrete – it should be based on facts. Thoas
6. Courteous – use of polite language with correct manners and etiquette. Shaleen
7. Correct – the language should be error free with proper syntax and punctuation.
Without any grammatical mistakes. Shudh

DIRECT - INDIRECT NARRATION

Direct Speech
The exact words that someone says are called direct speech. Quotation marks are used to set
off direct speech.
“This ice cream is delicious,” said Tom.
“Have you boys washed your hands?” asked Dad.
“Please get out of the car,” the police officer ordered.

Indirect Speech
You can report what someone says without using their exact words. To do this, use a verb
like say, ask or tell, followed by that. This is called indirect speech. There are several
differences between a sentence with direct speech and a sentence with indirect speech.
You don’t use quotation marks with indirect speech.
You change the tense of the verb.
You change the pronouns and determiners.
So the rules for changing direct speech to indirect are:
1. Inverted commas aren't used in indirect speech. No comma used after the Reporting Verb
(The words within the inverted commas- Reported Speech. The verb that introduces the
Reported Speech- Reporting Verb).
2. The conjunction ‘that' is used after the reporting verb in case of statements.
3. Tense of the reporting verb is never changed.
4. When the reporting verb is in the past tense, the present tenses of the direct speech are
changed into the corresponding past tenses.
 5. The pronouns of the direct speech are changed wherever necessary so that it's clear who
said what to whom and about whom.
1. When we express universal truth then the tense of the reported speech will not change.
2. The Past Idefinite Tense and Past Continuous Tense do not change when we talk about “past
hisorical event”.
3. Assertive Sentence
a) said to –),” –that
4.Interrogative Sentence
a) said to – Asked/enquired
b),” –if/whether (yes/no question)
c),” –what/when/where (for WH-family questions)
d) says to- asks
e) say to –ask
f) will say _will ask
5.Imperative Sentence
a)said to –advised/ordered/suggested/commanded/requested
b)do not –not to / forbade ),” –to

6 reported speech in indirect form, making the following changes:

i) change of pronouns as per the subject and object of the reporting part,
ii) change of tense, if required, making interrogative form to statement,
iii) change of adverbs of place and time.

RULES OF DIRECT/ INDIRECT SPEECH

1. If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the tense of the verb In the reported speech does not
change.
2. Rules for changing pronoun:-
I/WE 1 person Changes according to the subject written in
reporting speech.
YOU 2 person Changes according to the object written in
reporting speech.
HE/SHE/IT/THEY 3 person No change.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and
what we wish would happen.
In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. ... In all cases, these sentences are
made up of an if clause and a main clause.
There are four main kinds of conditionals:
Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express
that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with
if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

 The Zero Conditional: (if + present simple, ... present simple) ...
 The First Conditional: (if + present simple, ... will + infinitive) ...
 The Second Conditional: (if + past simple, ... would + infinitive) ...
 The Third Conditional. (if + past perfect, ... would + have + past participle)

 if clause > present simple tense : main clause > future tense (will) If you help me, I will help you
 if clause > past simple tense : main clause > would. If you knew her, you would agree with me
 if clause > past perfect tense : main clause > would have. If you had helped me, I would have
helped you.
Conditional

Conditional sentence Usage If clause verb

type tense

Zero General truths Simple present

Type 1 A possible condition and its probable result Simple present

Type 2 A hypothetical condition and its probable result Simple past

An unreal past condition and its probable result in

Type 3 Past perfect
the past
Identifying Conditional
1. If I don't drink tea in the morning, I feel sick. ...
2. I will talk to her if I meet her. ...
3. I would have helped him if I had been there. ...
4. If I were you I would get that car serviced. ...
5. I wouldn't be surprised if she got married soon. ...
6. If he arrives soon, we will go the movies. ...
7. If I had the time, I would bake a cake.

CONCORD
Q. What is concord in English grammar?
Ans: It means that the subject and verb in a sentence should agree or match,
otherwise the sentence will not sound right. It implies the basic rules
of subject-verb agreement.
* Note- When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
connected by and, use a plural verb.
*The number of the subject (singular or plural) will not change due to words/phrases in
between the subject and the verb.

Examples:
One of the glasses is empty.
(Here, since the subject is ‘one’, the verb should be ‘is’)
The bouquet of red roses smells so sweet.
(Here, since ‘bouquet’ is the subject and not ‘roses’, the verb should be ‘smells’ and not
‘smell’)

SUBJECTS AND VERBS MUST AGREE IN NUMBER.

1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.

Example: She writes every day.

Exception: When using the singular "they," use plural verb forms.
Example: The participant expressed satisfaction with their job. They are currently in a managerial
role at the organization.

2. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.

Example: They write every day.

Sometimes, however, it seems a bit more complicated than this.

3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
connected by and, use a plural verb.

Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
Example: The percentage of employees who called in sick and the number of employees
who left their jobs within 2 years are reflective of the level of job satisfaction.

4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must
agree with the subject.

Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an in-depth
understanding of participants.
Example: An assumption is something that is generally accepted as true and is an important
consideration when conducting a doctoral study.

5. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still
agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the
sentence.

Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.

Example: The student with all the master’s degrees is very motivated.
Example: Strategies that the teacher uses to encourage classroom participation include using
small groups and clarifying expectations.
Example: The focus of the interviews was nine purposively selected participants.

6. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor," use a
singular verb.
 Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.

7. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by
"or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb.
This is also called the rule of proximity.

Example: The student or the committee members write every day.

Example: The committee members or the student writes every day.

8. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone," "everybody,"
"anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one" are singular and
require a singular verb.

Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.

Example: Neither alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Example: I will offer a $5 gift card to everybody who participates in the study.
Example: No one was available to meet with me at the preferred times.

9. Non-count nouns take a singular verb.

Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.
Example: The information obtained from the business owners was relevant to include in the
study.
Example: The research I found on the topic was limited.

10. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds,
contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.

Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.

Example: The proceeds from the sale go to support the homeless population in the city.
Example: Locally produced goods have the advantage of shorter supply chains.

11. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since
"there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.

Example: There is little administrative support.

Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.

12. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular
and take a singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee," "family," and
"class."

Example: The group meets every week.

Example: The committee agrees on the quality of the writing.

However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group. This is much
less common.
 Example: The committee participate in various volunteer activities in their private lives.

TAG QUESTIONS
Tag questions (or question tags) turn a statement into a question.
If the main clause is positive, the question tag is negative, and if the main clause is negative, the
question tag it's positive.
example: It's cold (positive), isn't it (negative)?
And:
It isn't cold (negative), is it (positive)?

Question tags are formed with the auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and the
appropriate subject.
1. A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.
2. A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

THE TWO BASIC RULES ABOUT TAG QUESTIONS ARE:

 If the statement is negative, the tag must be positive. If the statement is positive
the tag must be negative.

 The tense of the tag is determined by the tense of the auxiliary/modal verb of the
statement that precedes it.
Examples:

Affirmative Sentence/ Negative Tag

You are Tom, aren’t you?
Mike can play the piano, can't he?
It's a lovely day, isn't it?
You will go there, won't you?
Negative Sentence/ Affirmative Tag
He isn’t Joe, is he?
She can't cook, can she?
You didn't do your homework, did you?
You won't see her, will you?

Special points:
1. Although the negative word not is not in the sentence, the sentence can be negative.
Then we use the positive question tag.
He hardly ever speaks, does he?
They rarely eat in restaurants, do they?

2. If the verb is in the past simple we use did.

They went to the cinema, didn't they?

3. We use shall after Let's.

Let's take the next bus, shall we?

4. We use won't with a polite request.

Open the window, won't you?
 PUNCTUATION MARKS

THE FULL STOP (.) (THE BIGGEST PAUSE)

The period / full stop (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be complete and
after many abbreviations.
We use a full stop to close a statement / command
e.g Eggs are rich in protein. (Statement)
Bring a dozen of eggs from the market. (command)
Used after initials or abbreviations:
(Mr. S.K Agarwal - initials)
P.M (abbreviation)
c. To indicate a decimal fraction
56.2 / 30.8
Comma, Semicolon, and Colon

The comma, semicolon, and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause in a series.
The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence.
Additionally, it is used in numbers, dates, and letter writing after the salutation and closing.

Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.

Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies, and then we went out to lunch.
Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black, green, and blue dress.
Whether to add a final comma before the conjunction in a list is a matter of debate. This final comma, known as an
Oxford or serial comma, is useful in a complex series of elements or phrases but is often considered unnecessary in
a simple series such as in the example above. It usually comes down to a style choice by the writer.

The Comma ( , ) The shortest Pause

2. Use a comma before the last quotation mark, to separate the words from the rest of the sentence.
To separate words in series
To separate phrases in series
To separate clauses in series
To separate a noun of address
To separate a parts of an address
To separate parts of a date
To separate expressions
To separate statement from a question tag
To separate reported speech from a sentence
To give a pause to create emphasis or clarity in our writing

THE COLON (:)

Used after a statement which introduces examples
3. A Colon Appears at the End of a Main Clause, for separation
A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation,
an example, or a series.
He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology, and economics.
 The second is between independent clauses when the second explains the first, similar to a
semicolon:
I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late.
The third use of a colon is for emphasis:
There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.
A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio, business correspondence and references.

4. A Semicolon is Used for Equal Emphasis

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship between
the clauses than a period would show.
John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.

The Semicolon (;) Stronger than a comma, weaker than a full stop

To join clauses (independent) sentences not using a conjunction

Used with connectors (independent clauses)
To separate clauses particularly having internal commas

Brackets, Braces, and Parentheses

5. Parentheses Show Related, Nonessential Elements

Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further explanation or
are considered a group.
Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations or to clarify meaning. If you
remove the information in the brackets, the sentence will still make sense.
He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.
Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they are considered
as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing but can be seen in computer programming to show
what should be contained within the same lines. They can also be used in mathematical expressions. For
example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.
Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks. However,
parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most cases.
John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.

The Apostrophe ( ’ )
6. Apostrophes Show Possession or Indicate an Omission
Apostrophes form possessives, sometimes they form contractions.
A contraction is a shortened form of a word (or group of words) that omits certain letters or
sounds. In a contraction, an apostrophe represents missing letters. The most common
contractions are made up of verbs, auxiliaries, or modals attached to other words: He
would=He’d. I have=I’ve. They are=They’re. You cannot=You can’t.

7. Question mark ? at the end of a question, instead of a full stop.

THE QUESTION MARK (?)

Used after an interrogative sentence

exclamation point ! end of a sentence that shows a strong feeling such as surprise or fear.

The Exclamation mark (!)

To show sudden feelings & strong expressions

An apostrophe ’ Use an apostrophe with s to show who something belongs to.
to show where one or more letters are missing in a contraction.
quotation marks “ ” exact words that someone says. at the beginning of the words, and at the end.

12. Dash and the Hyphen

These marks are often confused with each other due to their appearance but they are very
different.
A dash is used to separate words into statements.

There are two common types of dashes: en dash and em dash.

En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (--) that is used in writing or
printing to indicate a range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-1945 or
Princeton-New York trains.

Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can be used in place of a comma,
parenthesis, or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a sentence.
For example, She gave him her answer --- No!
Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is a style choice. Just be consistent.

A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound term and is not
separated by spaces. For example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.

Inverted Commas (“ ”)
Inverted commas are punctuation marks used to show where speech or a
quotation begins and ends. In American English, inverted commas are called
quotation marks.
In British English, we use single marks more often than the double marks.

CAPITAL LETTERS

Person, days of the week, religions, religious books, countries, derivations of them, schools, colleges,
political parties, business houses, brand names, first alphabet of a poem, first word of a quotation,

Headings (all words except articles, preposition & conjunction)

Abbreviation, pronouns, the word God , Almighty

Punctuation Marks
British vs. American English
There are a few differences between punctuation in British and American English. The following charts details
some of those differences:
 British English American English
The " . " symbol is called A full stop a period
The " ! " symbol is called an exclamation mark an exclamation point
The " ( ) " symbols are called brackets parentheses
The " [ ] " symbols are called square brackets Brackets
The position of quotation marks Joy means "happiness". Joy means "happiness."
The punctuation for abbreviations Dr, Mr, Mrs, St, Rd, Ct Dr., Mr., Mrs., St., Rd., Ct.


 Table of English Tenses
PRESENT INDEFINITE PRESENT CONTINUOUS PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
SIMPLE PRESENT
Subject +Verb + Object(+ing + time) (has
PRESENT Subject +Verb + Object Subject +Verb + Object(+ing) Subject +Verb + Object been / have been) - sey
TENSE (s/es) ing (am / is/ are) 3rd FORM has / have
Raha hai / Rahe hain /Rahi hai
Taa hai / tei hain Raha hai / Rahe hain /Rahi hai Chuka hai / Chuke hain / Chuki hai

He speaks. He is speaking. He has spoken. He has been speaking.

PAST INDEFINITE PAST CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT TENSE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
SIMPLE PAST
PAST TENSE Subject +Verb + Object(+ing) Subject +Verb + Object Subject +Verb + Object(+ing + time)
Subject +Verb + Object (2 nd ing (was / were) 3rd FORM had (had been / have been)
form/did)

Taa tha / Te thei / Ti thi Raha tha / Rahe thei / Rahi thi Chuka tha / Chuke thei / Chuki thi Raha tha / Rahe thay /Rahi thi

 If you were a tree, what kind of tree would you be? Why?

 If you were a car, what color would you be? Why?

 If you were an item in the supermarket, what item would you be? Why?

 If you were an animal, what kind of animal would you be? Why?
 He spoke. He was speaking.

FUTURE INDEFINITE FUTURE CONTINUOUS FUTURE CONTINUOUS FUTURE CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE FUTURE
FUTURE
TENSE Subject +Verb + Object Subject +Verb + Object(+ing) Subject +Verb + Object(+ing) Subject +Verb + Object(+ing)
Shal / will (shall be / will be) (shall have / will have) (shall have been / will have been)
(1st person/rest )
Gaa / Ge / Gi Raha hoga / Rahe honge/ Rahi Chuka hoga / Chuke honge / Chuki Chuka hoga / Chuke honge / Chuki hogi
honge hogi

He will have been speaking.