Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Drying shrinkage and creep properties of prepacked aggregate concrete

reinforced with waste polypropylene fibers
Fahed Alrshoudi a, **, Hossein Mohammadhosseini b, *, Mahmood Md Tahir b,
Rayed Alyousef c, ***, Hussam Alghamdi a, Yousef Alharbi a, Abdulaziz Alsaif a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, 12372, Saudi Arabia
b
Institute for Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction (ISIIC), School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310,
Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
c
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Prepacked aggregate concrete (PAC) is a particular form of concrete that is manufactured by placing and packing
Prepacked aggregates fiber-reinforced concrete aggregates with different sizes in a formwork, and the spaces between the aggregates are then filled through the
Drying shrinkage injection of cement grout with high flowability. This study proposed the prepacked aggregates fiber-reinforced
Creep
concrete (PAFRC), which is a newly developed concrete, with a unique combination of coarse aggregate and
Waste polypropylene fibers
Palm oil fuel ash
short polypropylene (PP) fiber that is premixed and placed in the formworks. This study presents the outcomes of
an investigational work that addresses creep and drying shrinkage performance in addition to the strength
development of PAFRC specimens. In addition, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) was used at the substitution level of
20%. Six mixes comprising fiber volume fractions of 0–1.25% with a length of 30 mm were cast by gravity
technique. Another six mixtures with the same fiber volume fractions were cast using a pump to inject the grout
into the formwork. The experimental outcomes exposed that utilization of waste PP fibers and POFA improved
the compressive strength of PAFRC mixes. The drying shrinkage and creep of PAFRC mixes reduced significantly
with the addition of waste PP fibers. Moreover, due to the lower drying shrinkage and creep, as well as the
unique production technique, PAFRC could be used for several innovative applications in construction.

1. Introduction aggregates segregation is reduced with the exclusive packing of aggre­

Prepacked aggregate concrete (PAC) is a specific type of concrete
that is manufactured by placing different sizes and shapes of coarse
aggregates in the formworks, in which the internal cavities and openings
are then filled with a mixture of cement and sand in the form of high
fluidity grout. The PAC technique was first designated in the 1930s [1,
2]. The term PAC states to the procedure of insertion the aggregate
particles into the formworks, rather than a specific sort of concrete [3,4].
Generally, the traditional type of concrete is manufactured by mixing all
the constituents and pouring fresh concrete into designed formworks.
Nevertheless, PAC is made by insertion of graded and clean aggregate
into the designed formworks and then injecting a grout paste with
adequate flowability into the openings amongst the aggregate particles,
where it solidifies to form concrete [2]. While in PAC type of concrete,
gate particles in the formworks, grouting methods provide concrete with
better performance. Consequently, a denser matrix with higher strength
due to the point-to-point interaction of aggregate particles can be made
by using a PAC type of concrete [5].
In PAC, the grouting can be attained by gravity or pumping methods
[1–3]. Generally, the minimum size of aggregates used in PAC is one of
the main factors in selecting the suitable technique of grouting. For
instance, in PAC with the smaller size of aggregates and the lower
amount of voids, the pumping technique is preferred, while for PAC,
comprising the larger size of aggregate particles and the bigger size of
cavities, the gravity method is favored [2,6]. In the gravity method, the
top surface of the formworks used to inject the grout, as aggregates were
placed previously, and the grout mixture move across the aggregates
from top to the lowermost of the formworks under the gravity force, and

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
*** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Falrshoudi@ksu.edu.sa (F. Alrshoudi), hofa2018@yahoo.com (H. Mohammadhosseini), r.alyousef@psau.edu.sa (R. Alyousef).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101522
Received 19 April 2020; Received in revised form 20 May 2020; Accepted 20 May 2020
Available online 26 May 2020
2352-7102/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Alrshoudi et al.
consequently, fills up the openings amongst the aggregate particles. This
gravity grouting technique is appropriate for formwork sections up to
300 mm depth [7,8]. In the method of pumping, a controlled-pressure
pump used to inject the mixture of grout into the spaces amongst the
aggregates by using a pipe from the lowest section of the formworks. In
the pumping method, the magnitude of the pressure for the injection
process selected based on the size of the aggregate particles used and
also the depth of the formworks.
PAC has demonstrated its ability to especially function in several
applications, for example, for repairing the existing structures with
massive reinforcement through retrofitting, when a strong bond be­
tween the new concrete and the existing components are required, and
also underwater construction. Typically, this method of concrete con­
struction is employed, where the reinforcement is very complicated or
where specific arrangements like pipes, conduits, openings, and such
other arrangements are required to be incorporated in the concrete. The
normal method of concreting may disturb the preplanned fitments [9].
Besides, PAC is the potential to be used as a repairing material in ma­
sonry and concrete construction. PAC is also applicable in structures,
where placement by conventional techniques is very difficult, such as
massive concrete [10,11]. Furthermore, due to the lower volume vari­
ations and comparatively lesser heat of hydration in PAC than that of
conventional concrete, it has the potential to be used in mass concrete,
such as dams and tunnels, in which cold joints, creep, shrinkage and
thermal cracks are the key concerns [12,13].
In concrete components, the development of cracks in various sizes
causes significant problems relating to strength and durability perfor­
mance. In most cases, the formation of cracks noticeably reduces the
lifespan of concrete structures by allowing harmful particles to enter
into the concrete components [14–16]. Therefore, the assessment of
strains and exploration of cracks development over time is essential to
develop the durability of concrete in long periods. Subsequently, the
time-dependent properties of concrete structures, such as drying
shrinkage and creep, must be considered in conjunction with instanta­
neous strain and cracks [17,18].
Accordingly, to improve the performance of concrete structures with
superior ductility and lower creep and shrinkage, novel construction
materials are essential to be developed [8]. Relatedly, a promising so­
lution to achieve such properties of concrete is the addition of short fiber
at various dosages into the mixtures [19–21]. PAFRC is a novel con­
struction material made of the combination of coarse aggregates with
different sizes and short fibers placed in formworks, and cementing
material mix with sand in injected to the gaps among the particles in the
form of the grout. Therefore, due to the existence of fibers and unique
methods of casting, the proposed PAFRC can be a good solution to
improve the performance of concrete components.
In concrete components, creep defined as the deformation of hard­
ened concrete due to the existence of long-lasting constant loads applied
on the comp[onents [22–24]. Generally, there are two types of creep
which occurred in concrete, namely, basic creep and drying creep. The
basic type of creep strain is frequently formed by consolidation and
sliding processes between the cement pastes due to the evaporation of
free waters that exist in the voids of the matrix. On the contrary, the
drying creep of concrete, which is an additional deformation, arisen
when concrete is exposed to drying [25,26]. Tang et al. [27] and
Havl�asek and Jir�
asek [28] stated that the creep and drying shrinkage of
FRC improved rapidly at the early ages of curing and the rate is
considerably lower than that of plain concrete mixes without any fibers.
Besides, Zhao et al. [29] were also studied the drying shrinkage creep of
fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) with several kinds of fibers. Their find­
ings showed that the shrinkage and creep of concrete dropped by adding
of Basalt and steel fibers. Moreover, the effects of PP fibers on the creep
and shrinkage of concrete were studied. In this regard, Banthia and
Gupta [30] reported that PP fibers are the potential to reduce the creep
and shrinkage of concrete.
Shrinkage is also one of the critical deformation properties of
2
Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522
concrete that must be considered during the design of concrete com­
ponents. The cracks owing to shrinkage of concrete could accelerate the
other form of damages, and thus, decrease the service life of construction
[31]. Drying shrinkage, which is mainly due to the evaporation of free
waters in concrete, is closely related to the properties of binder paste,
where the porose matrix, mostly shape, and size of the cavities are the
foremost issues. Therefore, the rewetting of concrete cannot improve the
drying shrinkage of concrete [32,33]. According to Gong et al. [34] and
Yousefieh et al. [35], adding the PP fibers into the concrete is an alter­
native solution to decrease the shrinkage of the concrete components by
the bridging action of fibers over the time.
Thus far, there is a lack of literature on the shrinkage and creep strain
of PAFRC. Nevertheless, in recent years, the manufacture and growth of
PAC and layered concrete are getting more attention to increase the
performance of concrete components. In regards to the said matter,
Murali and Ramprasad [9] investigated the influences of steel fibers on
the strength and deformation properties of layered two-stage concrete
slabs. Their findings showed that the addition of fibers up to 4% to
concrete in three layers enhanced the impact strength of concrete with
higher energy absorption capacity, as compared to that of non-fibrous
plain concrete. Besides, Ong et al. [36] researched the impact resis­
tance of concrete slabs reinforced with steel fibers, polyolefin, and
polyvinyl alcohol fibers. The results of their study confirmed that the
addition of various fibers resulted in better performance under impact
loads with higher energy absorption capacity.
The manufacture of polymer-based fibers utilized for the
manufacturing of carpets and textiles has been steadily rising, at present
more than 70 million tons yearly [37]. In Malaysia, approximately 50
tons of PP fibers used in the carpet industry in various forms are dis­
carded to landfills annually [38]. Waste carpet fibers are preferred to be
used in the production of concrete composites due to the lower cost as
compared to the available virgin fibers in the market, exceptional
chemical resistance, and hydrophobic nature [39]. The utilization of
pozzolanic materials as supplementary cementing materials (SCM) to
decrease the heat of hydration is well recognized. POFA is an agricul­
tural waste in the form of ash, which recently used in an extensive range
as supplementary cementing materials. The manufacture of POFA in
Malaysia reaches approximately 5 million tons yearly, and this is sent to
landfills as waste material [40]. The manufacturing rate of POFA is
estimated to grow with the increasing of palm trees plantations. As
stated by Lim et al. [41], POFA can be used as SCMs in concrete with
satisfactory durability and mechanical properties.
PAC is a unique construction process, and it has been investigated for
its mechanical properties. Thus far, the time-dependent properties of
PAC reinforced with waste PP carpet fibers and containing POFA has not
been studied yet. Given the quarrel as mentioned above, this work was
aimed to inspect the combined effects of waste polypropylene carpet
fibers and POFA on the shrinkage and creep behavior of the novel
PAFRC such as drying shrinkage and creep. As the construction of PAC
requires unique skills and experience that most workers do not have, the
current paper offers essential data on the manufacturing of PAFRC that
can help both engineers and workers. The use of waste PP fibers and
POFA in the manufacture of PAFRC could be beneficial in both envi­
ronmental and economic points of view. Besides, it is valuable as it can
minimize issues related to landfilling and decrease the consumption of
raw materials as well as encourage the production of green and sus­
tainable construction materials.
2. Materials and test methods
2.1. Materials
Following the specifications of ASTM C 150–2007, type I ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) was used in the current study. The raw ashes
were collected from a palm oil mill located in Johor, Malaysia. POFA
was dried and sieved to eliminate larger materials such as unburned
F. Alrshoudi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522

particles, and subsequently, the ashes were kept in a furnace at the

temperature of 100 � 5 � C to vaporize moisture. Afterwards, the ash was
sieved, and constituents that smaller than 150 μm were kept in a Los
Angeles milling device containing 10 steel bars that were 800 mm long
and 12 mm in diameter for 2 h for each 4 kg of POFA. Besides, the
particles that remained on the 150 μm sieve were put in a furnace and
heated up to 800 � C to reduce the carbon content. The materials were
then reprocessed. Then, the grounded fine ashes, which adapted to the
requirements of ASTM C618-2015 and BS 3892: Part 1–1992 specifi­
cations, were collected and used as partial cement replacement. Table 1
shows the physical properties and chemical compositions of the used
OPC and POFA.
Uncrushed natural river sand, with a size of smaller than 4.75 mm, a
fineness modulus of 2.3, 2.6 g/cm3 specific gravity, and 0.7% water
absorption, was used to make the grout mixture. In this study, the coarse
aggregates, which are the main components of PAC were the crushed
granite type with size ranged between 20 and 38 mm, with 0.5% water
absorption, and a specific gravity of 2.7 g/cm3. According to ACI
304.1R-1997 specifications for PAC, before placing the aggregates in the
formwork, the particles must be clean and wash to eliminate the im­
purities such as dust. It would help to attain a better bond between the
aggregates and injected grout. Moreover, to achieve the better flow­
ability of the fresh grout mixture, a polymeric base superplasticizer at a
dosage of 1.0% was used. In this research work, industrial waste carpet
fibers from ENTEX Carpet Industries Sdn. Bhd., located in Malaysia, was
collected and used as a fibrous material. The multi-filament type of PP
fibers was used, as revealed in Fig. 1. Besides, the fiber’s length was
selected as 30 mm according to the size of the coarse aggregates with an
aspect ratio (l/d) of 67. The common engineering properties of carpet
fibers are given in Table 2.
2.2. Mix proportions
The mix proportions of different constituents used in the production
of PAFRC are illustrated in Table 3. In this study, total, 12 batches were
made in two groups, i.e., gravity (G) and pumping (P) groups. In addi­
tion, the water/binder (w/b) and cement/sand (c/s) ratios were kept
constant as 0.5 and 1/1.15, respectively, for all mixes. For all PAFRC
mixes, OPC was substituted by 20% POFA. In each group, one mix was
cast as a control mix without any fiber, namely P0 and G0 for pumping
and gravity methods, correspondingly. Besides, five PAFRC mixes were
prepared for each group, in which carpet fibers were added at the vol­
ume fractions of 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75%, 1.0%, and 1.25%, i.e., P1 to P5
and G1 to G5 pumping and gravity injection techniques,
correspondingly.
Fig. 1. Waste polypropylene fibers.
formworks, and then, the mixture of cement and sand as a grout was
injected by the pumping and gravity techniques into the formworks to
fill up the cavities between the aggregates and fibers. Cylindrical sam­
ples of size 100 � 200 mm and 150 � 300 mm were used for gravity
specimens, and the mixture of cement and sand with adequate fluidity
was injected under gravitational force through PVC pipes of 5 mm in
diameter into the mold, as illustrated in Fig. 2b. Conversely, in the
pumping technique, the UPVC pipes with different diameters of 100 mm
and 150 mm were cut in the desired length and used as a mold. The pipes
then placed and fixed in a designed plywood formwork base to avoid any
movement during the grout injection process, as illustrated in Fig. 2a. A
mild steel cone with a steel ball was connected under the tube on the
platform to act as a one-way valve during the grouting and control the
steady flow of grout over the tubes. In addition, a cap of plywood was
attached to the top of the tubes to prevent the uplifting of the coarse
aggregates particles during the grout injection procedure.
In this study, a mix of blended cement and river sand was made as
grout by using an electric mixer for approximately 5 min. Afterwards,
the grout with adequate flowability was transferred into the hopper with
constant stirring for the whole filling procedure to control the flow­
ability of the grout mixture. Moreover, a pump with a device to control
the pressure was attached to the hopper for the injection of grout be­
tween the aggregates, as revealed in Fig. 2b. During the casting process
of PAFRC specimens, precise care was taken to ensure that the mixture
of cement and sand did not leak out from the formworks. Once casting of
specimens was complete, the PAFRC samples were cured at an ambient
temperature of 20 � 5 � C for 24 h. After 24 h, the specimens were
removed from the formworks and retained in a water tank before testing
at the ages of 28 and 90 days.

2.3. Sample preparation

2.4. Testing methods
Unlike conventional concrete, the preparation and production of
PAFRC were carried out in two steps; initially, mixing and placing of In this study, to investigate the effect of POFA as SCMs on the uni­
coarse aggregates with various size and 30 mm length PP fibers in the formity of the grout mixture, the flow test was carried out following the
specifications of ASTM C939-16. Besides, following the ASTM C940-16,
Table 1 the bleeding test was assessed by pouring 800 � 10 ml of fresh grout
Characteristics of used POFA and OPC. inside a 1000 ml glass graduate. The compressive strength test was
Composition OPC (%) POFA (%) carried out on the cylindrical specimens of size 100 mm � 200 mm, and
tested according to ASTM C39M-18.
SiO2 20.40 62.60
Al2O3 5.20 4.65
PAFRC specimens were also tested for drying shrinkage and creep.
Fe2O3 4.19 8.12 After 28 days, the PAFRC specimens were out from the water tank and
CaO 62.39 5.70 prepared for creep and shrinkage tests. The creep test was followed by
MgO 1.55 3.52 the specifications of ASTM C512-2010. For creep test, cylindrical PAFRC
K2O 0.005 9.05
samples of size 100 mm � 200 mm were used. To find out the ultimate
SO3 2.11 1.16
LOI 2.36 6.25 compressive strength values, three specimens for each batch were tested
Physical properties for compressive strength, and the average value was noted as 28-day
Specific gravity 3.15 2.42 ultimate compressive strength, which used to apply on the creep test
Blaine fineness (cm2/g) 3990 4930 specimens. In this study, 25% of the compressive strength at the age of
Soundness (mm) 1.0 2.0
28 days was considered as the applied stress for creep test for all mixes.

3
F. Alrshoudi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522

Table 2
Common properties of used waste PP fibers.
Waste carpet fiber Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Density (kg/m3) Melting point (oC) Tensile strength (MPa) Reaction with water

Multi-filament polypropylene 30 0.45 910 170 400 Hydrophobic

Table 3
The mix proportions of the materials used in the PAFRC mixture.
Mix Water (kg/m3) Cement (kg/m3) POFA (kg/m3) Fine Coarse Vf (%)
Aggregate (kg/m3) Aggregate (kg/m3)

P0 186 304 76 545 1320 –

Pump P1 186 304 76 545 1320 0.25
P2 186 304 76 545 1320 0.50
P3 186 304 76 545 1320 0.75
P4 186 304 76 545 1320 1.00
P5 186 304 76 545 1320 1.25
G0 186 304 76 545 1320 –
Gravity G1 186 304 76 545 1320 0.25
G2 186 304 76 545 1320 0.50
G3 186 304 76 545 1320 0.75
G4 186 304 76 545 1320 1.00
G5 186 304 76 545 1320 1.25

Fig. 2. Grouting techniques of PAFRC: a) Pumping; b) Gravity.

Table 4 presents the details of the applied loads for four different PAFRC
mixes under the creep test.
To prepare the PAFRC specimens for creep test, four vertical lines
with equal distance were drawn on the specimens, and then, DEMEC
studs were attached to the cylindrical specimens at 100 mm intervals.
Following ASTM C512-2010 and as shown in Fig. 3, four cylindrical
specimens were placed on the creep frame for each batch of PAFRC and
adjust with the help of concrete plugs at the top and the bottom of the
frames. The loading process, with the given magnitude as given in
Table 4, was done by using a hydraulic jack and load cell. The loading
process was to monitor and control and monitored by the data logger.
The test set up of the creep test is illustrated in Fig. 3. In addition, the

Fig. 3. The test set-up and frames used for the creep test.
Table 4
Details of the applied loads for creep test.
non-stressed PAFRC specimens were prepared similarly and used for the
Mix 28-day cylinder compressive Sustained load Sustained load
determination of drying shrinkage under the same conditions. A digital
strength (MPa) (%) (MPa)
comparator meter, as revealed in Fig. 4a,b was used to record the strain
P0 37.4 25 9.35
values over the gauge studs attached vertically on the surface of the
P2 35.0 25 8.75
G0 35.3 25 8.83
PAFRC samples and then converted to the creep and shrinkage values.
G2 33.0 25 8.25 To determine the creep of PAFRC specimens, the deformation of

4
F. Alrshoudi et al.
Fig. 4. (a) PAFRC specimens used for drying shrinkage; (b) A digital compar­
ator meter.
specimens was recorded in terms of strain values before loading. After
the load was applied, the strain values were recorded for the first 6 h
hourly, then every day for one week, every week for a month, and once-
a-month till 180 days after loading. The obtained deformation values
were then converted to the creep strain by using Eq. (1). Besides,
following the same tendency, the strain of un-stressed PAFRC specimens
was also measured to evaluate the drying shrinkage. Moreover, the
PAFRC specimens were preserved in the testing room with sufficiently
controlled humidity and temperature, as exposed in Fig. 5.
Ɛc(t) ¼ [Ɛ(to) – Ɛe – Ɛsh(to)] *M (1)
Where:
Ɛc(t) ¼ The creep strain at any time to.
Ɛ(to) ¼ The average total recoded strain at any time to.
Ɛe ¼ Average instantaneous elastic strain recorded after loading.
Ɛsh(to) ¼ Average strain at any time to (determined on unloaded
PAFRC specimens).
M ¼ Coefficient of a digital comparator meter (Fig. 4b).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characteristics of fresh grout
Generally, evaluating the uniformity and flowability of the grout
mixture is essential for PAC, as it has a direct impact on pores perme­
ability and pumpability. The flowability of the grout was measured by
using the flow cone method. Table 5 displays the results of the fluidity
test of grout with and without POFA. The results showed that the sub­
stitution of 20% POFA increased the fluidity of the grout mixture. As the
Fig. 5. The temperature and relative humidity changes during the
testing period.
5
Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522
Table 5
Properties of the fresh grout mixture.
Mix Bleeding (%) Grout fluidity (sec)
100% OPC 10.6 15.3
20% POFA 8.5 13.4
w/b of 0.5 and c/s of 1.15 were kept constant, the addition of 20% POFA
caused in higher grout fluidity. It can be seen that the fluidity of the
grout with POFA was noted as 13.4 s, which was lower than that of 15.3
s obtained for the OPC grout mixture. This reduction in the fluidity of the
grout mixture indicated the higher flowability of POFA grout, which
could be owing to the size of POFA particles, which are finer than those
of OPC [42]. The POFA-based grout also needed more amount of water
to preserve the same fluidity class, owed to the creation of agglomerated
particles. While adding water to the mixture, a great cohesive force
would develop amongst the water molecules present in those particles’
vitreous surfaces, therefore averting an effective sliding of ash particles.
This consistent force was owing to the electrostatic attraction amongst
the positive hydrogen atoms and the extremely electronegative oxygen
atom in the neighboring water molecules [43].
Table 4 also illustrates the obtained results of the bleeding test. The
ratio of the bleed water to the mixing water of grout is called bleeding
capacity. From the results, it could be observed that the grout with 20%
POFA attained lower bleeding, as associated with that of the OPC grout
mixture. For the POFA-based grout, the bleeding was recorded as 8.5%,
which is relatively lesser than that of 10.6% noted for the OPC grout
mixture. The lower bleeding percentage of POFA-based grout indicated
that the POFA with finer particle size was capable of absorbing addi­
tional water in the grout mix, and consequently, decreased the bleeding
of mixture [44].
3.2. Compressive strength
Fig. 6 demonstrates the obtained results of the compressive strength
test for PAFRC specimens at different curing periods. It could be seen
that the cylindrical compressive strength dropped by adding PP fiber
into the PAFRC specimens. The obtained results revealed higher strength
values of the specimens injected by the pumping method than those
specimens of gravity technique. Relating the strength values for control
PAC mix without any POFA and fibers at the age of 28 days, the strength
value of the pumping method mixture was around 7% greater than that
of the gravity method specimens. Furthermore, the plain PAC specimens
of gravity and pumping methods with 20% POFA (G0, P0) obtained
slightly lower compressive strength, compared to the OPC-based PAC
mixes at 28-day curing. This could be attributed to the lower pozzolanic
reactivity of POFA as compared to that of OPC, particularly at an early
age [40].
The results showed that the reinforcement of PAFRC specimens by
0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%, and 1.25% fibers, reduced the strength values
of pumping technique specimens by about 3.4%, 5.25%, 8.22%,
11.87%, and 17.12%, correspondingly, as related with control pumping
mix without any fiber (P0) at the age of 90 days. Likewise, at the same
curing period, in the specimens of gravity technique with the same fiber
content, the cylindrical compressive strength dropped by 2.8%, 8.0%,
12.1%, 13.82%, and 18.34%, correspondingly. The drop in the strength
values of PAFRC with carpet fibers could be owing to the existence of
voids in the concrete specimens, which were raised by the adding of
short fiber at high volume fractions. Indeed, higher dosages of fibers
induce balling effect, pores development, and clustering, subsequently,
reduce the strength and disposed to cracks. It, consequently, decreases
the volume of grout mixture amongst the fibers and aggregate particles,
and thus, leads to the drop in the strength values of PAFRC [9,19].
However, after 180 days curing, due to the utilization of POFA as
partial cement replacement and its high pozzolanic nature, the obtained
strength values of PAFRC specimens were found notably higher than
F. Alrshoudi et al.
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of PAFRC specimens.
those of the early ages. This could be attributed to the better pozzolanic
activity of POFA at the ultimate ages [40]. It could be seen that the
obtained outcomes of PAFRC specimens for the pumping technique
shown higher strength values, in association with the specimens of the
gravity technique for the similar fiber dosages. Abirami et al. [8] also
stated that the addition of fibers could enhance the compressive strength
of the layered two-stage concrete slab.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) test was carried out to assess
the microstructure of grout pasts of mixtures used in PAFRC specimens
with 20% POFA as partial cement replacement. The microstructural
analysis was piloted to investigate the influence of POFA on the hy­
dration products and strength improvement of the specimens. Fig. 7a,b
shows the SEM image of cement past used in PAFRC specimens as well as
the distribution of C–S–H gels in the pastes at the curing periods of 28-
and 90-day. It could be seen that the C–S–H gels were uniformly
distributed in the paste of 90-day as compared to the 28-day paste. It
seemed that the 28-day paste contained many crystallines that inter­
weaved together with the C–S–H gels, and several pores were visible
amongst these crystallines. In contrast, the 90-day paste contained many
gel components and had fewer cavities. The finely spared of C–S–H gels
and the growth of additional C–S–H crystals owed to the consumption of
portlandite in the pozzolanic reaction of POFA at the ultimate ages,
caused in strength development [45]. As it can be seen in the following
chemical reactions, with the addition of water to the blended cement,
calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) was formed due to the existence of C2
or C3S in OPC, and resulted in the liberation of calcium hydroxide (CH),
as illustrated in Eq. (2). This chemical reaction was comparatively quick.
Instead, when POFA was included in the concrete mix, the reactive silica
(SiO2), which is in high amount in POFA, reacted with the released CH to
form additional C–S–H gel in the existence of water as revealed in Eq.
(3). Nevertheless, the reaction was relatively slow, therefore causing
slow strength improvement in addition to lesser heat of hydration of
Fig. 7. SEM images of (a) 28-day and (b) 90-day grout pastes used in PAC.
6
Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522
mixture [46].
Hydration reaction of OPC: C2S or C3S þ H2O main C–S–H gel þ Ca(OH)2(2)
Pozzolanic reaction of POFA: Ca(OH)2 þ SiO2 (POFA) þ H2O Additional
C–S–H gel (3)
3.3. Drying shrinkage development
In concrete, volume changes occur after the setting has taken place,
and maybe in the form of shrinkage. Continued hydration, when a
supply of water is present, leads to expansion; however, when no
moisture movement to or from the cement paste is permitted, shrinkage
occurs. Shrinkage is the consequence of withdrawal of water from the
capillary pores by the hydration of the hitherto unhydrated cement, a
process known as self-desiccation. Shrinkage of such a conservatives
system known as autogenous shrinkage, and it occurs in practice in the
interior of a concrete mass. In a conservative system, i.e. where no
moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted, when the tem­
perature is constant, some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a
conservative system is known as an autogenous shrinkage and usually
expressed as a linear strain so that it can be considered alongside the
drying shrinkage [47].
Fig. 8 demonstrates the obtained results of the drying shrinkage test
for PAFRC mixes up to 180 days. Besides, the comparison between the
drying shrinkage values of PAFRC mixes at the ages of 28 days and 180
days of the test is revealed in Fig. 9. The results revealed that the
addition of fibers into the PAFRC specimens the drying shrinkage
reduced for all fiber dosages in which the highest shrinkage values were
observed for the gravity method plain PAC mix without any fiber (G0). It
was observed that the rate of shrinkage at the early testing periods up to
F. Alrshoudi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522

mixtures results in a significant reduction in shrinkage values, in which

fibers controlled the movements of the microcracks in the specimens and
results in lower shrinkage.

3.4. Creep development

In this study, the deformation of PAFRC specimens under long-

lasting constant loads was assessed in terms of creep. For each
method, two PAC mixes with a fiber content of 0% and 0.5% were tested
for creep after 28 days of water curing. The creep of PAFRC specimens,
which is the deformation in the specimens due to applied stresses and
movement of moisture under sustained load, was assessed and measured
using Eq. (1). Fig. 10 illustrates the results of the creep test and the
pattern of deformation in the tested PAFRC specimens along the time. It
can be seen that at the early ages of the creep test, all PAFRC mixes
showed similar trends under the sustained loads. It was also observed
that up to 28 days of the test, the rate of creep development for all
PAFRC mixes was faster than the periods beyond 28 days. Nonetheless,
the creep development of all PAFRC mixes continually rose with time,
but the rate was slower than that of the early ages of test for all mixes.
In addition, at the testing periods beyond 28 days, PAFRC specimen
of pumping method with 0.5% PP fibers (P2) revealed the lowest creep
strain as related to other PAFRC mixes. Moreover, the recorded creep
strain for the PAFRC mix of gravity method containing 0.5% fibers was
comparatively lesser than that of plain PAC specimens. It is interesting to
note that lower creep values were recorded for the PAFRC specimens
reinforced with waste polypropylene fibers at all ages of the test.
However, the reduction in the creep strain was more noticeable for the
Fig. 8. Drying shrinkage of PAFRC specimens. specimens of the pumping method as associated with those mixes of
gravity method. This could be attributed to the dense paste in the
28 days was faster than that of the testing periods afar 28-day. As the pumping method specimens and a lower volume of voids in the cement
movement of the moisture from the cement paste at this ages is minimal
and the magnitude of shrinkage is low, this shrinkage can be considered
as autogenous shrinkage, as stated by Neville and Brooks [47]. However,
at 180-day shrinkage test, for the pumping method PAFRC specimens,
the drying shrinkage values reduced by 11.43%, 23.3%, 29.5%, 16.8%,
and 4.5% for the fiber volume fractions of0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%, and
1.25%,%, respectively, as related to that of plain PAC mix (P0).
Moreover, the reduction in the drying shrinkage values of the gravity
method PAFRC specimens was noted, but lower than those of pumping
method specimens. For example, At 180 days, for the gravity method
PAFRC samples comprising 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%, and 1.25% PP
fiber, the shrinkage values dropped by 8.8%, 20.62%, 25.9%, 12.64%,
and 4.25%, respectively, as related to that of plain PAC mix (G0). Be­
sides, for both pumping and gravity methods, the PAFRC mix comprising
0.75% fibers shown the minimum shrinkage values. According to
Medina et al. [40], the bridging action of fibers, which acts as a crack
arrester, resulted in the reduction in drying shrinkage values. Karahan
Fig. 10. The creep behavior of PAFRC specimens.
and Atis [48] also stated that the addition of PP fibers into concrete

Fig. 9. Variation in drying shrinkage of PAFRC specimens at 28 and 180 days.

7
F. Alrshoudi et al.
paste injected between the aggregates [49,50].
Thus far, there is no literature on the creep behavior of PAFRC with
waste PP fibers. Nonetheless, few studies were carried out on the creep
behavior of conventional concrete. The outcomes of this study can be
supported by the finding of the research work on the influences of the PP
fiber on the creep performance of concrete by Aslani and Nejadi [49].
The results of their study revealed that by adding polypropylene fibers
up to a certain volume fractions, the creep of concrete significantly
reduced. Besides, Li and Yao [50] stated that using POFA as partial
cement replacement can be an alternative solution to reduce the creep of
concrete owed to the pozzolanic behavior of POFA and densify the
matrix, particularly at the ultimate ages.
3.5. Creep recovery
In concrete components, creep recovery occurs when the applied
load gradually decreases and results in the reduction of strain. The
pattern and nature of the creep recovery curve are slightly similar to the
creep curve; however, the rate of creep recovery approaches is faster.
Therefore, creep recovery of concrete is essential to predict the defor­
mation under stress, which varies with time [47,51]. To attain the creep
recovery values, the creep frames were unloaded after 180 days of the
creep test. Then, the process of recovery was continued for about a
month. The obtained results of the creep recovery for PAFRC specimens
are shown in Fig. 11.
It was observed that after releasing the sustained load, instantaneous
recovery was observed at a high rate for all specimens. Then, the creep
recovery was slow down for all specimens for the entire recovery period.
For the recovery period, which was 28 days, a non-linear trend was
observed among creep recovery and the recovery time. The observation
made in this study revealed that most of the creep recovery occurred in
that 28 days recovery period, and no further recovery seems to occur
later than that period. It is interesting to note that the lowest variation in
the deformation of PAFRC specimens was recorded for the mix con­
taining 0.5% fibers of the pumping method (P2). As shown in Table 6,
the obtained instantaneous creep recovery for the specimens reinforced
with fibers is higher than those of plain specimens, and it ranges be­
tween 83% to 87% for all mixes. The obtained results of this study are
similar to the findings reported by Tang et al. [27] on the creep recovery
of concrete.
3.6. Strength gain of creep and shrinkage tests specimens
The effects of the drying shrinkage and creep test conditions on the
strength gain of the PAFRC specimens were investigated. In this study,
after the drying shrinkage test and creep recovery period was done, the
PAFRC samples were then tested for compressive strength, called “after
shrinkage and creep compressive strength.” Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 illustrate
the variation in the compressive strength values of the PAFRC specimens
Fig. 11. The creep recovery of PAFRC specimens.
8
Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522
Table 6
Creep recovery after 180 days of the sustained load.
Mix Creep (180- A: Instantaneous B: Recovery after % of A with
day) x10 6 recovery (%) one month (%) respect to B
P0 915.84 24.1 28.2 85.5
P2 778.67 27.5 32.1 85.7
G0 999.4 22.2 26.3 84.4
G2 838.2 25.9 30.9 83.8
before and after creep and shrinkage as well as the strength gain. The
variance in the 28-day strength and the samples tested for drying
shrinkage and creep tests were considered as the “strength gain.” The
results showed that the magnitude of strength gain was comparatively
higher for the specimens of pumping method than those of gravity
method PAFRC specimens. For example, in the creep test specimens, the
strength gain values of 2.85 and 2.45 MPa were recorded for PAFRC
pumping group mixes with 0 and 0.5% fibers, respectively. Although,
the lower strength gain values were found for the gravity method PAFRC
specimens as 2.15 and 1.95 MPa for the same fiber content, respectively.
Besides, the strength gain values for the PAFRC specimens tested for
drying shrinkage tests were also found to be higher in the pumping
technique as related to the gravity method. The higher strength gain in
the pumping method specimens could be attributed to the dense matrix
of the specimens as well as the lower volume of the voids due to the
proper grout injection into the formworks [52–54].
Moreover, the development in the strength of the tested specimens
for creep and shrinkage tests could be attributed to testing conditions
with controlled relative humidity and temperature, which were in the
range of 60 � 5% RH and 23 � 2 � C, correspondingly. At these humidity
and temperatures range, the pozzolanic activity of POFA was proceeded
and developed additional C–S–H gels, and consequently, results in the
strength gain of PAFRC specimens at a longer curing period [40,55].
4. Conclusions
In this study, the drying shrinkage and creep properties, as well as
the strength gain of a new prepacked aggregate fiber reinforced concrete
using waste PP fibers and POFA, were investigated with the following
conclusions:
� Using 20% POFA as partial cementing materials in the production of
PAFRC caused in a higher fluidity of fresh grout mixture and lower
bleeding percentage as compared to that of 100% OPC grout mixture.
� By adding waste polypropylene fibers into the PAC mixture, the
compressive strength of PAFRC specimens decreased for both
pumping and gravity groups. Besides, the replacement of OPC with
POFA results in a slow rate of hydration at an early age. However, at
the more extended curing periods of 90 and 180 days, the rate of
strength enhancement was more remarkable in the pumping tech­
nique PAFRC mixtures, as associated with those of samples of gravity
technique.
� The drying shrinkage values of all PAFRC specimens reinforced with
waste polypropylene fibers were comparatively lower than those of
plain PAC specimens. The highest reduction in drying shrinkage was
recorded for the PAFRC mix of pumping method containing 0.75%
fibers, which were 29.5% lower than that of the plain mix.
� Lower deformation under sustained loads in terms of creep was
observed for PAFRC specimens reinforced with waste polypropylene
fibers as compared to plain PAC mixes. The PAFRC specimens of the
pumping group reinforced with 0.5% fibers obtained the lowest
creep strain value. Besides, the recorded creep recovery values
indicated that along the time, the rate of recovery was higher in the
specimens reinforced with PP fibers.
� The outcomes indicated that the strength of the shrinkage and creep
tests specimens could gain under the controlled environment.
F. Alrshoudi et al.
Fig. 12. Strength gain of PAFRC mixes after the 180-day shrinkage test.
Fig. 13. Strength gain of PAFRC mixes after the 180-day creep test.
� The new method of reinforcing prepacked aggregates concrete has
delivered a technique to move from normal FRC to novel PAFRC,
which also provides new considerations for the future sorts of FRC
with lower creep and drying shrinkage.
Declaration of competing interest
There is no conflict of interest.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Fahed Alrshoudi: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing -
review & editing. Hossein Mohammadhosseini: Formal analysis,
Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Mahmood Md Tahir: Conceptualization, Supervision. Rayed Alyousef:
Methodology, Investigation, Resources, Writing - review & editing.
Hussam Alghamdi: Methodology, Data curation. Yousef Alharbi:
Validation, Validation, Visualization. Abdulaziz Alsaif: Validation.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific
Research at King Saud University for funding this work through research
group no.RG-1441-440.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101522.
9
Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522
References
[1] H.S. Abdelgader, How to design concrete produced by a two-stage concreting
method, Cement Concr. Res. 29 (3) (1999) 331–337.
[2] M.F. Najjar, A.M. Soliman, M.L. Nehdi, Critical overview of two-stage concrete:
properties and applications, Construct. Build. Mater. 62 (2014) 47–58.
[3] A.S.M.A. Awal, Creep recovery of PAC, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 4 (3) (1992) 320–325.
[4] S. Swaddiwudhipong, J. Zhang, S.L. Lee, Prepacked grouting process in concrete
construction, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 15 (6) (2003) 567–576.
[5] A.S.M.A. Awal, Manufacture and Properties of Pre-packed Aggregate Concrete,
Master thesis. University of Melbourne, Australia, 1984.
[6] M.F. Najjar, M.L. Nehdi, A.M. Soliman, T.M. Azabi, Damage mechanisms of two-
stage concrete exposed to chemical and physical sulfate attack, Construct. Build.
Mater. 137 (2017) 141–152.
[7] H. Mohammadhosseini, M.M. Tahir, A. Alaskar, H. Alabduljabbar, R. Alyousef,
Enhancement of strength and transport properties of a novel preplaced aggregate
fiber reinforced concrete by adding waste polypropylene carpet fibers, Journal of
Building Engineering 27 (2020), 101003.
[8] T. Abirami, G. Murali, K.S.R. Mohan, M.P. Salaimanimagudam, P. Nagaveni,
P. Bhargavi, Multi-layered two stage fibrous composites against low-velocity falling
mass and projectile impact, Construct. Build. Mater. 248 (2020), 118631.
[9] G. Murali, K. Ramprasad, A feasibility of enhancing the impact strength of novel
layered two stage fibrous concrete slabs, Eng. Struct. 175 (2018) 41–49.
[10] H.S. Abdelgader, A.A. Elgalhud, Effect of grout proportions on strength of two-
stage concrete, Struct. Concr. 9 (3) (2008) 163–170.
[11] ACI 304.1, Guide for the Use of Preplaced Aggregate Concrete for Structural and
Mass Concrete Applications, vol. 304, American Concrete Institute, 2005, p. 1. ACI
Committee.
[12] P. Baumann, November. Use of PAC in major dam construction, in: Journal
Proceedings vol. 45, 1948, pp. 229–235, 11.
[13] H.S. Abdelgader, J. Gorski, Concrete repair using two-stage concrete method,
Mater. Budowlane. 8 (2015) 66–68.
[14] V. Afroughsabet, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Mechanical and durability properties of high
strength concrete containing steel and polypropylene fibres, Construct. Build.
Mater. 94 (2015) 73–82.
[15] M. Mastali, A. Dalvand, A. Sattarifard, The impact resistance and mechanical
properties of the reinforced self-compacting concrete incorporating recycled CFRP
fibre with different lengths and dosages, Compos. B Eng. 112 (2017) 74–92.
F. Alrshoudi et al.
[16] S. Teng, V. Afroughsabet, C.P. Ostertag, Flexural behavior and durability properties
of high performance hybrid-fiber-reinforced concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 182
(2018) 504–515.
[17] M. Zawam, K. Soudki, J.S. West, Factors affecting the time-dependent behaviour of
GFRP prestressed concrete beams, Journal of Building Engineering 24 (2019),
100715.
[18] H. Mohammadhosseini, R. Alyousef, N.H.A.S. Lim, M.M. Tahir, H. Alabduljabbar,
A.M. Mohamed, M. Samadi, Waste metalized film food packaging as low cost and
ecofriendly fibrous materials in the production of sustainable and green concrete
composites, J. Clean. Prod. 258 (2020), 120726.
[19] T. Abirami, M. Loganaganandan, G. Murali, R. Fediuk, R.V. Sreekrishna,
T. Vignesh, G. Januppriya, K. Karthikeyan, Experimental research on impact
response of novel steel fibrous concretes under falling mass impact, Construct.
Build. Mater. 222 (2019) 447–457.
[20] G. Murali, R. Fediuk, A Taguchi approach for study on impact response of ultra-
high-performance polypropylene fibrous cementitious composite, Journal of
Building Engineering 30 (2020), 101301.
[21] R. Fediuk, M.A. Mosaberpanah, V. Lesovik, Development of fiber reinforced self-
compacting concrete (FRSCC): towards an efficient utilization of quaternary
composite binders and fibers, Advances in concrete construction 9 (4) (2020)
387–395.
[22] H. Mohammadhosseini, J.M. Yatim, A.R.M. Sam, A.S.M.A. Awal, Durability
performance of green concrete composites containing waste carpet fibers and palm
oil fuel ash, J. Clean. Prod. 144 (2017) 448–458.
[23] Z. Kubba, G.F. Huseien, A.R.M. Sam, K.W. Shah, M.A. Asaad, M. Ismail, M.
M. Tahir, J. Mirza, Impact of curing temperatures and alkaline activators on
compressive strength and porosity of ternary blended geopolymer mortars, Case
Studies in Construction Materials 9 (2018), e00205.
[24] H. Mohammadhosseini, R. Alyousef, N.H.A.S. Lim, M.M. Tahir, H. Alabduljabbar,
A.M. Mohamed, Creep and drying shrinkage performance of concrete composite
comprising waste polypropylene carpet fibres and palm oil fuel ash, Journal of
Building Engineering 30 (2020), 101250.
[25] G.F. Huseien, H.K. Hamzah, A.R.M. Sam, N.H.A. Khalid, K.W. Shah, D.
P. Deogrescu, J. Mirza, Alkali-activated mortars blended with glass bottle waste
nano powder: environmental benefit and sustainability, J. Clean. Prod. 243 (2020),
118636.
[26] R. Alyousef, H. Alabduljabbar, H. Mohammadhosseini, A.M. Mohamed, A. Siddika,
F. Alrshoudi, A. Alaskar, Utilization of sheep wool as potential fibrous materials in
the production of concrete composites, Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020),
101216.
[27] W.C. Tang, H.Z. Cui, M. Wu, Creep and creep recovery properties of polystyrene
aggregate concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 51 (2014) 338–343.
[28] P. Havl�asek, M. Jir�asek, Multiscale modeling of drying shrinkage and creep of
concrete, Cement Concr. Res. 85 (2016) 55–74.
[29] Q. Zhao, J. Yu, G. Geng, J. Jiang, X. Liu, Effect of fibre types on creep behavior of
concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 105 (2016) 416–422.
[30] N. Banthia, R. Gupta, Influence of polypropylene fibre geometry on plastic
shrinkage cracking in concrete, Cement Concr. Res. 36 (7) (2006) 1263–1267.
[31] M. Khan, M. Cao, M. Ali, M., Cracking behaviour and constitutive modelling of
hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, Journal of Building Engineering 30 (2020),
101272.
[32] D.Y. Yoo, S. Kim, M.J. Kim, Comparative shrinkage behavior of ultra-high-
performance fibre-reinforced concrete under ambient and heat curing conditions,
Construct. Build. Mater. 162 (2018) 406–419.
[33] R. Chylík, J. Fl�adr, P. Bílý, T. Trtík, L. Vr�
ablík, An analysis of the applicability of
existing shrinkage prediction models to concretes containing steel fibres or crumb
rubber, Journal of Building Engineering 24 (2019), 100729.
10
Journal of Building Engineering 32 (2020) 101522
[34] J. Gong, W. Zeng, W. Zhang, Influence of shrinkage-reducing agent and
polypropylene fibre on shrinkage of ceramsite concrete, Construct. Build. Mater.
159 (2018) 155–163.
[35] N. Yousefieh, A. Joshaghani, E. Hajibandeh, M. Shekarchi, Influence of fibres on
drying shrinkage in restrained concrete, Construct. Build. Mater. 148 (2017)
833–845.
[36] K.C.G. Ong, M. Basheerkhan, P. Paramasivam, Resistance of fibre concrete slabs to
low velocity projectile impact, Cement Concr. Compos. 21 (5–6) (1999) 391–401.
[37] A.S.M.A. Awal, H. Mohammadhosseini, Green concrete production incorporating
waste carpet fiber and palm oil fuel ash, J. Clean. Prod. 137 (2016) 157–166.
[38] H. Mohammadhosseini, M.M. Tahir, A.R.M. Sam, N.H.A.S. Lim, M. Samadi,
Enhanced performance for aggressive environments of green concrete composites
reinforced with waste carpet fibres and palm oil fuel ash, J. Clean. Prod. 185
(2018) 252–265.
[39] A. Sotayo, S. Green, G. Turvey, Carpet recycling: a review of recycled carpets for
structural composites, Environmental Technology & Innovation. 3 (2015) 97–107.
[40] M. Samadi, G.F. Huseien, H. Mohammadhosseini, H.S. Lee, N.H.A.S. Lim, M.
M. Tahir, R. Alyousef, Waste ceramic as low cost and eco-friendly materials in the
production of sustainable mortars, J. Clean. Prod. 266 (2020), 121825.
[41] C. Chandara, K.A.M. Azizli, Z.A. Ahmad, S.F.S. Hashim, E. Sakai, Heat of hydration
of blended cement containing treated ground palm oil fuel ash, Construct. Build.
Mater. 27 (1) (2012) 78–81.
[42] H. Mohammadhosseini, A.S.M.A. Awal, A.R.M. Sam, Mechanical and thermal
properties of PAC incorporating palm oil fuel ash, S� adhan�
a. 41 (10) (2016)
1235–1244.
[43] N.H.A.S. Lim, H. Mohammadhosseini, M.M. Tahir, M. Samadi, A.R.M. Sam,
Microstructure and strength properties of mortar containing waste ceramic
nanoparticles, Arabian J. Sci. Eng. 43 (10) (2018) 5305–5313.
[44] G.F. Huseien, M.M. Tahir, J. Mirza, M. Ismail, K.W. Shah, M.A. Asaad, Effects of
POFA replaced with FA on durability properties of GBFS included alkali activated
mortars, Construct. Build. Mater. 175 (2018) 174–186.
[45] B. Alsubari, P. Shafigh, M.Z. Jumaat, Utilization of high-volume treated palm oil
fuel ash to produce sustainable self-compacting concrete, J. Clean. Prod. 137
(2017) 982–996.
[46] H. Mohammadhosseini, M.M. Tahir, Production of sustainable fibre-reinforced
concrete incorporating waste chopped metallic film fibres and palm oil fuel ash,
S�adhan� a 43 (10) (2018) 156.
[47] A.M. Neville, J.J. Brooks, Concrete Technology Second (2010).
[48] O. Karahan, C.D. Atiş, The durability properties of polypropylene fibre reinforced
fly ash concrete, Mater. Des. 32 (2) (2011) 1044–1049.
[49] F. Aslani, S. Nejadi, Creep and shrinkage of self-compacting concrete with and
without fibres, J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 11 (10) (2013) 251–265.
[50] J. Li, Y. Yao, A study on creep and drying shrinkage of high performance concrete,
Cement Concr. Res. 31 (8) (2001) 1203–1206.
[51] G.F. Huseien, M. Ismail, J. Mirza, Influence of curing methods and sodium silicate
content on compressive strength and microstructure of multi blend geopolymer
mortars, Adv. Sci. Lett. 24 (6) (2018) 4218–4222.
[52] H. Mohammadhosseini, M.M. Tahir, M.I. Sayyed, Strength and transport properties
of concrete composites incorporating waste carpet fibres and palm oil fuel ash,
Journal of Building Engineering 20 (2018) 156–165.
[53] G.F. Huseien, A.R.M. Sam, K.W. Shah, A.M.A. Budiea, J. Mirza, Utilizing spend
garnets as sand replacement in alkali-activated mortars containing fly ash and
GBFS, Construct. Build. Mater. 225 (2019) 132–145.
[54] H. Mohammadhosseini, N.H.A.S. Lim, M.M. Tahir, R. Alyousef, M. Samadi,
H. Alabduljabbar, A.M. Mohamed, Effects of waste ceramic as cement and fine
aggregate on durability performance of sustainable mortar, Arabian J. Sci. Eng. 45
(2020) 3623–3634.
[55] E. Boghossian, L.D. Wegner, Use of flax fibres to reduce plastic shrinkage cracking
in concrete, Cement Concr. Compos. 30 (10) (2008) 929–937.