Ep STRN 3

Resistance strain gage
IDEAL REQUIREMENTS ON STRAIN SENSORS:

Following are the requirements for strain sensors so that it gives
accurate measure of strain
 Extremely small size and negligible mass
 Simple and easy attachment to the specimen under test
 Good response in union with changes in the surface to which
it is fixed
 Noninterference with the stiffness and other characteristics of
the member over which it is mounted
 High sensitivity in the direction of measured strain and low
sensitivity in the transverse plane
 High speed of response and negligible time lag
 Capability to indicate static, transient, and dynamic strain
 Insensitiveness to ambient conditions such as
temperature, humidity, vibration etc. which are likely to be
encountered in testing machine parts under service conditions
 Inexpensive, reliable and readily available
What is a resistance strain gage?
http://www.kyowa-ei.co.jp/english/images/whats.pdf
Pizeoresistive effect
 Lord Kelvin showed in 1856 that the
resistance of copper and iron wires
changed when they are subjected to
mechanical strain.
 The change in resistance is very small and
cannot accurately be measured by an
digital ohmmeter on a DVM.
 In the absence of any electronic amplifier,
Lord Kelvin used a null detection method to
measure the resistance changes.
Principle of Piezoresistive effect
http://measure.feld.cvut.cz/groups/edu/e38sz/Lectures/04-mechanical_s
Sensitivity of a conductor
Strain sensitivity
SA = = 1 + 2 +
A material property!
Note that this is not the gage
factor.
SA = ≈ 2
What are the implications?

Practical considerations
 The  R/R is not large!
 In strain measurement, we usually prefer
a small gage length.
 This implies a short conductor and so a
very small R  an even smaller  R.
 Use a flattened coil of many turns.
 Use thin foil with thin wire pattern.
Gage factors of some metals
http://www.ae.gatech.edu/people/jcraig/ae3145/Lab2/strain-gages.pdf
Strain sensing alloys
Factors to consider when choosing sensing materials
for strain gage
 Strain sensitivity.
 preferravbly constant with strain
 preferrably larger
 Low thermally induced apparent strain.

 Good stability with time.
 Good fatigue strength.
 Stability with environment.
 Ease of processing.
Constantan Alloy (Advance, Copel. 57% Cu 43% Ni typ.)
 has the best overall combination of properties
 an adequately high strain sensitivity (~2.1), which is relatively
insensitive to strain level and temperature.
 hysteresis of bonded filament small
 resistivity is high enough to achieve suitable resistance values in even
very small grids. (0.49 mΩm)
 temperature coefficient of resistance in -30~193 oC is not excessive.
 good fatigue life and relatively high elongation capability.
 Annealed Constantan can be used for strain > 5% and even to >20%.
 self-temperature compensation to match a wide range of expansion
coefficients through impurities and thermo-mechanical treatments.
 however, that constantan tends to exhibit a continuous drift at
temperatures above 65 oC; and this characteristic should be taken into
account when zero stability of the strain gage is critical over a period of
hours or days.
Karma Alloy (74Ni 20Cr 3Al 3Fe typ.)
 better fatigue life than Constantan.
 excellent stability; the preferred choice for accurate static strain
measurements over long periods of time (months or years) at room
temperature, or lesser periods at elevated temperature.
 a much flatter thermal output curve than Constantan, and thus permits
more accurate correction for thermal output errors at temperature
extremes.
 extended static strain measurements over the temperature range from -
269 to +260 oC. encapsulated K-alloy strain gages can be exposed to
as high as 400 oC. An inert atmosphere will improve stability and extend
the useful gage life at high temperatures.
 self-temperature compensation to match a wide range of expansion
coefficients through impurities and thermo-mechanical treatments.
 Difficult to solder.
Isoelastic Alloy (36%Ni 8%Cr 0.5%Mo 55.5%Fe typ.)
 High Strain sensitivity at ~3.6, which improves signal to noise ratio.
 Higher resistance than Constantan.
 Nonlinear >5000μ
 Excellent fatigue life, better than Karma.
 However, extremely sensitive to temperature variations. thermally
induced apparent strain is very high (145 με/oC), not adjustable.
 magnetoresistive;
 response to strain is somewhat nonlinear, becoming significantly so at
strains beyond +5000 με.
Nichrome V (80%Ni, Cr 19-21%, Fe 1% max, Mn 2.5% max typ.)

 Metallurgically stable at very high temperature.
 Strain sensivity varies a lot with temperature.
 Difficult to process.
Strain sensitivities of some metals
SA
Strain sensitivity SA
Note the steep slope of the isoelastic.
Different types of piezoresistive strain gage
Different types of piezoresistive strain gage
Semiconductor vs metal gage
Extremely high
temperature drift
www. analog.com\library\analogDialogue\archives\39-05\Web_Ch4_final.pdf
The metal foil strain gage
• Ease of fabrication
• High accuracy in fabrication
• delicate, needs backing.
• Standard resistance
But too delicate to handle!

Attach to backing sheet.
www. analog.com\library\analogDialogue\archives\39-05\Web_Ch4_final.pdf
Transverse sensitivity
A single section of wire along a small gage
length is not sensitive enough. Must has a
number of section looped together.
Transverse strain affects the resistance of

the strain gage:
 through poisson ratio effect, on the axial

portion of the gage.
 On the transverse portion of the gage.

Structure of a foil strain gage
Note the turning point
shape. This help to
suppress the
Transverse Sensitivy.
3-6 μm
~15 μm
(Backing sheet)
Backing sheet materials
Paper
 historical use only, not used now.
 low heat resistance.
 low humidity resistance.
 low shelf life.
Polyimide
 tough.
 flexible to follow gentle surface curvature.
 can be used from -200 to +180 oC.
 Subject to creep. Not suitable for long term use.
High modulus epoxy

 little creep, linear/precise,
 brittle, for transducer use
Backing sheet materials
Glass fiber reinforced epoxy
 for high level cyclic strain,
 short term use up to 400oC.
Special plastic film

 can be deformed to large strain
 coupled with well-annealed foil to give good linearity up to 20% strain
Metal
 for high temp use, foil must be insulated from the backing.
 used with special high temperature resistant connection wire
 spot welded to structures.
Ceramics
 for high temp use.
Different types of strain gages
 Difference in make-up
 Backing sheets
 Metal foil
 cement
 Difference in sizes
 Difference in shapes
 Different specialized properties
General purpose gages (up to ~120oC)
Post-yield gages
High temp gages (up to 550oC)
Ultra-low temp gage (down to ~-200oC)

Non-magnetostrictive gages
Non-inductive gages
Waterproof gages
Embedment gage (for use inside concrete)

http://courses.washington.edu/mengr556/Examples%20of%20strain%20g
For shear and torque measurement
Full bridge gages for bending beam.
http://www.blh.de/wiring.htm
Circular diaphragm gage for pressure transducers
http://www.blh.de/pdftg/306p14.pdf
http://courses.washington.edu/mengr556/Strain_basics.pdf
Weldable strain gage
Measurement Group strain gage catalogue

Weldable strain gage
http://www.roctest.com/modules/AxialRealisation/img_repository/files/docume
Miniature gage used in printed circuit board
http://www.kyowa-ei.co.jp/english/kfrs/top.htm
Terminals
http://www.blh.de/pdftg/306p19.pdf
Strain gage adhesives
Epoxy cement
 High bond strength and higher level of strain at failure.
 Good durability
 A monomer and a hardener mixed in the correct ratio.
 Require heat and pressure (clamping force needed) for curing.
 ordinary hardware store two-tube AB epoxy not recommended
 Proper boning give gage/specimen resistance > 10000 MΩ.
Cyanoacrylate cement
 Easy and convenient to use.
 Quick drying.
 No heat required. Trace of water acts as catalyst for
polymerization.
 Performance deteriorates with time (moisture absorption or
elevated temperature
Strain gage adhesives
Polyester adhesive
 Polymerize at low temp (5oC)
 Low peel strength
 Low solvent resistance.
Spot welding
 For metal backing sheet on metallic structure.
 moderately high temperature use.
Ceramic cements
 For application in High temp. or radioactive
environment.
How to install a gage
B129
Surface preparation
Brushing off loose particles
Remove paint, rust and plating
degreasing
http://www.vishay.com/brands/measurements_group/guide/ta/csc/csc.htm
Abrading for optimum bonding
Class of installation Surface Finish, rms microinch Surface Finish, rms micrometer
General stress analysis 63 - 125 1.6 - 3.2
High elongation >250* >6.4*
Transducers 16 - 63 0.4 - 1.6
Ceramic cement >250 >6.4
http://www.vishay.com/brands/measurements_group/guide/ib/b129/129c
Surface preparation
For transducer application where good and
long lived bonding is needed, etching with
dilute acid may be applied followed by
neutralizing with an alkali.
Mark off the layout lines for the strain gage

position using light scribing or burnishing
with a 4H drafting pencil .
Surface preparation
Re-clean the gage position thoroughly with
degreaser (move in one direction with
force) , neutralize if necessary.
Handling of the strain gages
 Never touch strain gages by hand
 Handled only with rounded tweezers, or vacuum
pen.
 Hold strain gage at the backing support, not at
sensor grid.
 Strain gages do not require cleaning before
bonding unless they have been accidentally
contaminated by the user.
 Should strain gages have been touched by
hand, clean it immediately with IPA and cotton
tipped applicators, (do not use cotton
applicators with plastic grip).
http://www.blh.de/application/appl145b.htm
Gage bonding
 Wash hand thoroughly with soap and water. Clean
the working desk area and all related tools with
solvent or degreasing agent.
 Use tweezer to take out the strain gage from
package and fix it with low tack adhesive tape .
 Position the gage against the layout lines. For
very accurate work, a low magnification
microscope may be used.
http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/strain_gages/strain_gage
Apply adhesive according to manufacturer’s
recommendation. Do not spread the
adhesive throughout the surface yet as this
accelerates curing.
http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/strain_gages/strain_gage
http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/articles/Gages.PDF
 Press with finger using considerable
pressure for duration specified by the
manufacturer.(pressure and temperature
from the finger aid curing)
 Special clamping tool and oven curing may
be needed for transducer grade operation.
Transducer grade preparation often involves
clamping with special tool and baking in the oven
to ensure thorough curing.
From krak gage catalogue

Soldering of lead wire
http://www.vishay.com/brands/measurements_group/guide/tt/tt604/60
Cleaning, checking and protection
 Clean the solder flux from the joints.
 Inspect the gage bonding and solder
joints.
 Check gage resistance and insulation.
 Anchor the lead wires and connecting
wires.
 Apply appropriate protective coating.
 Check bridge wiring and resistance.
Examples of Bad installation
 Misaligned gage
 Unbonded backing
 Insufficient curing
 Bumps and wrinkles in the grid
 Trapped gas bubbles
 Uneven adhesive layer
 Bad lead wire soldering
 Insufficient insulation or protection
http://www.vishay.com/brands/measurements_group/guide/ta/iv/iv.ht
Gage Misalignment
Trapped gas bubble
Trapped foreign matter
Bad solder joint
Interfere with flux removal and

environmental protection
Defective protective coating
Good lead wire anchoring practice
(with bondable terminals)
Cellophane tape
Steel strip
Connecting Bondable Solder Strain gage

wires terminals together lead wire
Good lead wire anchoring practice
(without bondable terminals)
Connecting cable Solder together

Lead wire motion leading to tunnel in coating
Gage factor
Sensitivity of a strain sensor is expressed as
fractional resistance change with respect to unit
strain:
 Strain sensitivity SA refers to a characteristic of a

conductor material.
SA = = 1 + 2 +
 Gage factor Sg refers to the strain sensitivity of a

particular strain gage pattern to the axial strain
under a particular biaxial strain field.
Transverse sensitivity
Resistance change is contributed a
number of components:
ΔRg/Rg = Saεa+ Stεt + Ssγat
εa :axial strain Ss  0
εt :tranverse strain St give 10~20% of
 R in wire gage, 
γat :shear strain
 1% in modern foil
gage.
Gage factor
∆
=
Factors that affect accuracy
Temperature induced apparent strain
Error due to Transverse sensitivity
Drift
Large plastic strain
Dynamic effect
Heat dissipation
Environmental effects
Cyclic loading
Electric / Magnetic field
Performance characteristics of foil strain gage
Basic properties
standard gage resistance : 120Ω, 350Ω. 500, 1000 &
3000Ω available.
gage resistance: accurate to ±
gage factor: accurate to ±based on a lot

calibration)
Actual accuracy obtained depends very much on

correctness of installation procedure, state of strain being
measured and environmental factors.
Strain gage linearity, hysteresis and zero shift.
actual strain in the component is transmitted to the foil grid
through : (1) adhesive, (2) backing sheet. These materials
are viscoelastic and can lead to non-linearity, hysteresis
and zero shift, especially stretching to a high strain.
Effect of temperature variations
Since the metal foil, backing sheet, adhesive and the
component to be measured will have different thermal
expansion coefficient, thermally induced apparent strain
will arise.
Temperature affects:
 Resistivity of a material.
 Thermal expansion of the
 gage material
 structure to be measured.
 Lead wire resistance (affect the Wheatstone bridge)
Note that the temp. effects vary with temperature

For a “constantan” gage on an aluminum substrate with a thermal expansion

coefficient of 13 ppm/ oF, the differential thermal expansion strain is:
ε = 13 − 8 = 5 microstrain / oF
Thus the net apparent strain due to resistive as well as expansion effects
would be roughly:
ε = 3 + 5 = 8 microstrain / oF Note: GF=2.0
Self Temperature compensated gages
(STC gages)
The temperature coefficients of the grid

materials depend on:
 Alloying contents.
 Degree of cold working/heat treatment.
It is possible to make a Self-Temperature-

Compensation (STC) gage.
bonded on beryllium alloy

(9 x 10-6/oF or 16 x 10-6/oC).
bonded on steel (6 x
10-6/oF or 11 x 10-6/oC).
bonded on titanium alloy (5

x 10-6/oF or 8.8 x 10-6/oC).
http://www.vishay.com/brands/measurements_group/guide/tn/tn513/5
Kyowa STC
Small enough and negligible in modern foil
gages in ordinary engineering application.
For high precision analysis, one can correct
for the transverse sensitivity effect.
i.e.
use ΔRg/Rg = Saεa+ Stεt
instead of  R/Rg = Sgεa

Drift and stability
Strain gage output drifts due to:
Temperature variations
Moisture variation in backing sheet and
adhesive.
Degradation of foil alloy.
Creep/stress relaxation in backing sheet.
Degradation of adhesive bond/backing.
Stability of the electronic circuit.
General purpose gages have strain limit ~  1.5%
Strain sensitivity may change with strain.
Foil material may break under high strain.
Post-yield gage with special plastic film and double
annealed foil alloy can be used up to 20% strain.
(dynamic creep is heavy with this alloy and so is
not suitable for normal uses!)
For ultra high strain, there is the liquid metal gage
(Mercury of gallium-indium-tin alloy in Tygon
tubing, Sg = 2 +  ).
Dynamic effect
Heat dissipation
Power: V2/R = I2R
Use a larger V is preferred as this will boost output.
However, thermal power accumulation leads to
temperature rise and this is not desirable.
Heat dissipated depends on:
 gage size (surface area) and geometry.
 backing sheet and adhesive.
 component thermal properties.
 ambient conditions.
Moisture.
Hydrostatic pressure.
exert Poisson ration effect.
Cause large deformation if adhesive layer thick.
Radiation
degrades polymer and causes expansion of foil
High temperature
Cryogenic temperature
Integrity of gage components
Thermocouple effect
Localized Heating and boiling of liquid gases.
Cyclic loading effects
Dynamic
creep
causing
zero drift.
(most heavy
with the first
few cycles)
 Fatigue failure at stress concentrations.

 Choose fatigue-rated gages for high cycle
applications.
Electric/Magnetic field
Static magnetic field causes expansion/
contraction and induce apparent strain.
Dynamic magnetic field causes induction.
non-magnetostrictive gage
Special foil alloy with low
magnetostrictive effect.
Special gage pattern(two identical grids
with one grid folded back on another. ) to elminate induction.
Electric field may couple

noise to the cct.
Copper foil shielded gage
How to choose a gage
B129
 Difference in make-up
 Backing sheets
 Metal foil
 cement
 Difference in sizes
 Difference in shapes / Layout
 Different specialized properties
Factors that affect accuracy
Drift
Dynamic effect
Heat dissipation
Cyclic loading
Electric / Magnetic field
How to choose a gage
The answer to this question requires the user to define
more specifically his application. Namely,
What is to be measured?
Is this a stress analysis or a transducer application?
What are the Ambient Conditions?
What is the operating Temperature Range?
Is the Magnitude of Strain known?
Is the Principal Axis Known?
Are there Strain Gradients?
What is the duration of the Measurement?
Number of cycles
Accuracy Requirements
http://www.blh.de/faq.htm
Stress state consideration
A strain gage produce one output and therefore can
only solve for one unknowns.
Uniaxial stress state, stress direction known:

one gage in the stress direction.
biaxial stress state, stress directions known

Two gages, in the stress directions.
General plane stress, nothing known

Three gages, in three independent directions.
More conveniently use strain gage rosette.
Strain gage rosettes
Rectangular rosette
Delta rosette
General selecting procedures
Determine the gage alloy and backing
material.
Self temperature compensation.
Gage length and size
Gage pattern
Other special requirement (fatigue life,
maximum strain, maximum service
temperature)
TN-505
END

Ep STRN 3

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Resistance strain gage

IDEAL REQUIREMENTS ON STRAIN SENSORS:

What are the implications?

 Low thermally induced apparent strain.

Nichrome V (80%Ni, Cr 19-21%, Fe 1% max, Mn 2.5% max typ.)

But too delicate to handle!

Transverse strain affects the resistance of

 through poisson ratio effect, on the axial

 On the transverse portion of the gage.

High modulus epoxy

Special plastic film

Ultra-low temp gage (down to ~-200oC)

Embedment gage (for use inside concrete)

Measurement Group strain gage catalogue

Abrading for optimum bonding

Mark off the layout lines for the strain gage

From krak gage catalogue

Interfere with flux removal and

Connecting Bondable Solder Strain gage

Connecting cable Solder together

 Strain sensitivity SA refers to a characteristic of a

 Gage factor Sg refers to the strain sensitivity of a

ΔRg/Rg = Saεa+ Stεt + Ssγat

gage resistance: accurate to ±

gage factor: accurate to ±based on a lot

Actual accuracy obtained depends very much on

Note that the temp. effects vary with temperature

For a “constantan” gage on an aluminum substrate with a thermal expansion

The temperature coefficients of the grid

 Degree of cold working/heat treatment.

It is possible to make a Self-Temperature-

bonded on beryllium alloy

bonded on titanium alloy (5

instead of  R/Rg = Sgεa

 Fatigue failure at stress concentrations.

Electric field may couple

Uniaxial stress state, stress direction known:

biaxial stress state, stress directions known

General plane stress, nothing known

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