Archaeological Contributions to Climate Change Research: The Archaeological Record as a

Paleoclimatic and Paleoenvironmental Archive

Author(s): Daniel H. Sandweiss and Alice R. Kelley
Source: Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 41 (2012), pp. 371-391
Published by: Annual Reviews
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23270717
Accessed: 13-12-2019 23:35 UTC

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 Archaeological
Archaeological Contributions
Contributions
to
toClimate
Climate Change
Change
Research:
Research
The
TheArchaeological
ArchaeologicalRecordRecord
as a Paleoclimatic and
Paleoenvironmental Archive*

Daniel H. Sandweiss1,2,3 and Alice R. Kelley3,4

'Graduate School, "Department of Anthropology,3 Climate Change Institute, and
4 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469;
email: dan.sandweiss@umit.maine.edu, alice.kelley@umit.maine.edu

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:371-91 Keywords

First published online as a Review in Advance on
geoarchaeology, proxy records, El Nino, Peru, northern
July 2, 2012
Mesopotamia, Penobscot Valley, Shetland
The Annual Review of Anthropology is online at
anthro.annualreviews.org Abstract

This article's doi:

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All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 INTRODUCTION Diamond 2005; Fagan 1999, 2008; Haug et al.
2003;
Archaeologists have long been McAnany & Yoffee
interested in 2009; Sandweiss &
climate and environment as critical factors in Quilter 2008; Weiss & Bradley 2001). How
contextualizing past human behavior and as an ever, most concentrate on the potential causal
aid to archaeological interpretation. At least role of climate and environment in culture
since Grahame Clark's (1954) work at Star Carr change. Our intent is not to write another such
in England, archaeologists have collaborated paper. Rather, we approach the issue from the
systematically with natural scientists to recoverother side: The archaeological record often
environmental and climatic data directly from incorporates important, sometimes unique,
archaeological strata rather than relying solelyproxy records of climate, of environment, and
on proxy records external to archaeological of change in both. Archaeologists and their
sites. Volumes such as Environment and Archae colleagues sometimes contribute such records
ology (Butzer 1964), Principles of Geoarchaeology to the broader study of paleoclimate and pa
(Waters 1992), and Environmental Archaeology leoenvironment, either through publishing in
(Dincauze 2000) (among many such works)the general science literature (Science, Nature,
mark the continued interest and growingProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences)
sophistication of paleoenvironmental archaeor, increasingly, because natural science col
ology. A survey of titles of articles and of books leagues have learned to find and employ proxy
reviewed in the Society for American Archaeoldata embedded in the archaeological literature.
ogy's flagship journal American Antiquity shows Archaeological sites can fill important gaps
a steady growth of interest in climate and enin regional paleoclimatic records. Although
vironment from the journal's founding in 1935 some nonanthropogenic climate proxies such
through the 1990s (Table 1); a decline in theas ice cores, corals, and lake sediment cores (es
past decade may reflect the increased prestige pecially varved lakes, which tend to occur near
and faster turnaround time of specialized jour glaciers) have high temporal resolution, these
nals such as the Journal of Archaeological Scienceproxies generally do not occur in close proxim
(founded 1974), Geoarchaeology (founded 1986),ity to archaeological sites and, therefore, do not
and Environmental Archaeology (founded 1996),directly reflect climatic conditions where peo
among others, as well as more frequent forays ple live. Climate proxies near habitable areas
into the nonarchaeological literature (e.g.,often have poor temporal resolution. However,
Quaternary Research, Quaternary International, archaeological sites can incorporate climate sig
Quaternary Science Reviews). nals in well-defined, discrete, and datable con
The most recent decade has seen a protexts directly associated with specific moments
liferation of books and articles on human of the archaeological past.
ecodynamics—the relationship between cli In this article, we detail four cases stud
mate, environment, and culture—in both ies, from North America, South America,
the scholarly literature and the popular press Northern Europe, and Southwest Asia. In
(e.g., Anderson et al. 2007; deMenocal 2001; each of these cases, the paleoclimatic and/or

Table
Table 1 Articles
1 Articles
and reviewed
and books
reviewed
publishedbooks
in American
published
Antiquityin
thatAmerican
include eitherAntiquity
the stem "climat"
thator the
include
stem either the stem "climat" or the stem
"environment" in at least one title word3

1935-1939 1940-1949 1950-1959 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2009

Articles 0 0 2 9 5 5 9 9

Reviews 1 2 2 7 9 18 17 8

Total 1 2 4 16 14 23 26 17

Data cover the period from the journal's founding in 1935 to 2009, information summed by decade. Data from JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org).

572 Sandweiss • Kelley

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paleoenvironmental data were generated as larly in the Pacific Basin, and it has significant
a result of multidisciplinary archaeological consequences for humans as well as for other
projects whose major objective was to un species (e.g., Philander 2004). The 1982-1983
derstand human behavior. Nevertheless, each event caused an estimated 8.11 billion dollars

project also generated important information worth of damage around the world (University
about the natural world in the past. Often, these Corporation for Atmospheric Research 1994).
data play a role in modeling future climatic and The 1997-1998 event resulted in 34 billion dol
environmental change of potential significance lars of direct loss, 24,000 deaths, 544,000 dis
to humans. ease incidents, 6 million displaced persons, and
We center our review on these case stud
111 million affected persons (National Oceanic
ies and focus on the contribution to paleocli
and Atmospheric Administration data reported
matic and paleoenvironmental studies. We in World Meteorological Organization 2000).
also
The Peruvian coast is ground zero for El
briefly note temporal correlations between ar
chaeological and climatic change. These Nino,
case which was named by a Peruvian scien
studies illustrate some of the pathways totist
cliin the late-nineteenth century using a lo
matic and environmental knowledge thatcal can
term referring originally to annual coastal
warming in southern Ecuador and northern
result from archaeological research and demon
Peru
strate the productive interactions that can oc (Philander 2004, pp. 259-60). As coastal
cur between archaeological research groupswaters
and warm throughout the stronger events,
marine
other scientists working on natural archives in fish adapted to the cool water of the
the same region. Peru (or Humboldt) Current die or migrate
south; the sea mammals and birds that rely on
the fish die or migrate; marine mollusks suffer
CASE 1: COASTAL PERU
mass mortality; and convective storms in the
desert
As a tropical desert coast washed by lead to flooding, with consequent de
a cold
Antarctic current, western Peru offers struction
few of theof infrastructure, crop failures, and
epidemics
standard high-resolution paleoclimatic of diseases borne by insects breed
archives
ing in
(Figure 1): Extremely low precipitation standing water. These deleterious effects
(except
of generally
in El Nino years) means that lakes are El Nino have been documented in the his
torical
absent from the coastal zone, whereas record of northern Peru since the first
highland
large magnitude,
lakes respond in part to Atlantic air masses (e.g., post-Conquest event in 1578
Laguna Pallcacocha) (Moy et al. 2002, (Alcocer 2001; for information on the full span
Rodbell
of historical
et al. 1999). Ice cores have been extracted fromevents, see Garcia Herrera et al.
2008,
tropical glaciers in the adjacent Andes, butHocquenghem
they & Ortlieb 1992, Quinn
1992,
partially reflect Atlantic climate and Quinn
are relaet al. 1987).
Given
tively low resolution (Huascaran) (Thompson the known consequences of El Nino
for human life on the Peruvian coast, espe
et al. 1995) or of short duration (Quelccaya)
(Thompson et al. 1985). The ocean off
cially thethe
northern half of the country, ar
coast of Peru is too cold for corals. As a result,
chaeologists have long been interested in the
for the more than 13,000 years of potential
human explanatory power of this interan
occupation, archaeological sites have nual climatic
been an perturbation (e.g., Beresford
Jones 2011; Beresford-Jones etal. 2009; Burger
important source of paleoclimatic information
(e.g., Sandweiss 2003, Sandweiss et al. 1988; Moore 1991; Parsons 1970; Sandweiss
2007).
In this section, we review studies of et al. 2001, 2007; see also Van Buren 2001).
Holocene (past 11,400 years) El Nino freSome studies have focused on the identifi
quency based initially on archaeologicalcation of specific El Nino events in associ
remains. El Nino is one of the most importantation with particular archaeological sites and
drivers of interannual climate change, particumoments (e.g., Moore 1991) or on tools that

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Figure 1
Location map of Peru showing archaeological sites and natural archives mentioned in the text.

374 Sandweiss • Kelley

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could be used to identify individual events in
archaeological sites, such as growth anoma
lies and/or isotopic variation in marine shells
or fish otoliths (e.g., Andrus et al. 2002,
Rollins et al. 1987). Beresford-Jones (2011; see
also Beresford-Jones et al. 2009) has studied
the interaction between human activity—forest
clearing for agriculture—and El Nino-driven
did not function as it does today (Rollins et al.
1986, Sandweiss 1986, Sandweiss et al. 1983).
In 1990, DeVries & Wells (1990) postulated
that the Ostra molluscan fauna resulted from
local warming due to geographic factors. To
assess these alternative hypotheses, we initiated
a series of tests. First, we excavated samples of
vertebrate and invertebrate marine fauna from

environmental and ecological change. the Ostra Base Camp and showed that the fish
Other scientists have extracted environmen fauna were predominantly warm-water species,
tal and climatic data related to El Nino from like the mollusks, and at least some of the fish
the archaeological record. In one innovativewere open-ocean species not affected by local
study, Manners et al. (2007) drew on archaeowarming (Reitz & Sandweiss 2001, Sandweiss
logical site distributions to help determineet
theal. 1996). Second, we found a similar pat
rate and extent of El Nino-driven floodplaintern of warm-water marine species dating be
renewal in the Moquegua Valley of southern fore 5,800 cal yr BP in north coast Peruvian
sites as far south as 10°S. Some of these data
Peru. Richardson (1983), Ortlieb et al. (1993),
and Shafer Rogers et al. (2004) used the archae
came from work by others (Cardenas et al. 1993;
Pozorski & Pozorski 1995, 2003); we also ex
ological shell middens capping the Chira beach
ridges in northern Peru to help date thecavated
age additional samples from the Siches site
at 4°30'S. In 1996, we summarized the results
of the ridges; northern Peruvian beach ridges
are formed by sediments loosened by seismic of our work in an article affirming a resurgence
of El Nino around 5,800 cal yr BP, following
activity, washed to the shoreline by El Nino,
several thousand years of little or no activity.
and distributed northward by littoral processes,
so they are a loose proxy for El Nino activity
Finally, after studying available molluscan data
(Sandweiss 1986). Wells (1992) utilized sitefrom
dis multiple Peruvian coastal sites dating after
5,800 cal yr BP, we noted that several species
tribution and chronology from Wilson's (1988)
full cover survey of the Santa Valley in north
that die off during El Nino were absent from the
central Peru to track the evolution of the Santa north coast before that time, present from 5,800
River delta from the mid-Holocene through reto 3,000 cal yr BP, and absent since then. This
cent times. pattern suggested that, when El Nino returned
Our team has worked for 30 years to recon at 5,800 cal yr BP, events were not frequent.
struct El Nino frequency from marine organ When approximately modern frequencies were
isms in archaeological sites (see Sandweiss et al. achieved after 3,000 cal yr BP, those cold-water
2007 for a detailed account). In 1980, a chancespecies that were most sensitive to warm wa
encounter with the Ostra site complex on a pa ter disappeared from the archaeological record
leoshoreline to the north of the Santa River at on the north Peruvian coast (Sandweiss et al.
approximately 9°S latitude brought to light a2001). These mollusks are the largest and, to
thermally anomalous molluscan assemblage—day, are considered the most delectable in the
the sites contained mollusk species adapted to
region. For this reason and considering that for
waters warmer than those found today in theother periods and places they are abundant, they
most likely disappeared from the archaeologi
same region. The Ostra sites and the adjacent,
cal record because El Nino warming made them
shell-bearing fossil beach date to approximately
5,800 to 7,150 calendar years before present (cal locally extinct, and thus they were not available
yr BP) (Andrus et al. 2003, Perrier et al. 1994,to be harvested on the north coast after 3,000
Rollins etal. 1986, Sandweiss et al. 1996). Initialcal yr BP.
consideration of the data led to the hypothesis Although our 1986 and 1996 El Nino
that the Ostra sites reflect a time when El Nino onset hypothesis papers were initially treated

wivw.annualreviews.org • Archaeological Contributions 575

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 with some skepticism, teleconnected records Holocene climatic regimes in Peru summarized
around the Pacific Basin have shown similar above certainly had implications for humans liv
ing in the region; a quick perusal of Alcocer's
patterns best interpreted as a hiatus in El Nino
from ~9,000-5,800 calyrBP, low-frequency El (2001 [1580]) interviews with the survivors of
the 1578 event makes that clear, as does the his
Nino from 5,800 to 3,000 calyrBP, and higher
frequency El Nino since that time. Lake cores
tory of every major El Nino recorded since the
from New Zealand (Shulmeister & Lees 1995),Spanish Conquest in AD 1532. In this light, it
Australia (McGlone et al. 1992), the Galapagos
is intriguing to note that widespread construc
(Riedinger et al. 2002), Ecuador (Moy et al.tion of monumental architecture and associated
2002, Rodbell et al. 1999), and Chile (Jenny sedentary settlements in coastal Peru began
et al. 2002); corals from the western (Gagan shortly after the onset of El Nino and continued
et al. 1998) and central Pacific (Tudhope et without
al. a break until approximately 3,000 years
2001); ocean cores from Peru (Rein et al. 2005);
ago, when El Nino frequency increased dramat
flood records from coastal Peru (Fontugne et ically
al. and the archaeological record suggests a
1999, Keefer et al. 1998); as well as Andean
multicentennial hiatus in monument building
ice cores (Thompson et al. 1995) are amongalong the Peruvian coast (Sandweiss et al. 2007).
the many proxy records that reflect the general
trends first identified in archaeological deposits.
CASE 2: NORTHERN
Proxy data on past El Nino behavior are critical
MESOPOTAMIA
for testing predictive models for El Nino un
Tell Leilan on the Habur Plains of northern
der conditions of global climatic change. The
insights from archaeology that helped drive Mesopotamia (present-day Syria) began around
recognition of Holocene change in El Nino5000 BC (7,000 cal yr BP) as a small farming vil
lage (Figure 2) (Courty & Weiss 1997, Weiss
are, therefore, important to understanding and
mitigating this aspect of climatic change. et al. 1993). In the mid-third millennium BC,
Subsequent work on isotopes from shells
the site grew rapidly into a planned regional
center of a local state. From 2300-2200 BC
and fish otoliths in Peruvian archaeological sites
sheds further light on mid-Holocene climate
(4,250-4,150 cal yr BP), the site fell under
in the Peruvian coast. Andrus et al. (2002)
Akkadian control. Around 2200 BC (4,150 cal
used oxygen isotope analysis on incremental yr BP), Tell Leilan and most sites in the Habur
growth layers of fish otoliths from Ostra and
and Assyrian Plains were suddenly abandoned
Siches to show a ~3°C average annual warm (Weiss et al. 1993, p. 999). Weiss's excavations
at Tell Leilan found an abandonment stratum
ing in the mid-Holocene. They also determined
that at Ostra the warming resulted from much
dating to this time, identified as Habur hiatus 1.
warmer summers compared with those of to Soil micromorphology observed through
day, whereas at Siches temperature increased thin-section analysis of the abandonment
across the entire annual cycle. A study of 14C stratum defined three sequential phases that
in mollusks from the Ostra Base Camp indi together lasted approximately 300 years
(Courty & Weiss 1997, Weiss et al. 1993).
cates a reduction in upwelling of cold (and old)
deep water during the mid-Holocene, consis Phase 1 contains eolian deposits that include
tent with the other indicators of a different mid
volcanic ash and sediment from collapsed and
Holocene climatic regime (Andrus et al. 2005). disintegrating mud brick with some indicators
As Sandweiss & Quilter (2008) note in their of continued precipitation. Phase 2 consists of
introduction to the recent book El Nino, Catas windblown sediments of both local and distant

trophism, and Culture Change in Ancient America, origin, suggesting intensified wind circulation
it is difficult to determine correlations betweenand increased aridity, whereas soil features
climate and culture, let alone causal relations.
and erosional patterns show occasional violent
Nevertheless, the broad sweep of changes in rainfall. In Phase 3, analyses of soil features

57 6 Sandweiss • Kelley

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Figure 2
Location map of Tell Leilan (black square) and Ocean Drilling Project core sites (black circles).

"mark the augmentation of soil moisture, a Anatolian origin. By approximately 1900 BC

reestablishment of marked wet-dry seasonal (3,850 cal yr BP), occupation of the Habur
contrast, a lessening of heavy rainstorms, and Plains resumed under climatic conditions

a progressive soil stabilization" (Weiss et al. apparently similar to those that obtained
1993, p. 1000). Other archaeological sites in before the hiatus.

the region have a similar stratigraphic record.
Major- and trace-element analysis of tephra
samples from one of these sites eliminated
Santorini (or Thera) in the Mediterranean as
the source of the ash and instead pointed to an
The Tell Leilan work suggests a previously
unknown, 300-year climatic perturbation asso
ciated with (but probably not driven by) a large
volcanic eruption. This work inspired a team
from Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and

www.anmialreviews.org • Archaeological Contributions 577

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 their colleagues to seek an independent source CASE 3: PENOBSCOT VALLEY
of proxy data to determine whether the Tell
Leilan record reflected local conditions or
Numerous archaeological excavations in t
real climatic change across a broader region
central Penobscot River Valley of Maine, US
(Cullen et al. 2000). Analyzing a marine have
core provided an insight into the chronolo
and processes that shaped the postglacial
from the Gulf of Oman, they found "a dramatic
mid-Holocene increase in eolian dolomite and velopment of one of the region's major rive
calcite deposition" dated between "-4,025 and
(Figure 3). An analysis of sediment textur
3,625 cal yr BP (2075-1675 BC) and indicatingburied soils, radiocarbon dates, and diagnos
an abrupt aridification event (Cullen et al. artifacts yielded information not availab
2000, p. 380). Minerologic and radiogenicfrom any other source. Although the bro
isotope data on dust particles in the core
postglacial history of Maine is well establish
suggest increased Mesopotamian input during as the result of numerous geologically orient
this period, further confirming that the aridifistudies (Borns et al. 2004, Thompson & Bor
1985), the dynamic development of draina
cation affected that region in particular (Cullen
et al. 2000, p. 381). The core dates for the patterns after retreat of the ice sheet is poo
understood. Few data exist in the form of
event are largely coincident with the dates for
dated stratigraphic exposures to constrain the
the Tell Leilan hiatus, but given the difficulties
chronology of postglacial river development
of comparing dates on marine and terrestrial
samples, Cullen et al. (2000, pp. 381-82)or the climatic conditions that influenced this

analyzed volcanic ash shards from the coreprocess.

and compared them with shards immediately Archaeologists working in New England
preceding the abandonment stratum at Tell noted an apparent absence of sites from
Leilan. Given sample size and according to the Early Archaic (10,700-8,300 cal yr BP)
and Middle Archaic (8,500-6,800 cal yr BP)
the precision of the measurements, the ashfalls
periods. The absence of coastal sites could
seem to be from the same event. The review by
Cullen et al. (2000, p. 382) of paleoclimatic data
be attributed to destruction and submergence
due to sea-level rise (Sanger 1979), but the
found other evidence of a regional aridification
paucity of interior sites was attributed to the
event that can be interpreted in light of the Tell
Leilan stratigraphy and Gulf of Oman core. low carrying capacity of the Early Holocene
Weiss et al. (1993) note that the abrupt
boreal forest (Fitting 1968, Ritchie 1965) or
changes in migration patterns of fish due to
aridification event is directly correlated with
the abandonment of Tell Leilan. They further
varying river conditions (Sanger 1979).
argue that this regional-scale change is causally The discovery of deeply stratified archaeo
linked not only with the collapse of the Subirlogical sites at a variety of locations within the
civilization in northern Mesopotamia but central Penobscot drainage demonstrated Early
also with the disintegration of the Akkadian Holocene occupation of the region (Figure 3)
empire in southern Mesopotamia, and that(Petersen & Putnam 1992; Putnam 1994;
Sanger 1996; Sanger et al. 1992, 2001). These
it is also implicated in culture change in the
broader Near Eastern region. In their marine sites are characterized by thick, 1.5-2.5 m or
core-based assessment of the aridification and more, accumulations of bedded fine-grained
its connection to regional collapse, Cullen et al.sediments composed of sand, silt, and clay.
(2000) conclude that their data demonstrate "a Where exposed by excavation, the fine-grained
direct temporal link between Mesopotamiansediments rest on coarse-grained gravel or
aridification and social collapse, implicating gravel/boulder lag deposits or glacially pol
a sudden shift to more arid conditions as a ished bedrock. All sites were located upstream
key factor contributing to the collapse of the
of a constriction in the river created by a till
Akkadian empire" (p. 379). or bedrock ridge or at the mouth of a tributary

578 Sandweiss • Kelley

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 Penobscot MAINE
Watershed

Sharrow/
Penobscot River t
N

Brigham

Mackowsky
Gilman Falls Old Town

Bobx Blackman Stream

| Deeply Stratified
Pushaw
Archaeological Site Orono
Stream
X Archaeological Site
a Town Bangor
50 KM

Figure 3
Map showing the Penobscot River watershed and the location of associated deeply stratified archaeological
sites {black
(black boxes) as well as the locations of stratigraphic sections shown in Figure 4.

to the main stem of the Penobscot River. that within the central Penobscot Valley, river
This geomorphic setting created a situation downcutting through the glacial sediments and
that fostered the accumulation of sediments initial deposition of alluvial sediments was ac
during flood events as water ponded behind complished
the by the Early Holocene (Kelley
2006). This chronology has been supported
obstruction or flowed into a tributary channel.
Diagnostic artifacts and radiocarbon dates
by findings at other sites within the drainage.
from charcoal associated with artifacts pro
The overlying, thick sequence of floodplain
vided chronological control for stratigraphic
sediments indicate continued floodplain sed
sequences (Kelley & Sanger 2003). imentation throughout the remainder of the
Analyses of stratigraphic sections fromHolocene.
a However, paleosols identified at
four sites within 10 km of each other indicate
subset of these sites, combined with chronol
ogy established through radiocarbon dating that
and this sedimentation was not continuous.
the use of diagnostic artifacts, provided theThese features are important climatic
chronology and identification of processesindicators
re that represent times of low sedi
lated to development of the postglacial river
mentation when river discharge and sediment
valley. The discovery of a Late Paleoindianloads were decreased. River discharge in New
England is seasonally pulsed (Magilligan
parallel-flaked point, circa 10,700 cal yr BP,
& Graber 1996), with the highest flows
on river gravels capped by finer-grained flood
plain deposits (Sanger et al. 1992) suggested
(and corresponding highest sediment loads)

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 Mackowsky
Site2

Gilman Falls
Site 621-730 Bob Site
circa 7700 cal yr BP^
1171-5642
cal yr BP" 1411-1636
cal yr Bl
Blackman cal yr BP
4288-7174 3956-442
Stream 9471.
cal yr cal yr Bl
Site cal yr B 5275-5585
6795-8308
Circa
cal yr BP
cal yr BF5
9500 cal yr BP

8992-9630
cal yr Bl Circa 1000Q^-^
7951-8447 cal yr BF

cal yr BP ^ V77I Material stripped from Gravel

surface
1m
Late Paleoindian
Glaciomarine Silt
Parallel-Flakec j<^&>| A or AP Horizon
Point Circa
Stratigraphic
10000 cal yr BT □ Paleosol 'M
Till
Section
Vertical Scale
Sand, Silt, Clay

Figure 4
Generalized stratigraphic sections of selected
selected central
central Penobscot
Penobscot River
River Valley
Valley archaeological
archaeological sites
sites showing
showingcorrelation
correlationofofpaleosols
paleosols(gray
(gray
bar). Dates indicated are in calendar years
years before
before present
present (cal
(cal yryr BP)
BP) [calibrated
[calibrated using
using Calib
Calib 6.0.0
6.0.0 (Reimers
(Reimersetetal.
al.2009,
2009,Stuiver
Stuiver&&
Reimers 1993)]. Figure references:
references: (1)
(1) Sanger
Sanger et
et al.
al. (1992);
(1992); (2)
(2) B.S.
B.S. Robinson
Robinson (personal
(personal communication);
communication);(3) (3)Sanger
Sanger(1996),
(1996),Sanger
Sangeretetal.
al.
(2002).
(2001); (4) Mack et al. (2002).

associated with the combination of spring associated with hearths and artifacts. The color

snowmelt and rains. Minimal spring freshets
brought about by winters and/or springs with
low precipitation rates would produce little or
no sedimentation on floodplains and allow the
chemical and biological soil-forming processes
to take place. A resumption of more normal
flooding patterns would annually contribute
sediment to the floodplains, accumulating
of the buried-soil horizons was variable, rang
ing from red to brown. Bright-red to red-brown
layers were identified as spodic horizons, or the
bright-red Bs (subsoil) horizons that form in
well-drained, sandy areas dominated by conif
erous forest. At other sites, the paleosols had a
distinctly darker color, occasionally associated
with a red-brown base. This darker color was

sediment so rapidly that soil horizons could not attributed to the accumulation of anthro

develop. Locations where multiple dates were
procured from one horizon (Mack et al. 2002;
Sanger 1996; Sanger et al. 1992, 2001) suggest
that soil-forming events may have lasted up
to 1,000 years, thus representing significant,
long-term climatic shifts.
At each of the above-mentioned sites, these
discrete, semicontinuous horizons were later
ally persistent, and in some locations, they were
pogenically produced charcoal, with the
reddish-brown basal layer associated with
the accumulation of iron in the underlying
B horizon. In all cases, distinct A horizons
were absent, probably owing to the poo
preservation of organic material in the region'
acidic soils. Figure 4 shows the stratigraphic
position and chronological constraints of each
of the sequences. Correlation of these date

380 Sandweiss • Kelley

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suggests the timing of major climatic events Additionally, this information may help to in
and allows researchers to create a generalized crease understanding of earlier records of sand
sedimentary sequence for the central Penob inundation preserved in the archaeological
scot River Valley that has not been found in record of the region.
nonanthropogenic deposits. Sand-inundated archaeological sites are
The climatic information suggested by found in many areas of coastal Scotland, includ
the presence of these paleosols generally ing the western and northern islands. The most
corresponds to dry periods associated with famous of these is Skara Brae on the Orkney is
falling or low lake levels noted in regional land of Mainland. This Neolithic Age, World
paleohydrologic studies (Almquist et al. 2001, Heritage Site was exposed in 1850 when coastal
Dieffenbacher-Krall & Nurse 2005). Although erosion uncovered the seaward-facing portion
not tightly correlated, there also seems to of the site. Since the discovery of Skara Brae,
be some correspondence among the dates of numerous other sites from both prehistoric and
the buried soils and periods of global cooling historic periods have been recorded, and many
in the Northern Hemisphere recognized by of these are currently endangered by coastal
Mayewski et al. (2004). There appears to be erosion driven by rising sea levels (Ashmore &
a strong linkage between changes in winter Griffiths, 2011).
storm tracks caused by large-scale circulation Analyses of these sand sheets show that
patterns and New England precipitation vari they are composed of two different materi
ations (Dieffenbacher-Krall & Nurse 2005). als, quartz-rich sand and carbonate-rich sand,
More work is required to establish the nature termed machairs (Gilbertson et al. 1999). The
of the connection between these climatic general questions of machair formation, evolu
events and the stratigraphic record. tion, and chronology expressed by Gilbertson
The stratigraphic and chronologic in (1999) have not been fully answered and
et al.
formation produced by these studies remain
in the central to understanding the events that
Penobscot drainage resulted in changes have
in the
profoundly affected human occupations
understanding of regional postglacial of
river
the region. The stratigraphic sequences ex
development. With the interfingering ofposed
floodat archaeological excavations, with their
rich chronological record, may provide impor
deposits and archaeological strata, investigators
established a chronology that did nottant information to address these issues.
exist
On southern Mainland (Shetland), both
prior to archaeological excavations and that
led to a recognition of climatic changes that
prehistoric- and historic-period sites have been
covered
influenced sedimentation rates. Currently, this by windblown sand. The Old Scatness
work provides the basis for continuing site is located on the west coast of the southern
studies
portion of the island (Dockrill et al. 2010). Dis
of post-glacial river development. Additionally,
covered during construction of the adjacent air
the discovery of deeply stratified sites changed
archaeological site survey models for alluvial
port, the site is a settlement mound composed
settings in the region and in other areas of
ofa sim
complex series of overlapping and stratified
ilar postglacial history (Kelley & Sanger stone
2003).block structures and midden deposits dat
ing from the Iron Age (broch and postbroch vil
lage), Pictish (house), Norse (floor, hearth, and
CASE 4: SHETLAND
midden), and postmedieval periods (walls and
The archaeologically derived chronology evidence of of
croft activities from the seventeenth
sandsheet deposits at Mainland,toShetland nineteenth centuries) (Royal Commission
on the Ancient
Island, sites provides supporting evidence for and Historical Monuments of
the chronology and extent of LateScotland Holocene2011). Work adjacent to the mound
North Atlantic storminess inferred from has identified an agricultural infield area con
nonanthropogenic climate records (Figuresisting
5). of a sequence of buried soils and

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 5 Km

Figure
Figure 55
Location
Location map
map indicating
indicatingthe
thearcheological
archeologicalsites
sites
in in
Shetland
Shetland
mentioned
mentioned
in text.
in text.

middens interspersed with windblown sand occupation activities starting in the Neolithic
deposits (Dockrill 1998). Analyses of soil and continuing into the eighteenth century
components show the creation of anthro (Burbidge et al. 2001).
pogenic soils on a mineral base. The primary The Jarlshof site is located less than 2 km
soils in the lower portion of the sequence were from Old Scatness. This site is also located on
identified as ash-based soils (Dockrill & Bond a west-facing portion of the coast. It contains
2009), whereas upper soils contained evidence a series of sand-covered stone structures and
of organic-rich material provided by the use of midden deposits ranging in age from the
animal manure and household debris, such as Neolithic period to late Norse settlement. Also
flooring material (Guttmann et al. 2003). OSL present are the remains of a laird's house dating
(optically stimulated luminescence) dating of a from the late-sixteenth to seventeenth century.
stratigraphic sequence adj acent to the structural Occupation of the area is generally organized
portion of the site identifies agricultural and by age, with some overlapping walls of different

382 Sandweiss • Kelley

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ages. The prehistoric component of the site was or clay-packed stones. Analysis of midden ma
discovered in 1897 when coastal erosion created terial adjacent to the house identified peat ash
by a severe storm exposed a wall. Excavations and animal bones (cattle, sheep, dogs, and fish)
of Neolithic to Iron Age midden deposits (Bigelow et al. 2005). Artifacts recovered from
suggest an economy built on cultivation of the house and enclosure site are consistent with
barley; raising of domestic livestock, cows, and abandonment during the late-seventeenth or
sheep; and utilization of a wide range of marine early-eighteenth century (Bigelow et al. 2005).
resources, including mollusks, fish, birds, and OSL dates from the site place occupancy of
marine mammals (Dockrill & Bond 2009, the house and yard broadly between 1670 and
Hamilton 1956). In the nineteenth century, the 1710 (G.F. Bigelow, personal communication).
novelist Sir Walter Scott described Jarlshof as Walkover surveys of the area between the
a ruined house mostly buried with sand, with Broo site and the beach to the south suggest
the remains of additional historic-period
only a few wall-sheltered gardens (Scott 1821).
The Quendale Links of Dunrossness, buildings on the eastern side of the valley (G.F.
Shetland, are located 3.3 km northwest of Bigelow, personal communication). Currently
Old Scatness and are in a broad valley that the eastern, sand-inundated portion of the
extends northward from Quendale Bay. Thevalley is used for grazing, while the western
links are 1.5 km long and compose a roughlyportion continues to be used for growing
triangular-shaped, sand-dune-covered area crops.
extending north from the bay on the central Review of these geographically close, but
and eastern sides of the valley. At the bay, temporally widespread, sites shows some
the dune deposits are approximately 0.75 kmsimilarities. Geologically, quartz-rich sands are
in width. Archaeological surveys of the area found at the base of stratigraphic sequences.
show some evidence of prehistoric presence, From the Neolithic to the historic periods, the
but these are widely scattered features: a burnt economy of the area appeared to be focused
mound from the Bronze Age, an occupation on agriculture with a subsidiary reliance on
on a hill to the east of the Links potentially maritime resources. The south Mainland
from the late Neolithic-early Bronze Age, and area is lacking in arable natural soils, forcing
a Norse surface find in the dunes to the north inhabitants to create anthropogenic soils. At
of Quendale Beach (Royal Commission on thethe earliest Neolithic sites, agriculture appears
Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland to have been practiced on flattened midden de
posits (Guttmann et al. 2006). Later fields were
2011). By the sixteenth century, the Township
of Broo was located in this area and consisted of created through the addition of peat ash, animal
multiple farms. During that time, it was one of bedding and manure, and domestic waste, a
the most valuable single properties in Shetland practice that continued into the twentieth cen
(Bigelow et al. 2005, 2007). Movement of sand tury in Shetland (Guttman et al. 2006). Farming
onto this area began or accelerated in the 1660s. focused on raising barley and domestic animals,
By the 1730s, the taxable value of the land primarily sheep and cows, until the seventeenth
had disappeared, a casualty of sand inundation century when potatoes were introduced and
(Irvine 1987, Smith 1984). An account of the became an important cultigen (Dockrill &
region, written in the early-eighteenth century, Bond 2009). At Old Scatness and Jarlshof,
describes the area as "an Arabian desert in archaeological and chronological evidence sug
miniature, the clouds of sand flying as far as gests
the that occupation of the same area persisted
eye can see" (Low 1879, p. 185). Excavations
over thousands of years (Guttman et al. 2006).
at Broo have uncovered the remains of a house
However, all these areas contain evidence of
with a stone-walled yard and agricultural en sand-inundation events, with archaeologically
closure and outbuilding, all constructed of soil sterile sand separating soil horizons. The

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 historic records from the seventeenth and and it may have impacted landscape processes
eighteenth centuries describe the societal
once the population became well established.
disruption cased by sand inundation (Bigelow Current research in south Mainland is ex
et al. 2005). Earlier societies must have panding
faced this framework of archaeology and cli
similar challenges when storms coveredmate their
research. An interdisciplinary team has
begun work to address the geological and cli
laboriously constructed agricultural fields.
One of the primary questions regarding
matic aspects of the most recent sand inunda
these and other sand-covered archaeological
tion of the region. Archaeological excavations
continue
sites is, What initiated and mobilized such vast in the immediate area of Broo site. In
the the
quantities ofsand? Lamb (1991) introduced broader area surrounding the site, geolog
ical work using ground-penetrating radar and
concept of increased North Atlantic storminess
in the Little Ice Age following the Medieval sediment sampling is under way to characterize
Warm Period. Dawson et al.'s (2004) analysis the nature, extent, and chronology of the eolian
of sand layers within peat deposits in the Detailed survey techniques, includ
deposits.
Scottish Outer Hebrides indicates that storms ing LIDAR (light detection and ranging), are
with high winds capable of generating coastal being used to map the dunes. Micromorpho
waves and of causing sand mobilization were logical and sedimentological studies are being
more common during the Little Ice Age (1400 conducted to provide detailed information on
to 1850 AD) than the preceding Medieval
sediments, land use, and sediment source areas.
Warm Period (600 to 1400 AD) (Dawson et al. Cores from nearby freshwater lakes are being
2004). These workers correlate the period analyzed to provide sedimentological, chrono
of storminess with climatic deterioration and logical, and geochemical information. Spurred
by archaeological investigations, this effort
sea-ice expansion during the Little Ice Age and
a concomitant increased thermal gradient in seeks to understand the linkage between human
the North Atlantic. Work across the broader behavior and a series of climate-driven events.

North Atlantic area, including southeastern

England, southwestern Ireland, and the Outer
DISCUSSION
Hebrides suggests that this was a regional
Since the 1950s, archaeologists have produce
episode. Although storminess in general may
a multitude of site-based paleoenvironment
have been a characteristic of the Little Ice Age,
and potentially other periods earlier in the
and paleoclimatic records. Usually, they hav
done so to assist in archaeological interpre
Holocene, the sand regime at individual sites
on a long and complex coast with numerous tation. Consequently, these data tend to b
orientations to wind/wave exposure makes published in archaeological or anthropologic
correlating individual storm deposits difficult
journals and books that have traditionally be
little accessed by paleoclimatologists. Le
(Wilson et al. 2004). Additionally, subsidiary
processes may also be at work. Agricultural commonly, archaeologists have published the
activity has taken place in this region for proxy data on climate and/or environmen
millennia. Anthropogenic activities related in general science or paleoclimate journals
to overgrazing and collection of sea grasses(see, for instance, the references cited in t
discussions of Cases 1 and 2, sections above
could serve to destabilize coastal sand deposits
We have, however, noted a recent trend t
(Angus 1994, 1997). Additionally, the currently
large population of rabbits that inhabits the
ward greater use of climatic and environment
data from archaeological publications. As
islands disrupts vegetation and sediments with
numerous and extensive burrow systems. It is
proxy for this trend, we tracked the numbe
likely that this species was introduced someof papers between 1991 and 2011 in thr
time between the late Middle Ages and the leading Quaternary studies journals that ci
at least one paper from American Antiquit
early seventeenth century (Bigelow et al. 2007),

384 Sandweiss • Kelley

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(Table 2). These data show a rapid growth of 00
23 Cl
2011 128 159
such citations in the past decade.1
We suggest that the increased use of proxy OO O OO
42 09
data from archaeological publications is the re 2010

sult of several processes that have played out

o 0 ^1
over the past four to five decades. First is the in fN 40 23
o
2009

crease in the number of archaeologists working

OO
in what is variously referred to as geoarchaeol
c->
40 Cv)
2008
ogy, environmental archaeology, or paleoenvi S
o

ronmental archaeology. These individuals tend £ OO ls~i "3"

27
CN
2007
to be cross trained and, thus, better able to rec
ognize and analyze proxy data and to publish B
§ OO •3 l/->
22
2006
it in ways that are useful to the paleoclimate (A

•S2
community. S1 r 0 VO Csl
3 2005
Second, and probably as a result of the first
trend, paleoclimatologists are becoming more OO
22
familiar with the nature of archaeological data; 2004

thus, they are more willing to incorporate s

0 Ov VO OO
this information in their analyses. As recently
c->

be 2003 rsj

as 2000, Cullen et al. (2000, p. 379) referred -o

1
to archaeological proxy data as "inherently Js
2002
CvJ OO "3"
<u
subjective" in the flagship journal of the u
u

■5
Geological Society of America, whereas other r - OO VO
.5 2001
earth scientists used the term anecdotal.

Archaeological data are neither subjective - 1 Cvl VO LO

2000
nor anecdotal. They are subject to formation
processes that must be understood to extract VO OO O rt" OO
reliable climatic and environmental data. This 1999

is equally true for nonanthropogenic proxy

- r*-> O -t" m

data. As more archaeologists receive training s

1998

in geoarchaeology, they are better able to J

explain formation processes and the utility u Cs| r~
-
1997

of archaeological proxies to natural science I

colleagues in a mutually intelligible language. u
1996
0 rsi VO m

In addition to the citation data in Table 2,

there are other indicators of the closer in - 0 c-4 r^i
S661
teraction between paleoclimatologists and
be
archaeologists. The Society for American -

•§ 1994
- 0 m

Archaeology and the Geological Society of

America both have geoarchaeology interest m 0 Cs1 i/">
1993

'TheQuatrnyPeiodcnstofhePlistocne'The
ad Quaternary Pei-iod consists of the Pleistocene and O •^-1" 0-1
-

1992
X>
HolcenEphsand trionalybedfinHolocene asthe Epochs and has traditionally been defined as the
£
past1.8milonyears.Rcntly,hebasoftheQuarpast
ny 1.8 million years. Recently, the base of the Quaternary
hasbenxtd o2.6MyaIneithrcas,eQhas utrnay been extended to 2.6 Mya. In either case, the Quaternary I 1991
O - r-^

coversthniespaofmdernhuasnd,ipartcoverscul, the entire span of modern humans and, in particular,

theimfraeohumanprescintheAmricthe as.The time frame for human presence in the Americas. There
3
fore,wchstreladingQuterayjounlstfore,
aeus we chose three leading Quaternary journals to assess use w/o Ql
ofdatrmheladingNwWorldacheogyjof
urnal. data from the leading New World archaeology journal. Table2Numrofaticles ngatlesonarticlefomAerican tquiynhreladingQuteraysudiejornalsfm19to201a 5 QR QSR Total Total

www.annualreviews.org • Archaeological Contributions 385

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Table
Table 33 Titles
Titlesof
ofarchaeological
archaeologicalsymposia
symposia
andand
special
special
issues
issues
published
published
in Quaternary
in Quaternary
International
International
in 201in
la 201 la
Volume Issue Date Title of symposium or special issue
229 1-2 January 1 Holocene Lake Records: Patterns, Impacts, Causes and Societal Response. Selected Papers
from the Third LIMP ACS Conference, Chandigarh, India
238 1-2 June 1 Humans and Reindeer

239 1-2 July 1 Shell Midden Research: An Interdisciplinary Agenda for the Quaternary and Social Sciences
242 1 October 1 Earthquake Archaeology and Paleoseismology
242 2 October 15 Humans and Younger Dryas: Dead End, Short Detour, or Open Road to the Holocene?
243 2 October 26 Black Soils and Black Sediments—Archives of Landscape Evolution
244 1 November 1 Gastropods and Humans in the Late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of the Western
Mediterranean Basin

245 1 November 29 Multidisciplinary Studies in Southern South American Archaeology

aData from ScienceDirect (http://www.sciencedirect.com).

sections, and each sponsors a student geoar they were tasked to write mutually comprehen
chaeology research award: the Douglas C. sible and methodologically and theoretically
Kellogg Fellowship for Geoarchaeological appropriate joint chapters for the published
Research (established 2003) and the Claude C. book. In 1992, Dumbarton Oaks Research
Albritton Memorial Fund (established 1989), Library and Collection in Washington, D.C.,
respectively. Interdisciplinary climate centers chose for the first time an environmental ar
at US universities often incorporate archaeol chaeology theme for its annual Pre-Columbian
ogists. The University of Maine's Center for Symposium. Published in 2008, El Nino,
Quaternary Studies (now the Climate Change Catastrophism, and Climate Change in Ancient
Institute) was founded in 1972 on a tripartite America (Sandweiss & Quilter 2008) includes
basis of ecology, geology, and archaeology two chapters by paleoclimatologists, three
and currently has six full-time archaeologists, chapters cowritten by archaeologists and pa
including ourselves. The Quaternary Sciences leoclimatologists, one chapter coauthored by
Center at the University of Washington lists an ethnohistorian and an epidemiologist, four
three tenured archaeologists, and the Alaska chapters by archaeologists, and a chapter by a
Quaternary Center at the University of Alaska, social anthropologist. The chapter cowritten
Fairbanks, also has three archaeologists. This by Yaeger (an archaeologist) and Hodell (a
arrangement fosters interdisciplinary research paleoclimatologist) (Yaeger & Hodell 2008) on
in climate, environment, and archaeology. the Maya collapse is a masterful, nuanced eval
Interdisciplinary symposia resulting in pub uation of climatic change and cultural dynamics
lication are increasingly common. Quaternary that replaces the more simplistic, unicausal ex
International is carving out a niche as a publisher planations published by traditional natural sci
of geoarchaeological and similarly themed ence teams (e.g., Haug et al. 2003, Hodell et al.
symposia; this partially accounts for the sudden 1995).
increase in American Antiquity citations in 2011
(Tables 2 and 3). Other examples include the
FERCO International Conference on Climate SUMMARY

and Culture at 3000 BC held at the University

Archaeological sites contain multiple pro
of Maine in 1998 (see Anderson et al. 2007).records
At for climate and environment. The case
that event, paleoclimatologists and archaeol
studies we have detailed here use a variety
ogists spoke independently about the cultural
of indicators: faunal biogeography, isotopic
and climatic records from their regions,analyses,
but soils, sediments, and settlement

386 Sandweiss • Kelley

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patterns/chronology. There are other archae
ological sources of climatic and environmental
data, such as plant micro- and macrofossils.
As environmental archaeology and explicitly
interdisciplinary research have grown over
the past few decades, archaeological data
have played an increasingly important role in
broader studies of earth systems history. We
have every reason to believe that this trend will
continue.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.

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