This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been
fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2017.2764062, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery
A Wavelet-Based Transformer Differential
Protection With Differential Current Transformer
Saturation and Cross-Country Fault Detection
R. P. Medeiros and F. B. Costa, Member, IEEE
Abstract—The current transformer (CT) saturation phe-
nomenon has been one of the main problems for the power
transformer differential protection, leading to incorrect current
measurements and relay misoperation. This paper proposes a
fast and efficient transformer differential protection scheme
with additional differential CT saturation and cross-country
fault detection modules after the external fault detection, all
of them based on the differential wavelet coefficient energy
with border distortions in order to stabilize the relay during
external faults and distinguish accurately CT saturation from
cross-country internal faults. The proposed method was assessed
by using representative simulations of internal faults, transformer
energizations, and external faults with CT saturation followed by
cross-country internal faults, and good results were achieved.
Index Terms—CT saturation, differential protection, wavelet
transform, cross-country faults.
I. I NTRODUCTION
main purpose of the current transformer (CT) is to
T HE
reproduce accurately the primary current in its secondary
winding, considering the criteria of magnitude and phase
shift. However, the secondary current can present distortions
when the CT magnetic core saturates, which may impact
the protective relay operation. For instance, phasor estimation
can face problems when CTs saturate, which can impact the
distance and overcurrent protective relays [1].
According to [2], the CT saturation phenomenon has been
one of the main problems for the power transformer differen-
tial protection, since it may lead to a false trip during external
faults. In fact, traditional percentage differential relays with a
single slope do not present a good response when CT saturates,
and dual bias slopes are commonly used to restrain relays
from tripping under CT saturation. In addition, besides the
well-known efficiency against inrush conditions, the harmonic
blocking element has provided better performance against
nuisance trips caused by CT saturation than the relays with
dual bias slopes. However, depending on the configuration
used by this protective function (independent or cross-blocking
mode) [2], the relay efficiency may be reduced if internal faults
take place during external faults (cross-country fault).
Aiming to improve the differential protection performance
under CT saturation, digital signal processing techniques have
been employed for recognizing saturation intervals in the CT
This work was supported by CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento
de Pessoal de Nı́vel Superior) and CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvi-
mento Cientı́fico e Tecnológico).
R. P. Medeiros and F. B. Costa are with Federal University of Rio Grande
do Norte, Campus Universitário Lagoa Nova, Natal - RN, CEP:59.078-970,
Brazil. E-mail: rodrigo.prado@ufersa.edu.br and flaviocosta@ect.ufrn.br.
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1
secondary currents appropriately [1]–[7]. In [6], a multiregion
adaptive differential relay based on the differential current
trajectory was proposed in order to discriminate internal faults
from other disturbances properly, including CT saturation
cases. In [7], a filter for compensating the CT saturation effects
during faults and a filter for suppressing the DC component
introduced by the inrush current were proposed. The wavelet
transform has also been used for power transformer differ-
ential protection during CT saturation after external faults
[4]. However, the conventional wavelet coefficients and their
variants are affected by noise and are not sensible to over-
damped transients induced by faults, limiting their applications
in the power system protection [8], [9]. In addition, must
methods concerned only for solving problems regarding the
CT saturation after external faults, presenting no reliability for
detecting possible cross-country faults, which may offer some
concerns for the transformer differential protection [10]–[12].
For instance, a high current magnitude during external faults
may shake and heat the transformer winding, and as longer the
fault lasts, as greater the risk of it evolving into an internal
transformer fault [12].
Recently, a wavelet-based power transformer differential
protection was proposed in order to discriminate internal
faults from external faults and inrush conditions [13]. In this
method, the conventional differential protection philosophy
was recreated by using high frequency components extracted
through the differential wavelet coefficient energy with border
distortions of the currents by means of the real-time station-
ary discrete transform (RT-SWT) instead of the differential
currents. Both phase (87TW) and negative-sequence (87QW)
wavelet differential units were proposed. As contributions, the
relay operating time was faster than conventional differential
relays and the method presented accurate detection of critical
internal faults (turn-to-turn and turn-to-earth faults inside the
transformer windings). However, this method is susceptible to
CT saturation during external faults and it is not able to detect
possible cross-country faults.
This paper proposes an improvement in the power trans-
former differential protection scheme based on the operating
and restraining boundary wavelet coefficient energy proposed
by [13] in order to overcome the CT saturation problem during
external faults. Firstly, this paper proposes an external fault
detection logic in order to block the trip logic when an external
fault is detected and avoid the relay misoperation due to
an eventual CT saturation. However, the differential function
must trip if a cross-country fault occurs and remains blocked
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Transactions on Power Delivery
2

during CT saturation. Therefore, a differential CT saturation Power Transformer

detection logic is proposed in order to detect and confirm CB1 CT1 CT2 CB2
CT saturations during external faults, remaining the trip logic
blocked. However, if a cross-country fault takes place after the Pre-
external fault, a cross-country fault detection logic based on Processing
the wavelet-based differential protection logic 87TW unblocks RT-SWT
the trip logic. Therefore, the proposed method contemplates
the 87TW and 87QW functions from [13] (fast and accurate
Phase/
internal fault detection) and presents as advantages: high Magnitude
effectiveness and security to be not affected by CT saturations Adjustments
during external faults and good performance to distinguish
cross-country faults from CT saturations after external faults. Differential
Coefficients
In addition, all equations and logics were designed to be
executed in the real-time with low computational burden. Differential
The proposed method was evaluated under a wide variety Energy
of events such as critical internal faults, transformer energiza-
tions, and external faults with CT saturations and followed by Event
Detection
cross-country internal faults. Comparisons with a conventional
differential protection were accomplished, and good results Ext. Fault
Energization
were obtained. Detection
II. T HE P ROPOSED WAVELET-BASED T RANSFORMER Diff. Protection
CT Saturation
(87TW and 87QW)
D IFFERENTIAL P ROTECTION Detection
Fig. 1 depicts the block diagram of the proposed wavelet- Trip
Trip
based transformer differential protection with the saturation logic
detection algorithm, which is executed every sampling time.
Whenever an event is detected through differential wavelet
coefficient energy variables, external fault/event, internal fault, Figure 1. The proposed wavelet-based transformer differential protection.
or transformer energization can be detected with the related
logics. When an external fault is detected, the algorithm can
detect CT saturations and cross-country faults properly. Each in ∆k samples). In this paper, ∆k = fs /f (i.e., one cycle of
block in this diagram is addressed in the remainder of this the fundamental frequency f ); fs is the sampling rate.
section. According to [9], w(0, k) defined in (1) with l = 0 is the
wavelet coefficients of the conventional SWT at the sampling
A. Pre-processing k, whereas w(l 6= 0, k) are additional wavelet coefficients with
The preprocessing block lies in antialiasing filters followed border distortions, useful for detecting overdamped transients
by analog-to-digital converters attending the Nyquist criterium of faults.
in order to get the time-discrete secondary currents (iHφ and
iXφ ) of the current transformers CT1 and CT2, respectively. C. Phase and Magnitude Adjustments
The underscript φ represents the phases A, B, and C, as well as Since the SWT is a linear transformation, the algorithm
Q, where Q is the negative-sequence index; H and X are high performs the amplitude and phase shift correction directly in
and low voltage winding sides of the transformer, respectively. the wavelet coefficients (w′ ) instead of the currents, as follows:
The negative-sequence currents are computed through stored  ′   
wiHA wiHA
discrete current samples (no phasors) [13]. wi′  = 1
MH wiHB  , (2)
′
HB
T APH
wiHC wiHC
B. The Real-Time Stationary Discrete Wavelet Transform with  ′   
Border Distortions wiXA wiXA
wi′  = 1
MX wiXB  , (3)
The RT-SWT boundary wavelet coefficients w = {wiHφ and ′
XB
T APX
wiXC wiXC
wiXφ } of the currents i = {iHφ and iXφ } are computed, at
sampling k, through inner products of the wavelet filter hψ where T APH and T APX are taps of the CT1 and CT2,
with L samples of the current, as follows [8], [9]: respectively. The transformation matrices MH and MX are
L−1
arrays used for the zero-sequence and phase compensation
1 X ◦
presented in [14]–[16].
w(l, k) = √ hψ (n) i(k − L + n + 1 + l), (1)
2 n=0
D. Differential Wavelet Coefficients
where k > ∆k − 1 is always the current sampling; 0 6 l < L; Unlike the operating and restraining currents (Iop and
L is the length of hψ ; ∆k > L is the length of sliding window; Ires ) computed from CT secondary phasor currents in typical
◦ ◦
i(k + m) = i(k − ∆k + m) with m ∈ N∗ (periodized signal transformer differential protection algorithms, the proposed

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Transactions on Power Delivery
3

differential operations are applied directly in the wavelet coef- are true; Edif f = {Eopφ and Eresφ }, with φ = {A, B, C, and
ficients. The proposed differential wavelet coefficients wdif f Q}, are thresholds stochastically defined as follows [13]:
= {wiopφ , wiresφ } of 87TW (φ = A, B, and C) and 87QW k2
(φ = Q) elements are computed as follows: 3 X
w
Edif f = Edif f (n), (12)
1 k2 − k1 + 1
n=k1
wiopφ (0, k) = (wi′Hφ (0, k) + wi′Xφ (0, k)), (4)
2 where [k1 /fs k2 /fs ] is a previous steady-state time range.
wiopφ (l 6= 0, k) = wi′Hφ (l, k) + wi′Xφ (l, k), (5) The event detection logic is only used for detecting the first
event after the steady-state. Therefore, whenever an event is
wiresφ (l, k) = wi′Hφ (l, k) − wi′Xφ (l, k), (6) detected, the wavelet-based differential protection (87TW and
where 0 6 l < L. As suggested in [13], the SWT wavelet 87QW units), the energization, and the external fault detection
coefficients were obtained with the db(4) considering the first logics are enabled in order to identify the event or sequence
decomposition level, which is appropriated for the differential of events (external fault with CT saturation, external fault
protection with currents sampled at fs = 15.36 kHz, in which followed by its clearance, etc.). In this fashion, the event
db(L) is the Daubechies mother wavelet with L coefficients detector will only be evaluated again in the next steady-state
[17]. Therefore, there is one pair of differential coefficients mode operation.
(wiop and wires ) computed with one conventional wavelet
coefficient (l = 0) and three pairs of differential coefficients G. Transformer Energization Detection
computed with border distortions (l 6= 0) for each φ. The protection method in [13] predicts if the event will be
related to a transformer energization when the current energy
E. Differential Energy
is null. If a pre-energization condition is detected, the slopes
Based on [8], the boundary differential wavelet coefficient K87T W and K87QW are temporarily incremented to a value
w w w
energy signals Edif f = {Eiopφ and Eiresφ }, termed just as dif- slightly larger than 1 in order to avoid a possible misoperation
ferential energy, are computed from the respective differential of the differential protection units after the beginning of the
wavelet coefficients wdif f = {wiopφ , wiresφ }, as follows: energization.
w wa wb
Edif f (k) = Edif f (k) + Edif f (k), (7) H. The Wavelet-Based Differential Protection
since k > ∆k − 1. Edifwa Based on the classical differential principle, an internal fault
f is due to the first L − 1 boundary
wavelet coefficients of the sliding window, defined as [8]: is detected if [13]:
L−1
X Eiwopφ (k) > K87W Eiwresφ (k), (13)
wa 2
Edif f (k) = wdif f (l, k), (8)
l=1
where K87W = K87T W for φ = A, B, and C and K87W =
wb
K87QW for φ = Q are slopes of characteristic curves of 87TW
since k > ∆k−1. Edif f is computed with no boundary wavelet and 87QW elements. In this paper, K87T W = K87QW = 0.5.
coefficients of the sliding window with length ∆k − L [8]: Therefore, an internal fault is detected at the time k/fs if:
k
wb
Edif
X
2 Eiwresφ (k) < 2Eiwopφ (k). (14)
f (k) = wdif f (0, n), (9)
n=k−∆k+L
I. External Fault Detection
or recursively given by:
According to the power transformer differential protection
wb wb 2 2
Edif f (k) = Edif f (k − 1) − wdif f (k − ∆k + L) + wdif f (k), theory, the ratio Ires /Iop tends to be greater in external faults
(10) to the transformer protection zone than in internal faults,
since k > ∆k + L − 1. avoiding a possible relay misoperation [18]. Based on this
Unlike [13], where the differential operations were applied premise, this paper proposes a simple method to identify
to the operating and restraining currents, such differential external disturbances of the transformer protection zone if just
operations were applied to the operating and restraining the restraining energy exceeds the thresholds, i.e., if the two
wavelet coefficients of the CT secondary currents in this paper. following conditions, at the sampling k > kd , are true:
However, the operating and restraining energy are similar in  w
Eiresφ (k) > Eresφ ,
both procedures due to the linear properties of the SWT. (15)
Eiwopφ (k) < Eopφ .
F. Event Detection Fig. 2 depicts the phase-A operating and restraining energy
Based on [13], an event (internal and external faults, trans- waveforms during external and internal faults, where the
former energization, etc.) is detected if: events were detected through (11) at kd /fs . For the sake of
 w
Edif f (k − 1) 6 Edif f , illustration simplicity, the operating energy waveforms in this
w (11) paper were multiplied by two in order to highlight the regions
Edif f (k) > Edif f ,
where Eiwresφ < 2Eiwopφ (internal fault detection), and the energy
where kd /fs = k/fs , i.e., the disturbance inception time kd /fs waveforms were normalized for Eiwresφ = 1 during the steady-
is set to be the current sampling time when these inequalities state.

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Transactions on Power Delivery
4

External fault detected: Both the proposed external fault detection logic and the 87TW
4 worked properly due to the border effects of the boundary
10
2 differential wavelet coefficient energies.
3
Wavelet Coefficient

10
Fault inception 1
2 time 10
10 Diff. Wav. Coef. Energy
Energy

1 0
Diff. Currents

Operating quantities
10 Event detected: 87TW: >>2 10
0 (restraining region)
10 -1
10
-1
Operating points
10 reach the operating
(a) -2
region during
8 10
10 internal fault Operating points
7 2 remain on the
10 -3
6 10 -1 restraining region
10
Wavelet Coefficient

0 1
5 10 10 during internal fault 10
10 Restraining quantities
4
Energy

10 Event detected:
3 Figure 3. Typical operating points during a turn-to-earth internal fault with
10 87TW: Internal fault
2 a few percentage of turns computed from: (a) the wavelet coefficient energy;
10 <2 (b) the phasor-based conventional method.
1
10
0
10
-1 The external fault detection logic is essential in order to
10
(b) avoid problems related to the CT saturation during external
1
10 87TW: Internal fault
2 <2
faults. Therefore, when an external fault is detected through
(15), the proposed differential CT saturation detection logic in
Event detected:
Wavelet Coefficient

enable, such as addressed in the next section.

Energy

0
10
-1
10
0 1
Cycles
(c)
Figure 2. Typical operating and restraining energy during: (a) an external
fault; (b) an internal fault; (c) a critical internal fault.
During external faults, just the restraining energy presents a
hard increase from the fault inception time and the operating
energy is scarcely sensitized [Fig. 2(a)], attending (15) and
not attending (14), whereas both the operating and restraining
energy waveforms increase substantially from the internal fault
initiation [Fig. 2(b)], and (15) is no longer attended.
Regarding critical internal faults, such as that in a few
percentage of turns of the transformer winding, the increase of
both operation and restraining energies are not strong, but the
operating energy tends to be the highest in internal faults. In-
deed, the energy increases mainly due to the boundary effects
because the transients are overdamped. As a consequence, (15)
is not attended and (14) is attended [Fig. 2(c)], and an external
fault is not detected.
Fig. 3 depicts the operating energy points (EiwopA , EiwresA )
during the first cycle of the internal fault shown in Fig. 2(c)
as well as the related operating points of the conventional dif-
ferential protection (IopA , IresA ), normalized to be compared.
The proposed external fault detection logic detected this event
as non external fault. After few samples, the 87TW detected
an internal fault and a trip was issued. Conversely, a typical
conventional method would not be able to detect this specific
fault (operating points concentrated in the restraining region).
2 wavelet coefficient energy regarding an internal fault with CT
External fault not-detected:
III. D IFFERENTIAL C URRENT T RANSFORMER
S ATURATION D ETECTION M ETHOD
Figs. 4, 5, and 6 depict the CT secondary currents, their
related wavelet coefficients, and the operating and restraining
saturation in a single side, an external fault with CT saturation
in a single side, and an external fault with CT saturation in
both sides, respectively. For the sake of illustration simplicity,
the wavelet coefficients were normalized in accordance with
the noise content in order to present peaks associated to the
fault inception time and CT saturation higher than one.
A. The Need of CT Saturation Detection
According to [19], the concern of the CT saturation phe-
nomenon on conventional transformer differential relays de-
pends whether the fault is internal or external to the trans-
former protection zone. The CT saturation is not a problem
during internal faults because relays are designed to trip in
these situations. However, the more-prevalent concern is the
possible misoperation of differential relays for external faults
with CT saturation, in which differential currents can reach the
setting values for the relay operation. In these cases, the relay
tends to operate improperly, and external faults are detected
as internal faults when the saturation starts [13].
Regarding the proposed wavelet-based differential protec-
tion, the following statements were observed (Figs. 4-6):
• In the same fashion of the conventional method, the
performance of the proposed 87TW and 87QW are not
affected by the CT saturation in internal faults because
the internal fault is detected before the saturation. For
instance, the internal fault was detected in about 65 µs
after the fault inception time in Fig. 4(e).
• In the same fashion of the conventional method, the
performance of the proposed 87TW and 87QW can be

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5

Fault inception time 10 Fault inception time

Currents (A)
1000 5
Currents (A)

500
0
0 -5
-500
-10
-1000 (a)
(a) 20
15

Currents (A)
10
Currents (A)

10
5 0
0 -10
-5 -20
-10 -30
-15 (b)
Saturation (b) 2
3 initiation 0
2 -2
1 -4 No peaks associated
0 Fault inception
-1 -6 time to CT saturation
-2 -8
-3 (c) Saturation
-3 Fault inception (c) 20 initiation
5 x 10 time 0
0
-5 -20
-10 No peaks associated -40
-15 to CT saturations -60
-20 (d)
8 (d) 5
10 2 Internal fault
10 2 External fault
7 <2
10 4
10 Fault detection
6 High-speed
inception

Differential wavelet
Differential wavelet

10
coefficient energy

5 internal fault 3
10 10 time

coef. energy
4
detection before
10 the saturation 2
3 10
10 Fault inception 1
2
10 time 10
1
10 0
10 Reliable saturation detection
0
10 -1
due to the border effects
-1
10 10 (wav. coef. energy increase
0 1 2 3 4 5 (e)
1.5 abruptly and soon fall)
Cycles
1
(e) 0.5
Figure 4. Internal fault with CT saturation in a single side: (a) current iHA : 0
-0.5
(b) current iXA ; (c) wavelet coefficients of iHA ; (d) wavelet coefficients of -1 Unreliable
iXA ; (e) operating and restraining wavelet coefficient energy. -1.5 saturation (f)
2 detection
1
0
-1
affected by the CT saturation in external faults accord- -2
ing to the saturation level. For instance, some wavelet -3 Saturation peak at the
-4
3 (g) same level of the noise
coefficient energy operating points in Figs. 5(e) and 10 2
Reliable saturation detection
6(e) increased during the CT saturation and converged due to the border effects
temporarily to the operation region (Eiwresφ < 2Eiwopφ ) 2
(wav. coef. energy increase
Differential wavelet

10 Reliable abruptly and soon fall)

coef. energy

during some CT saturation intervals. Therefore, internal external fault

1
faults could be wrongly detected if the trip logic was not 10 detection
blocked.
0
10

-1
B. Accurate CT Saturation Detection 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The wavelet coefficients have been proposed to detect faults Cycles
(h)
[20], [21] as well as CT saturation intervals accurately [3],
Figure 5. External fault with CT saturation in a single side: (a) current
[22]. Indeed, after the fault inception time, the wavelet coeffi- iHA ; (b) current iXA ; (c) wavelet coefficients of iHA (SNR=60 db); (d)
cients of the saturated currents presented peaks associated to wavelet coefficients of iXA (SNR=60 db); (e) operating and restraining
the CT saturation [Figs. 4(c) and 5(d)]. However, the accuracy wavelet coefficient energy (SNR=60 db); (f) wavelet coefficients of iHA
(SNR=36 db); (g) wavelet coefficients of iXA (SNR=36 db); (h) operating
of the wavelet coefficients is affected by several parameters and restraining wavelet coefficient energy (SNR=36 db).
such as the frequency contents of the transients or distortions.
The RT-SWT with border distortions was proposed by [8]
in order to overcome some drawbacks of the conventional associated to CT saturations in the current iXA mainly due to
SWT and detect faults accurately. In the same fashion, the the border effects.
proposed boundary differential wavelet coefficient energy is
very sensitive to faults and CT saturations due to both the C. The Noise Effects
transients/distortions and border effects. For instance, the It is well-known that the wavelet coefficients are affected
differential energy in Fig. 5(e) presented an expressive increase by noise [8]. For instance, the CT saturation initiation times

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Fault inception time be properly accomplished through the differential energy by

20
Currents (A)

10 using the differential protection principles. For instance, the

0 proposed 87TW function based on the differential wavelet
-10
-20 coefficient energy could distinguish multiple CT saturations
-30 from a cross-country fault and other transient events (e.g.,
(a)
60 Fault inception time
external fault clearance) by using simple criteria:
Currents (A)

40
20 • According to Fig. 7(a), Ei
w
> 2EiwopA during an
0 resA

-20 external fault clearance, and an incorrect trip would not

-40 be provided.
(b)
10
5
2 External fault • According to Figs. 7(a) and (c), Ei
w
< 2EiwopA for a
detection
resA
4 short time during the CT saturation intervals. This means
10
Differential wavelet

3
that most operating points tend to remain in the restriction
10
coef. energy

area during CT saturations [Fig. 8(a)].

2 w
10 • According to Figs. 7(b) and (c), Ei
resA
< 2EiwopA for a
10
1 Internal fault long period during the cross-country fault. This means
0
<2 that most operating points tend to remain in the operating
10
-1
area during a cross-country fault [Fig. 8(b)].
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
Cycles
5
(c) 10 2 External fault clearance:
Figure 6. External fault with CT saturation in both sides: (a) current iHA ; 4 External >2
10 fault
(b) current iXA ; (c) operating and restraining wavelet coefficient energy. for a long time
3
10
2
10
could be detected through the wavelet coefficients in Fig. 5(d) 1
with a SNR of 60 db. However, the same saturations could not 10
0
be detected with the currents with a SNR of 36 db. Conversely, 10
the differential boundary wavelet coefficient energy waveforms -1
10
presented relevant spikes during CT saturation intervals even 6 (a)
10 2
with a SNR of 36 db in Fig. 5(h). In agreement with the fault 5
detection through the wavelet coefficient energy with border 10
4
External
distortions proposed in [8], the differential wavelet coefficient 10 fault
3 Cross-country fault:
energy with border distortions is also less susceptible to noise. 10
2 <2
10
1 for a long time
D. The CT Saturation Identification 10
0
The wavelet coefficient and differential energy peaks after 10
-1
an external fault are not always associated to a CT saturation. 10
(b) Cross-country fault:
For instance, when an external fault is not cleared by the 7
10 2 <2
protection system successfully, an internal fault can take place 6
10 for a long time
few cycles after the external fault (cross-country fault) [10]. 5
External
10 fault CT saturation:
The external fault clearance and other switching events can 4 <2
10
also generate wavelet coefficient and energy peaks. As a 3 for a short time
10
consequence, the wavelet coefficient and differential energy 2
10
peaks may appear after the external fault inception time due 1
10
to transient events. 0
10
Fig. 7 presents three cases of multiple transient events, -1
10
which are challenges for the differential protection analysis: an 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
external fault followed by CT saturation and by its clearance; Cycles
(c)
an external fault followed by a cross-country internal fault;
and an external fault followed by CT saturation and by a Figure 7. Sequence of events: a) AB external fault with CT saturation
followed by the fault clearance; b) AG external fault followed by an AG
cross-country internal fault. The main concern is that the cross-country internal fault; c) AB external fault with CT saturation followed
differential protection must trip only when the cross-country by an ABG cross-country fault.
faults take place in these cases. Fig. 8 depicts the trajectory of
the wavelet coefficient energy operating points of the 87TW
function (EiwopA , EiwresA ) for some events shown in Fig. 7. E. CT Saturation Detection Logic
One concern of the wavelet coefficients is how to identify When an external fault is detected by (15):
the peaks associated to CT saturation and other events after 1) the trip logic is blocked to avoid misoperation associated
the external fault inception time, whereas such distinction can to the CT saturation;

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Transactions on Power Delivery
7

4
10 Operating points
3 Ext. fault + CT Saturation increase during
10 Ext. fault clearance
2 saturation toward + - + - + - + -
10 the operating region
Wavelet coef. energy -

1 Few operating points

10 can remain on the
0
10 operating region Operating points
-1 remain on the
10 External fault restraining region
-2
10 initiation during fault clearance Event
-3 External fault
10 detection detection logic
-4 logic
J Q
10 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 0 K Q
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Wavelet coef. energy -
(a)

-
4 +
10 Trip logic

+
0 0 cont(k)
3 Most operating points - 0
10 87QW 87TW
2 remain on the operating
10 region during Diff.
Wavelet coef. energy -

CT saturation and cross-country

1
10 cross-country faults protections fault detection logic
0
10 Cross-country
-1 internal fault
10 initiation Before the Figure 9. CT Saturation and cross-country fault detection logics at phase A.
-2
10 cross-country
-3 internal fault
10 initiation
-4
10 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Based on [13], the proposed wavelet-based power trans-
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 former differential protection with the 87TW, 87QW, and CT
Wavelet coef. energy - saturation and cross-country internal fault detection (Fig. 1)
(b)
was implemented with a sampling rate of 15360 Hz, which
Figure 8. Energy operating points of the: a) external fault initiation followed
by CT saturation or its clearance (3 cycles: 768 points) in Figs. 7(a) and (c); is appropriated to extract the transients induced by faults and
b) cross-country internal fault (2 cycles: 512 points) in Fig. 7(b). compatible to the current technology for protective relays.
The wavelet analysis is significantly affected by the choice
of the mother wavelet, which can change depending on the
2) the differential function 87TW is not blocked, but it can application. According to [9], [23], the mother wavelet db(4)
not control the blocked trip logic; presents better response for detection of transients induced
3) the differential function 87QW is blocked, because it is by faults than other wavelets from the Daubechies family
a very sensitive unit. with higher number of coefficients. In addition, the db(4) was
4) the CT saturation detection logic is enabled to maintain properly used in the power transformer differential protection,
the trip logic blocked when CT saturation is detected and presented low computational burden [13]. Therefore, the
and unblock it if faults are detected, respectively. This selected mother wavelet in this paper was the db(4).
logic considers the differential function 87TW based on
the differential boundary wavelet coefficient energy. T1
S1 ZS1 CB1 CT1 CT2 CB2 ZS2 S2
Fig. 9 depicts the CT saturation detection logic. The distinc-
tion between cross-country internal faults and CT saturations
is accomplished by means of the differential function 87TW. kV kV
An increment/decrement counter shown in Fig. 9 was used in
order to register the energy operating points of the differential Wavelet-based
differential relay
function 87TW, as follows: increment the counter if the
Figure 10. Single line diagram of the electrical system.
energy operating point is located on the operating region and
decrement it if the operating point is located on the restraining
A differential protection scheme contemplating the tradi-
region. If the counter exceeds the value equal to 1/2 ∆k, the
tional phase differential element (87T) with harmonic re-
trip logic is enabled, and the 87TW function can issue a trip.
straint, the negative-sequence current differential (87Q), and
the harmonic blocking elements with independent and cross-
IV. P ERFORMANCE A SSESSMENT blocking operating modes was reproduced according to [24] to
Fig. 10 depicts a single line diagram of the electrical power be compared to the proposed differential protection. The used
system used for the assessment of the proposed method. The sampling frequency was 960 Hz and the complex phasors were
power system was modeled using the Alternative Transients estimated through the full-cycle Fourier algorithm.
Program (ATP), and consists of two Thevenin equivalents The following databases with a wide variety of events were
represented by the voltage sources S1 and S2 and their evaluated in this paper:
related impedances connected to the primary and secondary • Database 1 (internal faults): turn-to-turn faults on the
windings of the power transformer, respectively. Details about phase A wye winding; turn-to-turn faults on the delta
the current transformer and power transformer modelings are winding between phases A and B; turn-to-earth faults on
described in the appendix of this work. the phase A wye winding; and turn-to-earth faults on the

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Transactions on Power Delivery
delta winding between the A-to-B-winding and the earth.
The percentage of the turns in the fault is equal to e =
{1, 2, 3, ..., 98} % (392 records).
• Database 2 (transformer energizations): Switching per-
formed by the high voltage side (230 kV), with the
secondary terminal opened, and changing the high
voltage circuit breaker closing time at angles θs =
{0, 1, 2, ..., 358, 359} electrical degrees (360 records).
The phase A voltage is taken as reference to θs .
• Database 3 (external faults with CT saturation):
1) CT saturation due to the burden resistance: AG,
AB, ABG, and ABC external faults on the
high voltage bus with fault inception angle θf
= {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180} electrical degrees,
fault resistance rf = 1 Ω, and load Rb =
{1, 2, 3, ..., 19, 20} Ω connected to the secondary
winding of CT1 (560 records). The phase A voltage
is taken as reference to θf .
2) CT saturation due to tap configuration errors: AG,
BG, CG, AB, BC, AC, ABG, BCG, ACG, and ABC
external faults on the high and low voltage bus with
θf = {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180} electrical degrees
and rf = 1 Ω. In this analysis, the CT saturation
curves were purposely designed for smaller tapes
(400-5 A and 600-5 A) in order to cause the onset of
saturation in the secondary currents (140 records).
• Database 4 (single phase-to-ground external fault + single
phase-to-ground cross-country internal fault):
1) AG external faults on the high voltage bus followed
by AG, BG and CG internal faults on transformer
bushing windings at the same side of the faulted
bus, with θf = {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180} elec-
trical degrees, and rf = {1, 5, 10} Ω (63 records).
The internal faults take place four cycles after the
external faults.
2) AG external faults on the high voltage bus followed
by turn-to-earth internal faults on the phase A wye
winding. The percentage of the turns in the internal
faults is equal to e = {5, 10, 15, ..., 95} % (19
records).
• Database 5 (external fault + cross-country internal fault):
AG and AB external faults on the high and low voltage
buses evolving to ABG and ABC internal faults on
transformer windings at the same side of the faulted bus,
with θf = {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180} electrical degrees,
and rf = {1, 10} Ω (112 records). The internal faults take
place four cycles after the external faults.
• Database 6 (external fault + CT saturation + cross-country
internal fault): The faults are the same of database 5 (112
records).
A. Internal Faults (Database 1)
The traditional 87T differential element usually detects the
most internal faults in power transformer, except some faults,
such as turn-to-turn faults and phase-to-ground faults close to
the transformer neutral. Therefore, phasor-based transformer
differential relays usually use the negative-sequence current
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8
differential (87Q) and the restricted earth fault (REF) elements
in association with the phase current differential element in
order to provide a better detection of internal faults [25].
The selected conventional differential scheme with harmonic
restraint, harmonic blocking and the 87Q units ensured 92.60%
of success rate (only 78.83% with the 87T unit). In addition,
these functions provided an average relay operating time of
about 19 ms, with both independent and cross-blocking modes.
The proposed 87TW differential protection element detected
98.47% of all internal faults, failing just in one case of turn-to-
turn fault on the delta side (1% of the short-circuited winding)
and five cases of turn-to-earth faults on the wye side (1-5% of
the short-circuited winding). These cases were covered by the
87QW unit. Therefore, a success rate of 100% was obtained
with the 87TW + 87QW.
The average relay operating time was 214 µs, almost 100
times faster than the conventional one, due to the extraction of
the high-frequency content of the fault, which is in accordance
with a high-speed power transformer differential protection.
B. Transformer Energizations (Database 2)
The proposed energization detection module provided a
success rate of 100%, i.e., no trip was generated. The con-
ventional differential method with harmonic blocking function
(with independent and cross-blocking operating modes) man-
agement unit blocked the 87Q unit, which was sensitized for
all inrush cases, and the 87T with harmonic restraint unit was
not sensitized, providing security (no trip) for all transformer
energization cases.
C. External Faults + CT Saturation (database 3)
The proposed external fault detection method detected suc-
cessfully all the external faults, i.e., no trip was generated, and
the CT saturation detection method was properly enabled for
monitoring the CT saturation.
Based on [2], the degree of saturation is given by:
Isat
η =1− , (16)
Iideal
where (no saturation) 0 6 η 6 1 (the heaviest possible
saturation); Isat is the rms saturated secondary current; and
Iideal is the rms primary current without saturation, reflected
to the secondary, including dc offset.
Fig. 11 depicts the saturation degree, the instant (in cycles)
of the first saturation initiation, and the performance of the pro-
posed method. Therefore, the proposed CT saturation detection
method was tested in a wide variety of CT saturation degrees
(light, medium and heavy saturation). The CT saturations were
detected and no trip was generated (100% of success rate).
The wavelet-based method proposed by [13], which is not
equiped with a CT saturation detection module, detected all the
external faults with CT saturation as internal faults, and wrong
trips were performed. The conventional protection equipped
with harmonic restraint, harmonic blocking (with independent
and cross-blocking configurations) and 87Q units provided
security during the saturation, and no wrong trip was verified.
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Transactions on Power Delivery
9

100 Regarding the multiple events to the power transformer,

90 Saturation Detector
Degree of saturation (%)

80 + (87TW and 87QW): both the proposed and conventional techniques were immune
Hits to the CT saturation. However, the proposed CT saturation
70 Errors
60 detection module is simpler than the conventional technique,
50
40
requiring only the inclusion of a wavelet coefficient energy in-
30 crement/decrement counter instead of the traditional harmonic-
20 based functions. In addition, the proposed method ensured a
10
success rate of 100% in detecting cross-country internal faults
0
kd kd + ∆ k kd +2 ∆ k kd +3 ∆ k kd +4 ∆ k kd +5 ∆ k kd +6 ∆ k from the database 4, whereas the conventional method was
Cycles able to detect only about of 89% by using both independent
Figure 11. Performance of the proposed differential protection under external and cross-blocking modes. Regarding the databases 5 and 6,
faults with CT saturation.
the proposed method ensured a success rate of 99.11% in
detecting the cross-country internal faults against 100% and
D. Single Phase-to-Ground External Fault + Single Phase-to- 87.05% of the conventional method with the independent and
Ground Cross-Country Internal Fault (Database 4) cross-blocking modes, respectively. Therefore, the proposed
method was immune to CT saturation and presented good
The proposed method detected all the single phase-to-
reliability in detecting cross-country internal faults.
ground faults (cross-country faults), ensuring a success rate
of 100% with an average relay operating time of 10 ms.
VI. A PPENDIX
The conventional technique failed in some critical turn-to-
earth internal faults, presenting a success rate of 89% with This section presents details about the power transformer,
an average relay operating time of about one-cycle (16 ms). current transformer, and fault modellings.

A. The Power Transformer Model

E. External Faults + CT Saturations + Cross-Country Faults
(Databases 5 and 6) The power transformer model is provided by [13], present-
ing rated power of 100 MVA, voltage ratio of Vp :Vs = 230:69
The proposed method detected successfully all the external
kV, and YNd1 configuration. The impedances related to the
faults. Therefore, no trip was generated during this period.
primary and secondary windings of the power transformer
After that, all the saturations were properly detected and no
were Rp + jXp = 2.04 + j12.54 Ω and Rs + jXs = 1.44 +
trip during these periods was generated. After a while, the
j38.04 Ω, respectively. Regarding the nonlinear characteristic,
external faults evolved to internal faults, and 222 of 224
the power transformer core was modelled by means of the
cross-country faults were detected (i.e., a success rate of
Hevia Hysteresis ATP routine with their partitioned windings
99.11% was achieved) with an average relay operating time
in order to simulate turn-to-turn and turn-to-earth internal
of 10.12 ms due to the time delay in the operation of the
faults (Fig. 13). Table I describes the current versus flux (i,
increment/decrement counter for security distinction between
ϕ) points for the power transformer core magnetizing curve.
CT saturation and cross-country faults. The conventional dif-
ferential protection equipped with the independent harmonic
Table I
blocking unit ensured a success rate of 100%, which reveals N ONLINEAR CHARACTERISTIC OF THE MAGNETIZING BRANCH OF THE
the importance of the usage of this configuration regarding USED POWER TRANSFORMER .
the reliability in detecting cross-country faults, whereas the i (A) ϕ (Wb)
another conventional version equipped with the cross-blocking
0.144 498.137
harmonic unit detected only 87.05% of the cross-country
faults. 0.478 523.044
1.211 547.951
V. C ONCLUSION 2.540 572.858
This paper presented a power transformer differential pro- 6.446 579.085
tection scheme based on the boundary discrete wavelet trans- 8.954 585.312
form with external fault, CT saturation, and cross-country 15.595 591.538
internal fault detection modules. The performance of the
20.396 597.765
proposed method was assessed with representative simulations
35.461 603.992
of internal faults, transformer energizations, and external faults
with CT saturations followed by cross-country internal faults.
The proposed wavelet-based differential protection with
only 87TW and 87QW units presented a success rate of 100% B. The CT Model
for detecting internal faults with an expressive average relay Regarding the CT model, the elements related to the leakage
operating time of 214 µs, whereas a phasor-based conventional losses on the primary and secondary CT windings (leakage
protection scheme ensured only 92.60% of success rate with an inductances and resistances) were reported in [26]. Data
average relay operating time of 19 ms. Therefore, the proposed concerning non-linear modeling of the CT (saturation curve)
method was the simplest, fastest, and most accurate. were taken from [19], since it was necessary various saturation

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Transactions on Power Delivery
10

curves in order to verify several levels of the CT saturation.

Differential Zone
Fig. 12 depicts the equivalent circuit model for the CTs used CT1 CT2
a
in this paper.
CT1
A C
S2CC
S1CC S4CC
S3CC
c CT2
b
CT1 CT2
B

Figure 13. The fault circuit model used in this work.

Figure 12. The CT circuit model used in this work.

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2017.2764062, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery
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R. P. Medeiros received his B.Sc., and M.Sc. de-

grees in Electrical Engineering from Federal Uni-
versity of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Brazil, in
2012 and 2014, respectively. He is Ph.D. student at
Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN),
Brazil. His research interest are electric power qual-
ity and power system protection.

Flavio B. Costa (S’05-M’10) received the B.Sc.,

M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineer-
ing from Federal University of Campina Grande
(UFCG), Brazil, in 2005, 2006, and 2010, respec-
tively. Currently, he is a professor at Federal Uni-
versity of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN) - School of
Science and Technology (ECT), Natal, Brazil.
He was a postdoctoral researcher at UFCG in
2010, a visiting researcher at K.U.Leuven, Belgium,
in 2011-2012, a visiting researcher at INESC-Porto,
Portugal, in 2014, and a postdoctoral researcher at
RWTH Aachen University in 2014-2015. Currently, he conducts research on
power system protection, electric power quality, control of renewable energy
systems, as well as smart-grid solutions.

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