Seminar 2 Research Methods

Scientific
Research
Prepared by
Andy Ong
and Beth M. Schwartz
1
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009
Updates and Amendments
The recorded lecture covers 5 steps of the

scientific method as was specified in the
earlier edition of the textbook. The latest
edition of the textbook has reduced this to
4 steps. Slide numbers 6 to 13 have been
amended to reflect this update. However,
do note that the recorded lecture could not
be amended.

Psychology vs. Pseudoscience
Psychology disputes unfounded claims

from pseudoscience.
Pseudoscience:
Any approach to explaining phenomena in
the natural world that does not use
empirical observation or the scientific
method (e.g., astrology, graphology,
fortune telling)
3
How Do Psychologists
Develop New Knowledge?
Psychologists, like
researchers in all other
sciences, use the scientific
method to test their ideas
empirically.
4
Claim:
If kids eat large amounts of sugar,
they become hyperactive.
Problem:
How would you
test the claim that
sugar makes
children
hyperactive?
5
How Do Psychologists
Develop New Knowledge?
Empirical investigation:
An approach to research that relies on
sensory experience and observation as
research data
Scientific method:
A four-step process for empirical investigation
of a hypothesis under conditions designed to
control biases and subjective judgments
6
The Four Steps of the Scientific Method
Developing a hypothesis
Gathering objective data
Analyzing the results
Publishing, criticizing, and

replicating the results
7
Developing a Hypothesis:
hypothesis
A statement predicting the
outcome of a scientific
Gathering
objective data study
Operational definitions:
Analyzing the Exact procedures used in
results establishing experimental
conditions and
Publishing,
criticizing, and measurement of results
replicating the
results
8
Hypothesis:
Children who consume sugar would
be hyperactive compared to children
who do not.
Operational definitions:
Sugar – measured by cans of soda pop
drinks consumed.
Hyperactivity – measured by intensity
and duration of play in a day.

Developing a
hypothesis
Data:
Gathering Information gathered by a
objective data researcher and used to test
a hypothesis
Analyzing the
results Dependent variable:
The measured outcome of
Publishing, a study; the responses of
criticizing, and
replicating the participants in a study
results
10
Dependent variable:
Hyperactivity – measured by (A)
intensity of play (physicality of play
indicated by running, jumping, pulling,
pushing, shouting) and (B) duration of
play (time in terms of number of
minutes/hours in a day).

Developing a
hypothesis
Gathering
objective data
Analyzing the Based on statistical analyses

results of results, the hypothesis is
accepted or rejected.
Publishing,
criticizing, and
replicating the
results
12
Developing a
hypothesis
Gathering
objective data
Analyzing the
results
Publishing,
criticizing, and
replicating the
results
13
What is the relationship between
sugar and behavior?
14
Types of Psychological Research
Experiments – Investigate behaviour through
controlled experimentation:
Experimental condition – Soda pop drinks group
Control condition – No soda pop drinks and plain
water groups
N/B: Random assignment of participants to the
different conditions is necessary.
Pros: Clear cause-and-effect relationships can be
identified through the use of powerful controlled
observations.
Cons: May be somewhat artificial as some natural
behaviour not easily studied in laboratory. 15
Independent variable:
The variable manipulated by the experimenter
Randomization:
Using chance alone to determine presentation of
stimulus

Correlational studies – To discover relationship
between events:
Correlation coefficient – Numeric value depicting
magnitude of relationship between two events;
ranges from +/- 0 to 1, with the +/- indicating
direction of relationship
Pros: Demonstrates the existence of relationships;
allows prediction; can be used in lab, clinic or
natural setting.
Cons: Little or no control is possible; relationships
may be coincidental; cause-and-effect relationships
cannot be confirmed. 17
Types of Correlations:
18
Survey method: To use questionnaires & surveys to
poll large groups of people.
E.g., administer a questionnaire of stress and health
behaviors to all the year one nursing students to find
out about their responses to stress.
Pros: Allows information about large numbers of
people to be gathered; can address questions not
answered by other approaches.
Cons: Obtaining a representative sample is critical &
can be difficult to do; answers may be inaccurate;
people may not do what they say or say what they do.
19
Naturalistic Observation: To observe behavior in
natural settings.
E.g., observe how people behave in potentially
stressful situations, e.g., examination period,
presentation, traffic congestion
Pros: Behaviour is observed in a natural setting; much
information is obtained; hypotheses & questions for
additional research are formed.
Cons: Little or no control is possible; observed
behaviour may be altered by the presence of the
observer; observations may be biased; causes cannot
be conclusively identified. 20
Case studies: The in-depth study of an individual
and specific aspects of his/her life.
E.g. Studying the biological, psychological and
social problems experienced by an individual with
autism.
Pros: Takes advantage of “natural clinical trials” &
allows investigation of rare or unusual problems or
events.
Cons: Little or no control is possible; does not
provide a control group for comparison, subjective
interpretation is often necessary, a single case
may be misleading or unrepresentative. 21
Sources of Bias
Emotional bias: A distortion in cognition

and decision-making due to emotional
factors.
Expectancy bias: A tendency to behave in
a manner that conforms to expectations.
Bias could affect the way an experimenter
designs a study, collects data, or
interprets results
22
Controlling Bias
Blind control: This is where some of the persons
involved in the study are prevented from
knowing certain information that might lead to
conscious or unconscious bias on their part,
invalidating the results.
Single blind control: Participants are unaware of
group assignment.
Double-blind control: Both participants and
researchers unaware of group assignment
Placebo: An inert substance that achieves physical
effects through psychological means. Used mostly
to ascertain the medicinal effects of real drugs. 23
Ethical Issues in Psychological Research
Ethical issues:
• Informed consent
• Anonymity and confidentiality
• Minimal risk
• Debriefing
American Psychological Association (APA)
• Ethical principles of psychologists and code of
conduct
• Shields participants from potentially harmful
procedures
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
• Examines all studies proposed 24

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Scientific

The recorded lecture covers 5 steps of the

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009

Psychology disputes unfounded claims

Gathering objective data

Analyzing the results

Publishing, criticizing, and

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009

Analyzing the Based on statistical analyses

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009

Emotional bias: A distortion in cognition

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