Test Bank for Research Methods and Statistics 4th Edition : Jackson

Test Bank for Research Methods and Statistics 4th

Edition : Jackson

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 Chapter 6
Correlational Methods and Statistics
Chapter Outline

Conducting Correlational Research

Magnitude, Scatterplots, and Types of Relationships
Magnitude
Scatterplots
Positive Relationships
Negative Relationships
No Relationship
Curvilinear Relationships
Misinterpreting Correlations
The Assumptions of Causality and Directionality
The Third Variable Problem
Restrictive Range
Curvilinear Relationships
Prediction and Correlation
Statistical Analysis: Correlation Coefficients
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient: What It Is and What It Does
Calculations for the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
Interpreting the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
Alternative Correlation Coefficients
Advanced Correlational Techniques: Regression Analysis
Summary

Review of Key Terms

Causality—The assumption that a correlation indicates a causal relationship between the two
variables.

Coefficient of Determination—A measure of the proportion of variance in one of the variables

that is accounted for by the other variable; calculated by squaring the correlation coefficient.

Correlation Coefficients—A measure of the degree of relationship between two sets of scores. It
can vary between –1.00 and +1.00.

Correlational Method—A type of non-experimental research method that describes the

relationship between two measured variables.

Directionality—The inference made with respect to the direction of a relationship between two
variables.

Magnitude—An indication of the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Negative Correlation—An inverse relationship between two variables in which an increase in

one variable is related to a decrease in the other and vice versa.

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Partial Correlation—A correlational technique that involves measuring three variables and then
statistically removing the effect of the third variable from the correlation of the remaining
two variables.

Pearson Product-moment Correlation Coefficient—A correlation coefficient for use when

both variables are measured on an interval or ratio scale.

Person-who Argument—Arguing that a well-established statistical trend is invalid because we

know a “person-who” went against the trend.

Phi Coefficient—The correlation coefficient for use when both measured variables are
dichotomous and nominal.

Point-biserial Correlation Coefficient—The correlation coefficient for use when one of the
variables is measured on a dichotomous, nominal scale and the other is measured on an
interval or ratio scale.

Positive Correlation—A relationship between two variables in which the variables move
together—an increase in one is related to an increase in the other and a decrease in one is
related to a decrease in the other.

Regression Analyses—A procedure which allows us to predict an individual’s score on one

variable based on knowing one or more other variables.

Regression Line—The line that best fits the center of a scatterplot.

Restrictive Range—A variable that is truncated and does not vary enough.

Scatterplot—A figure showing the relationship between two variables, that graphically
represents the relationship between the variables.

Spearman’s Rank-order Correlation Coefficient—The correlation coefficient for use when

one or more of the variables is measured on an ordinal (ranking) scale.

Third Variable Problem—The problem of a correlation between two variables being dependent
on another (third) variable.

Relevant Articles from Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods (1st
ed.)

Duke, J. D. Tables to help students grasp size differences in simple correlations. Pp. 43-45.

Williams, R. J. A new method for teaching multiple regression to behavioral science students. Pp.
45-47.

74
Relevant Articles from Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods (2nd
ed.)

Goldstein, M. D., & Strube, M. J. Understanding correlations: Two computer exercises. Pp. 46-
48.

Huck, S. W., Wright, S. P., & Park, S. Pearson’s r and spread: A classroom demonstration. Pp.
48-50.

Possible Laboratory Exercises from Research Methods Laboratory Manual for

Psychology, 3rd ed., by William Langston.

Chapter 4: Correlational Research 1.

Chapter 5: Correlational Research 2.
Chapter 6: Correlational Research 3.

Web Resources

For step-by-step practice and information, have your students check out the Statistics and
Research Methods Workshops at www.cengage.com/psychology/workshops. In addition, practice
quizzes, vocabulary flashcards, and more are available at www.cengage.com/psychology/jackson.

Answers to Chapter Exercises

1. The first problem is with the correlation coefficient that was calculated. Correlation
coefficients can vary between –1.0 and +1.0. They cannot be greater than  1.0. Thus, the
calculated correlation coefficient is incorrect. Secondly, correlation does not mean causation.
Thus, observing a correlation between exercise and health does not mean that we can
conclude that exercise causes better health—they are simply related.

2.

High

Mental
Illness

Low

Low High

Income

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 3. We would expect the correlation between GRE scores and graduate school GPAs to be much
lower than that between SAT scores and undergraduate GPAs because both GRE scores and
graduate school GPAs are restricted in range.

4. Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient = .826. Based on the strong, positive

correlation coefficient, 68.2% of the variability in stress scores is accounted for by the
number of cups of coffee consumed per day.

5. IQ with Psychology—r = .553, r2= 30.6%

IQ with Statistics—r = .682, r2 = 46.5%
Psychology with Statistics—r = .626, r2 = 39.2%

All of the correlation coefficients are of moderate strength with the correlation between IQ
scores and Statistics exam scores being the strongest and accounting for the most variability.

6. IQ score (x) Psychology exam score (y)

Tim 118 41.33
Tom 98 35.85
Tina 107 38.32
Tory 103 37.22

Test Items

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The _____ indicates the magnitude of a correlation coefficient.

a. slope
b. sign
c. absolute value
d. none of the alternatives is correct

ANS: c

2. An indication of the strength of the relationship between two variables is the _____.
a. slope
b. sign
c. scatterplot
d. magnitude

ANS: d KEY: www

3. A correlation coefficient of _____ indicates that the variables form a perfect linear
relationship.
a. +1.00
b. -1.00
c. 0.00
d. both +1.00 and –1.00

ANS: d

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 4. When there is a _____ relationship, as scores on X increase, scores on Y also increase.
a. positive
b. negative
c. curvilinear
d. zero

ANS: a

5. When there is a _____ relationship, as scores on X increase, scores on Y decrease.

a. positive
b. negative
c. curvilinear
d. zero

ANS: b

6. In the case of a positive relationship, as scores on X _____, scores on Y _____.

a. increase; decrease
b. decrease; increase
c. decrease; decrease
d. none of the options is correct

ANS: c

7. In the case of a negative relationship, as scores on X _____, scores on Y _____.

a. increase; decrease
b. increase; increase
c. decrease; decrease
d. none of the options is correct

ANS: a

8. Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the variables with the weakest
degree of relationship?
a. +.99
b. -1.00
c. +.01
d. -.59

ANS: c

9. Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the variables with the strongest
degree of relationship?
a. +.99
b. -1.00
c. +.01
d. -.59

ANS: b KEY: www

77
10. A correlation coefficient of 0.00 is to _____ as a correlation coefficient of –1.00 is to _____.
a. no relationship; a weak relationship
b. no relationship; a perfect relationship
c. a weak relationship; no relationship
d. a perfect relationship; no relationship

ANS: b

11. A correlation coefficient of +1.00 is to _____ as a correlation coefficient of –1.00 is to _____.

a. a perfect relationship; a perfect relationship
b. a perfect relationship; no relationship
c. a straight linear relationship; a curvilinear relationship
d. a curvilinear relationship; a straight linear relationship

ANS: a

12. If the points on a scatterplot are clustered in a pattern that extends from the lower left to the
upper right, this would suggest that the two variables depicted are
a. normally distributed.
b. positively correlated.
c. regressing toward the average.
d. negatively correlated.

ANS: b

13. If the points on a scatterplot are spread all over the graph, this would suggest that the two
variables depicted are
a. normally distributed.
b. positively correlated.
c. strongly related.
d. not correlated.

ANS: d KEY: www

14. Per the text, we would expect the correlation between smoking and lung cancer to be _____
whereas we would expect the correlation between mountain elevation and temperature to be
_____.
a. curvilinear; negative
b. positive; negative
c. negative; positive
d. positive; curvilinear

ANS: b

78
 15. Two variables increasing and decreasing together is to _____ as two variables moving in
opposite directions is to _____.
a. no relationship; a curvilinear relationship
b. a curvilinear relationship; a negative relationship
c. a positive relationship; a negative relationship
d. a negative relationship; a positive relationship

ANS: c

16. The problem of a correlation between two variables being dependent on another variable is
called
a. the third variable problem.
b. causality.
c. directionality.
d. restrictive range.

ANS: a

17. A variable that is truncated and has limited variability is said to have
a. directionality.
b. a third variable.
c. causality.
d. a restricted range.

ANS: d

18. Jim thought that the strong negative correlation that he observed between depression and self-
esteem meant that having a low self-esteem led to high levels of depression. Jim is
misinterpreting the correlation by assuming
a. causality.
b. directionality.
c. that there is a third variable.
d. both causality and directionality.

ANS: d

19. General State University recently decided to discontinue its use of the GRE as an admissions
tool for its graduate programs because they observed no correlation between GRE scores and
subsequent GPAs. Ninety percent of the grades awarded in the graduate programs at General
State University are A’s. What General State has failed to consider in this situation is the
issue of
a. curvilinear relationships.
b. causality.
c. the third variable problem.
d. restrictive range.

ANS: d KEY: www

79
 20. The problem of _____ can often be identified by using a _____.
a. causality; point biserial correlation
b. directionality; phi coefficient
c. third variables; partial correlation
d. restrictive range; point biserial correlation

ANS: c

21. If a correlation coefficient that you expected to be fairly high turns out to be very low, you
should investigate whether there is a
a. restrictive range on one or both variables.
b. curvilinear relationship between the variables.
c. third variable inhibiting the relationship.
d. restrictive range on one or both variables and a curvilinear relationship between the
variables.

ANS: d

22. The _____ is a measure of the proportion of variance in one of the variables that is accounted
for by the other variable.
a. Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient
b. coefficient of determination
c. point-biserial correlation coefficient
d. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient

ANS: b

23. Suppose that the correlation between height and weight for adults is +.75. What proportion
(or percent) of the variability in weight is accounted for by the relationship with height?
a. 75%
b. 25%
c. 56%
d. unable to determine

ANS: c KEY: www

24. If both variables are measured on a nominal scale, what type of correlation coefficient is
appropriate?
a. Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient
b. phi coefficient
c. point-biserial correlation coefficient
d. none, because correlations cannot be computed on nominal data

ANS: b

80
25. Two nominal variables are to _____ coefficient and two ordinal variables are to _____
coefficient.
a. Pearson product-moment correlation; Spearman rank-order correlation
b. Spearman rank-order correlation; Pearson product-moment correlation
c. Phi; Spearman rank-order correlation
d. Point-biserial correlation; Spearman rank-order correlation

ANS: c

26. Pam is interested is assessing the degree of relationship between gender and test grades in her
psychology class. Pam should use the _____ correlation coefficient to assess this.
a. partial
b. point-biserial
c. phi
d. Pearson product-moment

ANS: b KEY: www

27. Two interval/ratio variables are to _____ coefficient and one interval/ratio variable and one
nominal variable are to _____ coefficient.
a. Pearson product-moment correlation; Spearman rank-order correlation
b. Spearman rank-order correlation; Pearson product-moment correlation
c. Phi; Spearman rank-order correlation
d. Pearson product-moment correlation; point-biserial correlation

ANS: d

28. _____ is a procedure which allows us to predict an individual’s score on one variable based
on knowing one or more other variables.
a. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
b. Coefficient of determination
c. Regression analysis
d. Point-biserial correlation coefficient

ANS: c

Short Answer/Essay Questions

1. In a recent study it was found that the correlation between self-esteem and depression
was -.64. Explain what this means. Calculate the coefficient of determination for this
correlation and explain what information this provides.

This is a moderately strong negative correlation which shows those with low self-esteem tend
to be more depressed, whereas those with higher self-esteem tend to be less depressed. We
cannot say the relationship is causal. The coefficient of determination is .41. This means that
41% of the variability in self-esteem can be explained by knowing how depressed an
individual is.

81
2. Imagine that you assessed the relationship between the variables of nutrition and general
health. Draw the scatterplot depicting what this relationship would look like.
12

10

8
Health

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Nutrition

3. Explain how curvilinear relationships can be a problem when interpreting correlation

coefficients.

Because a curvilinear relationship would represent a relationship that is positive for part of
the relationship and negative for part of the relationship, this would lead to a correlation
coefficient close to zero. This is problematic because the correlation coefficient will indicate
no relationship when in fact there is a curvilinear relationship.

4. In a recent study it was found that the correlation between self-esteem and depression
was -.64. Tom interprets this to mean that low levels of self-esteem lead to high levels of
depression and vice versa. How is Tom misinterpreting these data?

Tom is assuming both causality—that one variable is causing changes in the other—and
directionality—that changes in self-esteem levels lead to changes in depression level.
Because correlation does not mean causation, Tom cannot make either of these assumptions.

5. What is the third variable problem and how does the partial correlation technique help with
this problem?

The third-variable problem is one in which a correlation between two variables is really
dependent upon another (third) variable. The partial correlation technique allows one to
measure three variables and statistically remove the effect of the third variable from the
correlation of the remaining two variables.

6. What is a person-who argument?

A person who argument is arguing that a well-established statistical trend is invalid because
one knows a “person who” went against the trend.

82
7. Calculate the Pearson product-moment correlation for the data below.
X Y
3 5
4 5
2 3
1 4

r = .67

8. Explain when each of the correlation coefficients listed below should be used.
• Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient

This coefficient should be used when both variables are interval or ratio in scale.

• Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient

This coefficient should be used when both variables are ordinal in scale.

9. Explain when each of the correlation coefficients listed below should be used.
• point-biserial correlation coefficient

This coefficient is used when one variable is interval or ratio and one variable is
nominal.

• phi coefficient

This coefficient is used when both variables are nominal.

10. Assume that the regression equation for the relationship between SAT scores and IQ scores is
y=9 + .105x. What would you expect the IQ score to be for the following individuals given
their SAT scores?

Individual SAT Score IQ Score

Susan 850 98.25
Sally 1175 132.37
Sam 1225 137.63
Sean 1050 119.25

83
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