Force and Torque Sensors

Force
q Force is defined as an influence that causes an object to change
its rate or direction of movement or rotation.

q A force can accelerate objects by pulling or pushing them.

q The relationship between force, mass, and acceleration was

defined by Isaac Newton in his second law of motion, which
states that an object's force is the product of its mass and
acceleration.

Force = Mass x Acceleration

N = kg x m/s2
 Force Measurement Method
1) Balancing the unknown force against known gravitational
force due to standard mass. Scales and balances works
based on this principle.
2) Applying unknown force to an elastic member (spring,
Beam, Cantilever, etc.) and measuring the resulting
deflection on calibrated force scale or the deflection may be
measured by using a secondary transducers. i.e. Elastic
force meter, providing ring.
3) Translating the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring
the resultant pressure. Hydraulic and Pneumatic load cells
works on this principle.
4) Applying force to known mass and then measuring the
resulting acceleration.
5) Balancing force against a magnetic force which is developed
by interaction of a magnet and current in coil.
Weight Measurement Method
Scales and Balances
1. Equal arm beam balance scale
2. Unequal arms beam balance scale
3. Multi-lever platform scale
4. Pendulum scale
Elastic force meter
1. Spring scale

Load Cell
1. Strain gauge load cell
2. Hydraulic load cell
3. Pneumatic load cell
4. LVDT
 (1)

For null balance W1l1 = W2l2

 (2)

For null balance W1b = W2a

!
W2 =W1 x "
 (3)

W = (! x " )Ws or = M . Ws
$ ℎ
! "
Where M = ( x )
$ ℎ
(4)
 (1)

F=K.x
F = Load, K stiffness of spring, x = Deflection
 What is Strain?
ü Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force.
More specifically, strain (ɛ) is defined as the fractional change in length.

ü Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Expressed in

unit mm/mm (Unit less).
ü In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore,
strain is often expressed as micro 10–6.
 The Strain Gauge
ü There are several methods of measuring strain.
ü The most common is with a strain gauge.
ü A device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount
of strain in the device.
ü The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more
commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern.
ü The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject
to strain in the parallel direction.
 Strain Gauge
A strain gauge is a device which is used to measure dimensional changes
on the surfaces of a structural member under test.
Gauge factor (GF)
ü A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain,
expressed quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF).
ü Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical
resistance to the fractional change in length (strain)

ΔR = Change in resistance ΔL = Change in length

R = Initial resistance L = Initial length

ü The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

ü The Gauge Factor may range from 1.7 to 4 depending on the length of
gauge
 Rosette Gauges
ü More than two or more direction strain measure at the same point.
ü More than one strain gauges bonded to the same supporting material in
definite relative positions, this configuration of gauges called rosette.
 Rosette Gauges

Advantages
ü There is no moving part.
ü It is small and inexpensive.

Limitations

ü It is non-linear.
ü It needs to be calibrated.

Application
ü Residual stress
ü Vibration measurement
ü Torque measurement
ü Bending and deflection measurement
ü Compression and tension
measurement
ü Strain measurement
 Mechanical Strain Gauges
ü Change in length of test specimen is magnified using mechanical devices
like levers or gears.

ü An extensometer of single mechanical lever type was introduced.

ü Lever system is employed to obtain the magnification (10 to 1) of the
movable knife-edge of extensometer with respect to a fixed knife-edge.
ü Extensometer employing compound levers (dial gauges) having
magnification of 2000 to 1 were introduced.
ü Same time these operated over small gauge length.
ü Most commonly used mechanical strain gauges are of Berry-type and
Huggen berger type.
ü Used for static strain measurement only & point of measurement is
accessible for visual observation
 Mechanical Strain Gauges
Advantages
ü Self contained magnification system
ü No auxiliary equipment is needed as required in case of electrical
strain gauge.
Disadvantages
ü Comparatively larger in size & Suitable for sufficient area is
available.
ü Unsuitable for dynamic & varying strains measurements
ü No method of recording the reading
 Electrical Strain Gauges
ü A change in strain produces a change in some electrical output.
ü Basic principle is changes in resistance, capacitance or inductance that are
proportional the strain transferred from the specimen to the gauge element.

ü The output can be magnified by some auxiliary electronic equipment.

ü Classifies as (1) Resistance gauge, (2) Capacitance gauge, (3) Inductance gauge,
(4) Piezoelectric or Semiconductor gauges.
ü Resistance gauge – Resistance of Copper or iron wire changes when subjected to
tension as a function of strain, increasing with tension and reducing with
compression.
ü Capacitance & Inductance types are only employed for special applications.
ü Piezoelectric gauge for measurement of strain have limited application.
ü Semiconductor have high sensitivity, small size and adaptability for both static
and dynamic measurements.
 Electrical Strain Gauges
Advantages
ü Simple in construction
ü Less inertia effect and very sensitive.
ü Small size
ü Linear measurement is accomplished
ü Output can be utilized for recording and indicating purpose
ü Reliable and inexpensive
 Theory of Resistance Strain Gauge

Longitudinal
Strain

Transverse
Strain
Theory of Resistance Strain Gauge
 Metallic Strain Gauge Materials
Properties of Metallic Strain Gauge Materials

1. Gauge factor
2. Resistance
3. Temperature coefficient of gauge factor
4. Thermal coefficient of resistivity
5. Stability
Backing Material

ü It portion of strain gauge to which the strain sensitive grid structure is

attached
ü Primary electrical insulation backing
ü Retain geometric shape of grid pattern and provide protection to the gauge
ü Commonly used backing material with wire strain gauge are paper, Bakelite,
fiber glass, transfer gauges etc.
 Metallic Strain Gauge Materials
ü Constantan (Copper Nickel alloy)
(45 % Ni, 55 % Cu)
Most commonly used – low and controllable temp. coefficient – exhibit high
specific resistant – constant gauge factor – wide strain gauge range – good
stability over a reasonably large temp. range
ü Karma (Nickel-Chrome alloy with perception forming additives)
(74 % Ni, 20 % Cr, 3 % Fe)
Wider temp. compensation range – minimum drift
ü Nichrome (Nickel-Chrome alloy)
(80 % Ni, 20 % Cr)
Commonly used for high temp. static & dynamic strain measurement –
Measurement of Static 649° C & dynamic 982° C
ü Isoelastic (Nickel-Iron alloy + other ingredients)
(36 % Ni, 8 % Cr, 0.5 % Mo, 55 % Fe)
Used for dynamic test – higher gauge factor – good sensitivity – poor stability
ü 479PT (Platinum-Tungsten alloy)
(92 % Pt, 8 % W)
High stability at elevated temp. – high gauge factor - Measurement of Static
649° C & dynamic 816° C
 Metallic Strain Gauge Materials
Material Composition Gage Factor Temperature
(Sensitivity) Coefficient of
Resistance
(10-6/°C)
Constantan 45% Ni, 55% Cu 2.0 15
Isoelastic 36% Ni, 55% Fe, 8% Cr, 4%, 0.5 % Mo,
3.5 200
(Mn, Si, )
Karma 74% Ni, 20% Cr, 3% Fe, 3% Al 2.3 20
Monel 67% Ni, 33% Cu 1.9 2000
Silicon p-type 100 to 170 70 to 700
Silicon n-type -140 to –100 70 to 700
 Types of Resistance Strain Gauge

Unbonded Metallic wire

Resistance Flat Grid

Strain
Gauge Wrap
Around
Metallic
Bonded Etched Foil
Semiconductor
Woven Grid
Bonded – Metallic Strain Gauge
Bonded – Metallic Strain Gauge
Bonded – Semiconductor Strain Gauge
Unbonded Strain Gauge
 Load Cell (1)

Balancing of Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

!2 !4
V0 = Vs x ( - )
! 2+! 1 ! 4+! 3
Resistance in ohms
 Load Cell (2)

Measured forces in the range 0 to 2.5 MN,

Accuracy 0.1% of full scale.
 Load Cell (3)

Measured forces in the range 0 to 250 kN,

Accuracy 0.5% of full scale.
 Cantilever Beams

K = spring constant (N/mm),

E = Young’s Modulus (N/mm2)
I = Moment of Inertia (mm4) ,
L = Length of cantilever beam (mm)
b = Width (mm), h = Thickness (mm)
 Proving Ring

Deflection of proving ring can be measured by LVDT

LVDT load cell – Linear variable differential transformer
ü Convert linear displacement into an electrical signal (Voltage)
ü Used for measure Force, (Weight, pressure, acceleration)
ü Consist of 3 coils wound on a single non-magnetic tube
ü A.C supply to Primary winding
ü Armature core is ferromagnetic, attached to free moving
ü Movable core couple with primary transducer like spring, bellows, diaphragm
 Working of LVDT
ü AC current supply to PW, the magnetic flux generated by coil is
distributed by the armature.
ü So that voltage are induced in the SW.
ü When core placed centrally
E2 = E1
∴ E2 – E1 = 0
ü This called null position of armature or balance point.
ü Armature moves towards left
ü E2 voltage is increases and E1 voltage isdecreases
Net voltage available V0 = E2 – E1
ü Armature moves towards right
ü E1 voltage is increases and E2 voltage isdecreases
Net voltage available V0 = E1 – E2
 Advantages of LVDT
ü Linearity 0.05% is available in commercial LVDT
ü High sensitivity : 40 volt/mm
ü High voltage output
ü Less friction
ü Low hysteresis, repeatability is excellent
ü Low power consumption (1W)
ü Simple, light in weight, easy to align and maintain

Disadvantages of LVDT
ü Relatively large displacement required for appreciable differential o/p
ü Temperature effects the performance
ü Not suitable for dynamic measurement
 Torque and Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal
to the product of force and linear velocity or the product of
torque and angular velocity.
The measurement of power involves the measurement
of force (or torque) as well as speed. The force or torque is
measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a
tachometer.

Where,
P = Power (Break Power) in kW
T = Torque in N-m
N = Rotational speed in RPM
The torque may be measured in terms of reaction force
and arm length or angular twist.
Measurement of Torque and Power

1] Absorption dynamometer
1] Prony brake dynamometer
1] Block type dynamometer
2] Band type dynamometer
2] Rope brake dynamometer
3] Hydraulic dynamometer
4] Eddy current dynamometer
2] Transmission dynamometer
1] Torsion dynamometer
3] Servo Controlled dynamometer
Block type prony brake dynamometer

Where, N = Revolution of shaft in RPM

ω = Angular velocity of shaft
F = Frictional force
l = Length of arm
W = Applied load at end of arm
 Block type prony brake dynamometer

Advantages:
Simple in construction
Less cost
Suitable for measurement of small power
Disadvantages:
Not suitable for large power
Cooling system required
Shaft is not uniform, dynamometer is subjected to severe oscillations.
 Rope brake dynamometer

Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Simple construction
1. Less accuracy because of change
2. More suitable then PBD.
co-efficient of rope with temp.
3. Use for wide range power
1. Cooling system is required
4. Used for long test with little overheating
 Hydraulic Dynamometer (Fluid friction)
ü Operates on the water brake principle, used fluid friction rather than dry friction
ü Rotating disc is fixed on engine or motor shaft and it rotates with shaft inside stationary
casing.
ü Casing rotate freely except restraint imposed by the brake arm
ü Casing is in two halves, Semi elliptical grooves.
ü Grooves match inside rotating disc to form helix chamber which maintain water flow
 Working of Hydraulic Dynamometer

ü Rotor rotating with speed of engine shaft

ü Due to rotation of rotor with respect to stator, the vortex (turbulence of water) are set up in
water
ü These tend to turn casing (stator) in direction of rotation of rotor.
ü Stator to rotor is opposed by an arm with balancing weights that measure torque.
ü Control of braking by changing quantity of water of pressure or changing space between stator
and rotor.
 Power = WN / K
W = weight placed at end of lever arm in N
N = RPM of shaft
K = Dynamometer constant
Range and Speed
Used for measure power upto 20,000 kW and Speed upto 10,000 rpm.
Advantages
ü Used for high power measurement at high speed
ü Water supply serve two purpose as providing braking action and cooling.
ü High absorption capacity in a small space and at low cost
 Eddy-current Dynamometer
ü Consist of toothed steel rotor fixed on engine shaft.
ü Rotor rotates inside a smooth bored cast iron stator.
ü Exiting coil is fitted into inner surface groove of stator.
ü Principle of power loss produced on account of eddy current which generated
when rotating conductor cuts across magnetic flux.
ü Eddy currents get dissipated in form of heat.
 Working Eddy-current Dynamometer

ü When dynamometer is operating, the rotor rotates which causes change in flux at
all point of the stator.
ü Voltage is induced and local current (Eddy current) flow in a short circular path
within the conductor (stator).
ü These tend to turn stator in direction of rotation of the engine shaft.
ü This tendency is resisted by the brake arm balances system that measurement the
torque.
Range and Speed
Used for measure power upto 250 kW and Speed upto 6,000 rpm.
Advantages
ü Small size for given capacity
ü Suitable for large speed range
ü Good control at low rotating speed
Torsion Bar Dynamometer
 Torsion Bar Dynamometer
ü Optical method of deflection measurement.
ü The relative angular displacement of the two sections of the torsion bar can
be read from the Calibrated scales because of the stroboscopic effect of
intermittent viewing and the persistence of vision.
ü A line of transmission dynamometers based on the principle is available in
the ranges up to 7500m kgf and 50,000 rpm, with error of ± 0.25%.
ü By replacing the scales on disks 1 and 2 with sectored disks (alternate clear
and opaque sectors) and employing an electro-optical transducer in place of
the human eye, a version with electrical output May be obtained.
ü For zero torque, the sectored disks are positioned to give a 50% light
transmission area.
ü The positive torque increase the area proportionally while negative torque
decreases it, giving a linear and Direction sensitive electrical output.
Servo Controlled Dynamometer