OYO IVAN

U/2108147/DMR
PHYSICS ASSIGNMENT
QN 1. RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
 Radiographic film is type of film that is sensitive to certain type of radiation
allowing an image to form when exposed
 It comprises of base and emulsion
Base;
 The base is made from clear flexible plastic such as cellulose acetate
 Most film base are composed of polythelsyester which can withstand
higher temperature and is more fire proof
 The base is usually tinted blue to reduce light glare
 The base is a foundation of the film and its 150 to 300 micro meters thick
 Its not sensitive to radiation nor can it record an image
 It provides surface and support for the emulsion and its where other
materials are applied
Emulsion;
 It is the material with which X-rays or light photons from radiographic
intensifying screens interact. It consists of a homogenous mixture of gelatin
and silver halide crystals. Emulsion can be coated on both sides or one side
of the film.

Between the emulsion and the base is a thin coating of material called adhesive
layer, which ensures uniform adhesion of the emulsion to the base and
maintaining proper contact during processing.

QN 2. FORMATION OF A LATENT IMAGE

 The latent image is the invisible image produced on the film after exposure
prior to development or is the invisible change in the silver halide crystals.
 Its formed by interaction between photons and silver halide crystals.
 During the interaction radiations releases electrons
 The electrons migrate to the sensitive center (contaminant in silver halide
crystal usually silver sulfide)
 At the sensitive center, atomic silver is formed by attracting an interstitial
silver ion to latent image center
 The process is repeated many times resulting in the buildup of silver atoms
 The remaining silver halide is converted to silver during processing the
resulting silver grain is formed
 The silver halide that is not irradiated remains in active. The irradiated and
non-irradiated silver halide produces the latent images

QN 3. proper storage and handling procedure of the film.

 X-ray film is a delicate material and it should be handled carefully (it is a
sensitive radiation detector and it must be handled in an area free of
radiation).
 Film storage must be shielded and the darkroom next to the x-ray room
must be shielded too.
 In case the film use is low, adequate shielding should be provided.
 Avoid bending, creasing or other rough handling of the film.
 Avoid sharp objects such as scissors, knives, screw driver, fingernails from
getting into contact with the film.
 Hand should be clean and dry, avoid hand creams, lotions or water free
hand cleaners while handling the film.
 Avoid using static electricity or dirty processors because they can cause
image artifacts.
 Heat and humidity should be controlled because the film is sensitive to heat
and humidity from the time it is manufactured until the time it is viewed.
Heat and humidity cause fog or loss of contrast therefore humidity should
be between 40%-60% and heat of about 200C(680F).
 Film must be handled and stored in the dark room or under safe light, low
level diffuse light causes fog and bright light causes gross exposure.
 Luminous watches, cell phones and darkroom light leaks should be highly
avoided.
 QN 4. chemicals used in the image processing.
Developing solution chemicals
 Phenindione
 Hydroquinone
 Metol phenytoin
 Sodium carbonate
 Potassium bromide
 Sodium sulphite
 Glutaraldehyde
 Chelates
 water
Fixing solution chemicals
 Acetic acid
 Ammonium thiosulphate
 Potassium alum
 Sodium sulphite
 Acetate
 Boric acids and salts
 water
QN 5 chemical and use of each chemical in the process.
Developing solution chemicals and their function
Components Chemical Function
Developing agent -Phenidione -Produces shades
of gray rapidly on
the film and brings
-Hydroquinone out the details
-Produces black
tones slowly
Metol pheneytoin (concerned with
production of high
contrast in the
radiogragh).
-it serves as the
 electron donor
and converts silver
ions to metallic
silver at the latent
image site.
Activator Sodium carbonate Swells the gelatin,
produces
alkalinity, controls
pH(it provides and
maintains the
degree of alkalinity
in which the
developing agent
can function , it
also acts as an
accelerator.
Restrainer Potassium bromide Antifog agent; protects
unexposed crystals from
chemical attack (it slows
down the reduction
action of the developing
agents).
Preservative Sodium sulphite Controls oxidation;
maintains balance
among developer
components. (it inhibits
the tendency of the
developing agent to
combine with oxygen
dissolved in water or air
and this enables it to act
as the preservative and
keep the solutions in un
usable condition for a
couple of weeks.
Hardener Glutaraldehyde Controls emulsion
swelling and enhances
 archival quality (it
prevents emulsion from
swelling and sticking to
the rollers).
Sequestering agent Chelates Removes metallic
impurities and stabilizes
developing agent
Solvent Water Dissolves chemicals for
use

Components of the fixer and their functions

Component Chemical Function
Activator Acetic acid Neutralizes the
developer and
stops its action.
Fixing agent Ammonium Removes
thiosulphate undeveloped silver
bromine from
emulsion.
Hardener Potassium alum Stiffens and
shrinks emulsion
Preservative Sodium sulphite Maintains
chemical balance
Buffer Acetate Maintains proper pH
Sequestering agent Boric acids and Removes aluminum ions
salts
Solvent Water Dissolves other
components

QN 6. The systems of the automatic processor

System Subsystem Purpose
 Transport Transports film through various stages at
precise intervals.
Roller Support film movement
Transport Moves and changes direction of film via
rack rollers and guide shoes
[provides power to turn rollers at a precise
Drive rate.
Temperature Monitors temperature at each stage.
Circulation Agitates fluids
Developer Continuously mixes, filters
Fixer Continuously mixes
Wash Single-pass water flows at a
constant rate
Replenishment Developer Meters and replaces
Fixer Meters and replaces
Dryer Removes moisture, vents exhaust

QN 7. The component layers of a radiographic intensifying screen.

 Most radiographs are made with film in contact with a radiographic
intensifying screen because the use of the film alone requires a high patient
dose. A radiographic intensifying screen is a device that converts the energy
of the X-ray beam into visible light. This visible light then interacts with the
radiographic film, forming the latent image. It is made up of four principal
layers;
 Protective coating; this is the closest to the radiographic film. it is applied to
the face of the screen to make the screen resistant to the abrasion and
damage caused by handling. This layer also helps eliminate the build-up of
static electricity and provides a surface for routine cleaning without
disturbing the active phosphor. It is transparent to light.
 Phosphor; active of the radiographic screen and converts X-rays beam into
light. The layer is 50 to 300 ums thick.
 Reflective layer; between the phosphor and the base is a reflective layer
approximately 25ums thick made up of a shiny substance such as
magnesium oxide or titanium dioxide. It intercepts light headed in other
directions and redirects it to the film therefore enhances the efficiency of
 the radiographic intensifying screen, nearly doubling the number of light
photons that reach the film by luminescence.
 Base; Approximately 1mm thick and serves principally as a mechanical
support for the active phosphor layer. Polyester is the base material.

The screen has the following characteristics.
 Screen speed; is a relative number that describes how efficiently X-rays are
converted into light.
 Image noise; appears on a screen as speckled background, occurs when fast
screens and high kVp techniques are used. Noise reduces image contrast.
 Spatial resolution; refers to how small an object can be imaged. It is
principally limited by effective focal spot size. High speed screens have low
spatial resolutions and fine detail screens have high spatial resolutions. It
improves with smaller phosphor crystals and thinner phosphor layers.
QN 8. Define and use the use the term intensification factor
 Intensification factor is the ratio of exposure required to produce the same
optical density without a screen to the exposure required to produce an
optical density with a screen.

 This helps to bring about a comparative increase in the light transmission

when films are exposed in the presence of the intensifying screens
compared to that in the absence of screens.
 The value of the IF can be used to determine the dose reduction
accompanying the use of a screen.
QN 9. Identify how x-ray absorption efficiency and x-ray to light
conversion efficiency affect the screen speed
 X ray absorption efficiency, is the percentage of incident
radiation absorbed by the screen material. It causes the increase
 of the whole process rather than noise. Any increase in the kvp,
decreases the absorption efficiency and vise vasa.
 Conversion efficiency, is the ability of the screen to convert
absorbed x rays photons into light photons. The faster the
conversion of light photons, the faster the screen speed.
 Increased absorption and conversion efficiency mean that rare
earth phosphorus have increased speed when compared with
previously used phosphor, calcium tungsten. This increased
speed allows the radiographer to substantially reduce the x ray
exposure needed to produce images with the appropriate
amount of density.
 The thickness of the phosphor layer and the size of the crystal
also have an effect on screen speed. A thicker phosphor layer
contains more phosphor material than thinner phosphor layer.
QN 10. Discuss the various screen film combinations
 Cassette -The cassette is the rigid holder that contains the film and the
radiographic intensifying screens. The front cover is the side facing the x-
ray source and it is made of material with a low atomic number such as
plastic and it is designed for minimum attenuation of the x-ray beam.
 Attached to the inside
 of the front cover is the front screen, and attached to the back cover is the
back screen. The radiographic film is sandwiched between the two screens.
Between each screen and the cassette cover is some sort of compression
device and an example of such a device is a radiolucent plastic foam, which
maintains close screen-film contact when the cassette is closed and
latched. The back cover is usually made of heavy metal to minimize
backscatter. The x-rays transmitted through the screen-film combination to
the back cover more readily undergo photoelectric effect in a high-Z
material than in a low-Z material
  Carbon Fiber.
This material was developed for nose cone applications because of its
superior strength and heat resistance. It consists principally of graphite
fibers in a plastic matrix that can be formed to any shape or thickness. This
material now is used widely in devices designed to reduce patient radiation
dose. A cassette with a front that consists of carbon fiber material absorbs
only approximately half the number of x-rays that an aluminum or plastic
cassette does. Carbon fiber also is used as pallet material for fluoroscopic
and computed tomography couches.
 Screen film radiographic exposure-
it is made of calcium tungstate because it emits light in the violet- to-blue
region, because of this reason, it is widely used in screen phosphors. The
sensitivity of conventional radiographic film is highest in the violet-to-blue
region of the spectrum therefore the light emitted by calcium tungstate
screens is readily absorbed in radiographic film. If the screen phosphor
emitted green or red light, its intensification factor would be highly reduced
because it would require a greater number of light photons to produce a
latent image. The light of the screen emission would be mismatched to the
light sensitivity of the film
QN 11. Describe the handling and cleaning of radiographic intensifying screen.
 High quality radiographs require that the radiograph intensifying screens
receive proper care.
  Screens should be handled only when they are new and are being installed
in cassettes and being cleaned.
 When loading cassettes, do not slide in the film. A sharp corner or the edge
can scratch the screen.
 Must be cleaned periodically depending on the dust in the work
environment or the busy schedule of department.
 Special screen cleaning, materials should be used and cleaning
constructions specifically followed.
QN 12. Describe the characteristic curve of the film
 Is a graph of the relationship between the amount of exposure given a film
and its corresponding density after processing
 It’s made by plotting density produced against the long exposure given.
 Between portion 1 to 2, it begins at the threshold and continues to a
straight-line portion. The density is variable and does not increase by a
constant factor
 Between point 2 to 3, the density increases by a constant factor upon
increase in exposure, there is linear relation ship between density and log
exposure.
 Between point 3 and 4, on increasing exposure the rate of density increase
gradually declines until point 4 is reached which is called maximum density
 Beyond point 4, exposure variability can not be recorded as density
variability